0000053822Jurnal Produktiviti - [Journal].

jurnofPR&DUHT1V1T1

53322

juntof

PRODUK

Penerbit'PublisherPusat Daya Pengeluaran Negara

(National Productivity Centre)Peti Surat 64,

Jalan Sultan 46904Petaling Jaya, Malaysia.

Tel: 7557266Penaslhat/'Adviser

IT. Haji Arshad Haji Marsidi(Pengarah)

Pengarang/EditorMah Lok Abdullah

Pen. Pengarang/Sub EditorSujaidi Dasuki

Ahli-ahli/MembersHaji Ahmad BerekHaji Ruslan Khatib

R. SugunarajahSuhaimy Abdul TalibJurina Abd. HamidNor Aini AmdzahAb Rahim YusoffSuhaimi Hamad

Pauzi Hanipi

Kami mengalu-alukan sumbangan rencana untuk dimuatkan di dalam jumal ini. 'JumalProduktiviti' diterbitkan enam bulan sekali, menampung semua aspek ekonomt dan pengurusanserta tain-lain bidang yang ada hubungannya dengan konsep produktiviti. Rencana-rencana yangtersiar akan diberikan honorarium dan tidak semestinya merupakan pendapat PDPN.

'Jurnal Produktiviti' diterbitkan oleh Pusat Daya Pengeluaran Negara(Kemcnterian Perdagangan dan Perindustrian) Peti Surat 64, Jalan Sultan,

46904 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia. Telefon: 7557266 (15 talian),Teleks: MA 36312 PDPN. Telegram: Dayapeng.

iDITORIAL:

BUD AY A KERJA CEMERLANG

Kecemerlangan diukur melalui nisbah dan beberapa aspek yangterkandung di dalam proses mencapai sesuatu projek. Sebab itulah kejayaanseseorang pelajar umpamanya, tidak boleh diukur melalui satu atau dua nisbahmata pelajaran sahaja. Tegasnya, 'berjaya' sahaja belumpasti anda cemerlang!

Sesungguhnya matlamat kecemerlangan yang ingin kita gerakkansekarang ialah kecemerlangan secara menyeluruh - la bermula dart dalam diriindividu itu sendiri, keluarga, organisasl, masyarakat, negara dan seterusnyakecemerlangan di dunia dan akhirat. lajuga bermula daripada disiplin berjtkirdan disiplin bekerja yang tidak terikat dengan masa serta sentiasa menghormatipendapat orang lain di samping sentiasa berwaspada terhadap sumber-sumberbahan yang semakin terhad. "Tidak ada perbezaan antara mencuci longkangdengan mentadbirkan negara dari segi kecemerlangan yang diamal dandimatlamatkan." (Ucapan PM, Data' Sen Dr. Mahathir Mohammad dipelancaran Gerakan Budaya Cemerlang pada 27hb. November, 1989.)

Sejarah tamaddun manusia telah memperlihatkan bahawa bangsa yangtidak mempunyai "budaya kerja cemerlang" hanya akan menjadi buruhkontrak di lereng-lereng gunung yang mengandungi emas; walhal nenekmoyangnya turunan demi turunan sudah berabad-abad mendiami kawasanberkenaan.

Sesungguhnya fokus terhadap cemerlang itu tidak beku. la hidup danbergerak mengarah kepada suatu arah yang tidak terbatas. Sebab, jika hari inikita memperolehi kejayaan cemerlang di dalam sesuatu projek, namun di masa-masa akan datang kecemerlangan itu akan dianggap kurang cemerlang jikadibandingkan dengan kecemerlangan orang lain yang lebih sempurna. Begitujuga tahap kecemerlangan yang dianggap sempurna pada zamannya mungkinakan ada tandingannya di dekad-dekad yang mcndatang. Tegasnya, tidak adamatlamat akhir di dalam mengejar kecemerlangan.

Bagaimanapun suatu hal yang mesti kita sedari bahawa kecemerlangantidak akan tercapai secara total tanpa adanya kerjasama orang lain. Contohnya,walaupun seorang saintis boleh menemukan "discovery" yang bolehmenyempurnakan sesuatu penemuan masa lalu, namun tanpa adanya bantuandari para pembantu makmal, dia tidak mungkin menemui penemuan yangdianggap besar di dalam pembangunan tamaddun dunia itu.

BIODATA

DR. R.P. Mohanty is currently a professor atNational Institute for Training in Industrial En-gineering (NITIE), Bombay, India. Previouslyhe was a visiting professor In the division of In-dustrial Engineering and Management at AsianInstitute of Technology, Bangkok. He wasHead of Production Management Departmentas well as Dean of Research Programmes atNational Institute for Training in Industrial En-gineering (NITIE). He was also the National

Chairman of Indian Institution of Industrial Engineering. He has very wide rangingexperiences in education, management development, research, consultancies in bothgovernment and industries. He has published more than 120 papers in various reputedInternational journals and has also completed some national level research projects. He haswritten a book on works management and also guided several Ph. Ds. He is the editor-in-chief of Industrial Engineering Journal (India) for the last 5 years, and also represents in theeditorial board of several journals. He has received 'National Awards' for his outstandingconstribution in the field of industrial engineering and management. He has also chaired inseveral international conferences.

AVAILABILITY MANAGEMENT:THE KEY TO PRODUCTIVITY

IMPROVEMENT

ByProfessor R.P. Mohanty

(National Institute for Training in Industrial Engineering,Bombay, India)

ABSTRACT

In this paper, it is felt worthwhile to examine underlying theparadigm of the total management process of productivity so as to observethe underlying drives Given the variety of conditions prevalent indeveloping countries, organisation may take a number of concepts andalternatives to improve its ability to maintaining the values and creating thevalues for the future It has been hypothesised that the organisationalproductivity may be enhanced by recognising the needs for maximisingavailability of organisational assets

1. INTRODUCTION

Every industrial organization is basically concerned with twostrategies for meeting the objectives of growth and survival in thecontemporary global environment, they are

(a) Maintenance and safeguarding of existing success potentials,and

(b) Search for and development of future-oriented successpotentials

The first strategy is known as Value maintenance' or, in thelanguage of Industrial Engineering, as Productivity I This strategymaximizes performance through rationalization, cost reduction,resource allocation, etc The second strategy, known as 'valuecreation' or Productivity II, is for maximizing performancethrough innovation, diversification, renewal of technologies, verticalintegration, etc It will be seen that in order to pursure the valuecreation strategy, automation in manufacturing must be sought andimplemented and, as a result, complex systems will need to bedesigned and installed Such complex systems are characterized by

huge investment of capital and the non-availability of such systemsfor productive work cannot therefore be tolerated. As the greatestproportion of the total investment of an organization is tied up withthe physical facilities, the postulate is that productivity can bemaximized only when organizations are successful in evolving whatis called availability management.

The objective of this paper is to review some fundamentalconcepts of availability with a view to suggesting ways in whichimprovements could be made. Though the discussions presented willalways be with reference to industrial production systems, it isconsidered that the concepts of availability can be transferred withequal validity to any situation characterized by physical assets andphysical through-puts of resources such as money, materials, energyand information. Our approach to the subject will be orientedtowards productivity, with emphasis on issues and guidelines. Theintention is to explain a wide range of concepts, but always focussingattention on what must be done by managers responsible formanaging corporate physical assets and what their objectives ought tobe.

2. THE CONCEPT OF AVAILABILITY

Availability is the ability of a machine (with due considerationhaving been given to its reliability, maintainability and maintenancesupport) to perform its required function at a stated instant of time orover a period of time.

Availability, denoted by A, can be defined mathematically as:

A = rup/(rdliwn)in which Tup and Tdown denote up-time and down-time, respectively.

The definition given above relates to a physical system with ahistory of failure. Traditionally, availability is maximized byincreasing the up-time through 'reliability', and by decreasing thedown-time through 'maintainability'. Clearly therefore, the key tothe understanding of availability are the two generic concepts ofreliability and maintainability which must be very clearlyunderstood.

2.1 Reliability

The most widely accepted definition of reliability is theprobability of a system performing its intended function adequately

for the given period of time under the given operating conditions.The general mathematical expression for reliability,

R(t) = exp - J Z (C) a (2)

in which

Z (C) = f(t)l(l - F(())

z ( ) denotes the failure rate function, f(t) the failure distributionfunction, and F(t) the cumulative failure distiibution function. Hence

R(t) = 1 - F(r) (3)

The expected value of the failure time is given by

MTBF = T R(t)dt (4)

2.2 Maintainability

Maintainability is defined as the probability that a system will berestored to operational effectiveness within a given period of time,when maintenance actions are taken in accordance with prescribedprocedures. Clearly, how often a system fails (reliability) and howlong it remains down are vital considerations in the determination ofa system's worth. These two concepts are closely linked with costs,complexity, weight, operational requirements, and so on.Maintenance is one of the effective ways of increasing the reliabilityof a system. The more reliable a system is, the better itsmaintainability, and vice versa.

The maintainability function, M(t), is given by

M(0 = Pr(T < t) (5)

in which T denotes the random variable representing the repair time.If the repair time is g(t), then

Pr(T< t) = £(r)dr (6)

The expected value of the repair time, called the Mean-time-to-repair (MTTR), is given by

oo

MTTR = f tg(t)dt (7)

Availability can be expressed in a number of ways, as describedbelow:

Instantaneous availability Denoted by A(t)t it is defined as theprobability that the system is operational at any random time t.

Average available Denoted by A(T), it is defined as theproportion of time in the specified interval (O, T) when the system isavailable. Mathematically it is expressed as

A(T) = /l((OdO. (8)

Steady-state availability Denoted by A(cc)t it is defined as theaverage availability when the time considered is infinity; that is

^(«) = T'-^ oo A(T) (9)

Inherent availability Denoted by A,, inherent availability is basedon the assumption of a steady-state condition and is defined as

A, = MTBF/(MTBF = + MTTR) (10)

in which MTBF denotes mean time between failures. It includes onlycorrective maintenance down-time, and excludes ready-time,preventive maintenance down-time, logistics (or supply) time, aswell as waiting or administrative time.

Achieved availability Denoted by At, it includes only correctiveand preventive maintenance and is defined as

Aa = MTBM/(MTBM ± M) (11

in which MTBM denotes mean time between maintenance, and Mdenotes down-time resulting from maintenance, both corrective andpreventive.

Operational availability Denoted by A0, it includes ready-time,logistics time, and waiting or administrative down-time; it isexpressed as

8

Af, = (MTBM + READYTIME)/(MTBM + READYTIME+ MDT)

(12)

in which

READYTIME = Operational cycle - (MTBM + MDT)

(13)

and

MDT = Delay time + M (14)

Through-put availability In general, all the expressions anddefinitions given above are used to find the time-dependentavailability of the system (that is, the fraction of the time when thesystem can be expected to be in the operational condition) by utilizingcomponent rime availabilities as input data. Although this may be anacceptable measure for electronic systems, there are two reasons whythis method cannot be applied to chemical or continuous-processindustries: first, most plants experience minor fluctuations inprocessing ability that are difficult to attribute to a specific cause andhave little effect on plant economics in the long-term. However,some plants experience reduced through-puts due to gradualequipment failure; gradual fall-off in catalytic activity; and gradualaccumulation of material at some point in the system as that through-put 'bottleneck' is eventually created. Secondly, buffer storages arenormally provided between stages to absorb minor fluctuations inthrough-put capability between the upstream and the downstream.

Such characteristics of process plant design and performance,which are not accounted for by 'time-dependent availability'methods, confirm the need to establish a method or procedure formeasuring the performance of process plants in terms of through-putavailability.

3. EVALUATION OF TIME-DEPENDENT AVAILABILITY

The following methods are used for the evaluation of timedependent availability:

3.1 State Enumeration or the Event Space Method

In this method a list of all possible mutually exclusive states ofthe system are enumerated, a state being defined by listing thesuccessful and failed elements in the system. In general, the totalnumber of states is 2" in which n denotes the number of elements in thesystem. The states which will result in a successful operation of thesystem are then identified and the probability of occurrence of eachsuccessful state is computed. Finally, all the successful probabilitiesgiving the reliability of the system are added up. Brown1 hasdeveloped a computer algorithm for estimating reliability by thismethod. It is to be noted, however, that this method (or its variants) isnot valid for systems with a large number of elements.

3.2 The Network Reduction Method

In this method series, parallel and series-parallel sub-systems arecombined until a non-series parallel system which cannot be furtherreduced is obtained. The factoring theorem is then applied followingMoscowitz.2 A particular element, x, is selected and the two networksare obtained and generated when x is replaced by a short.circuit andan open circuit. If these two networks are simple and series-parallel,they can be reduced. Otherwise the next block, y, must be selected togenerate the two networks.

System reliability will then be given by

R = R2 *R \ R, = 1 + (1 - Rx *R \RX = 0 (15)

in which RK denotes the reliability of the box. Benerjee andRajamani3, Buzacott* and Misra" have subsequently developed andrefined the method.

3.3 The Path Enumeration Method

This method is used for systems not containing dependentfailures.6* In this a path comprises a set elements which form aconnection between input and output when traversed in a stateddirection. A minimal path is one in which no node is traversed morethan once in tracing the path and, if any path is operable then thesystem performs adequately. Hence the reliability is

P M -IR = Pr U Pi (16)

10

in which U denotes the union and Pi the i-th minimal path. Usingthe expansion rule,9 the probability of union of M events can beexpressed as.

M |~ ~i M M r ~iR = y Pr Pi - y y Pr pi n PJ<- L J -.<- L JJ+ I11Pr |"pi n PJ n PK]

i 1 j > l k > l |_ J

I'M -1+ ..... + (-l)M, Pr O Pi (17)

Similarly, a 'cut' can be defined as a set of elements which if theyfail, would cause the system to fail regardless of the condition of otherelements in the system. A minimal cut is one in which there is noproper subset of elements whose failure alone would cause the systemto fail. Then the reliability of the system is

[ M _ ~|U Cj (18)1=1 J

in which Cj denotes the complement of Cj which is the minimal cut.On expansion equation (18) can be shown to lead to

(~- 1 M M r _ ~|cj + y y Pr cj n ckL J £ & L JM M M |~ M - — H- V V V Pr n ri n rkL .L. ,L.™\ ' ] H ' ' 1"KJ

_ ~ l(19)

Pr

3.4 The Network Reduction Method

Whitehouse10 investigated the use of GERT for analysingreliability of systems, while some researchers give a computeralgorithm for evaluating system reliability by generating theequivalent stochastic network of the given reliability block diagram.Although the reliability block diagram is sufficient for handcalculations, it is not convenient for complex systems. The objectiveand advantage of generating the stochastic network are that it givesboth mean and variance of the reliability of the system; but this can be

11

done only if the mean and variance of the individual subsystems areknown.

The advantage of the stochastic network method is that it iseasier to program. In this the subsystems are represented by brancheson the network, with nodes designating the relationship between thesubsystems. Any reliability block diagram can be represented by astochastic network by using two logical relationships on the inputside, together with a deterministic output. Generally, 'AND' and'INCLUSIVE-OR' nodes are used with deterministic output. Themain features of the program are:

(a) Input data to the program can be supplied from either thestochastic network, or from an appropriately modified blockdiagram.

(b) Can be used for any mixture of series and parallel systems.

(c) Several different failure density functions are built into theprogramme.

(d) Multiple failure types, such as chance failures, wear-out failures,etc. for the subsystems can be dealt with.

3.5 Monte-Carlo Simulation Methods

When the system is extremely complex and/or experimentationis desirable but costly, the Monte-Carlo Simulation Method can beapplied with advantage11. According to Faragher and Watson12,however, availability analysis of complex systems by Monte-CarloSimulation Methods reveals a lack of realism in that they areinflexible with respect to changes of configuration; they are thusunsuitable for optimization studies of availability throughcomponent redundancy.

4. EVALUATION OF THROUGH-PUT AVAILABILITY

4.1 The Two-State Approximation Method

The change from time-dependent to through-put availabilityevaluation introduces a major complication into any analyticalapproach. The two-state (on/off) models, which are acceptable in thefield of electronics, are only approximate representations of thebehaviour of processing systems and their components because theyrequire a strictly multi-state representation in which the various statescorrespond to different values of through-put. UfTord's method13

12

avoids this multi-state representation by utilizing a two-stateapproximation. The mean through-put capability of eachcomponent is determined over a sufficiently long period; these meansare then used to evaluate system availability and to represent thesystem's mean through-put capability. Such methods are useful onlyif there are no storage failures within the plant in question. Therepresentation of plant performance in this way has two advantages:

(a) The probabilistic methods used for relating system behaviourare mathematically less complex than Markov models whichincorporate non steady-state behaviour.

(b) Availability data requirement is kept to a minimum; only thevalues of the mean through-put capability are required, one foreach component.

4.2 The Stochastic Computer Model

Wood et. alH give a computer simulation model for estimatingplant reliability. This model, which is used for complex integratedsystems, can predict the size of the operating units and evaluate theeffects of proposed turnover and schedules.

The model can be used for the analysis of the following:

(a) The total reliability or stream factor of a system.

(b) Sensitivity of the total system relative to:(i) a proposed turn-around schedule;

(ii) the effects of a random failure, and(iii) the sizing of various units.

(c) The effect of unit redundancy

(d) The effect of storage capacities, and

(e) Bottlenecks in the system

The model assumes that the user knows how each individualelement is related to the other elements of the system. Independencyand buffer capacity are taken into account in the model through theuse of linear inequalities.

Independent behaviour of the system is simulated by samplingthe distributions (down-time and up-time distributions) whichdescribe system performance. With the aid of these two items of

13

information and using the distributions, the daily status of eachoperating unit and the daily maximum operating level of the plant aredetermined. The program then computers the operating levels andbuffer storage for the next period of time.

4.3 The General Structure Method

The model can be applied to any system characterized by a series,parallel or series-parallel configuration. The data requirements of themethod are:

(a) Data on the structural description of the system.

(b) Distribution of the through-put capability for each componentand the probability of its occurrence.

Brown1 gives a computer algorithm which can generate a multi-state for the components with respect to their different through-putcapabilities and probability of occurrence. Subsequently the through-put capability of the system can be obtained by using Wood'smethod14. Alien has proposed a method15, claimed to becomputationally more efficient than that by Wood, in whichminimal cut sets are used such that the total through-put across anyone cut is the sum of the through-put capabilities of each componentand the smallest through- put cut is regarded as the bottleneck. Theadvantage of this method is that the distribution on the through-putcapabilities of individual components is used rather than the meanthrough-put capability. The deficiency of the method is that it cannotdeal with or account for storage facilities.

4.4 The Availability Simulation Method

In this method, proposed by Alien and Thomas16 for thesimulation of the overall through-put of the entire plant over anextended period, the total time is divided into a number of muchshorter intervals. Stand-alone through-put capabilities of the plantunits are then calculated for each interval and, subsequently, thethrough-put capability of the plant as a whole is calculated. Thestand-alone through-puts are obtained if the frequency distributionsof their failure intervals and attainable through-puts are known;representative -values can then be obtained by sampling thesedistributions.

In this method the capacity and the initial buffer level of eachbuffer storage must be specified, and the entire buffer capacity mustbe considered to be available to the model at any one time period. If

14

any of the units are subject to pre-determined regular maintenanceshut-downs, their frequencies and durations must also beincorporated. In this method the total plant through-put isdetermined using the forward scan and reverse scan algorithms; theformer determines the maximum through-put of each unit while thelatter the actual through-put of each unit during each time interval.The following factors are accounted for in this method:

(a) Mismatch of through-put capability of each plant.

(b) Down-time due to planned as well as breakdown maintenance.

(c) Plant configuration, and

(d) The presence of buffer storage.

The advantages of the Availability Simulation Model arethese:

(a) Data required for simulation are only those on frequency andduration of both planned and unplanned shut-down.

(b) Once the simulation model has been developed, it can be used toanalyze, predict and enhance the performance of the plant undervarious conditions, particularly as to how production could beincreased with minimum investment and different maintenanceperiods, or by identifying and removing bottlenecks or byproviding additional buffer storage at strategic locations.

(c) The method can be applied to systems with branching andconverging process streams, recycles, intermediate bufferstorage, and so on.

Mohanty and Mohanty17 have used this method to estimate theavailability of dry-technology based cement industries in India.

5. PARAMETERS FOR EVALUATION AVAILABILITY

In designing for the availability of a system, it is necessary tospecify the three parameters described below:

(a) The component failure process This process, whichdescribes the probability laws governing failure, can bepostulated either through physical reasoning or by employingempirical evidence observed on components. Many types of

15

failure distribution laws are to be found in the literature such asexponential, Gamma, Erlang, Weibull, Rayleigh, Normal,Lognormal, Lognormal, Uniform, Extreme value, and so on.The exponential distribution is used most frequently because ofits constant failure^rate nature which mimics with goodaccuracy failures caused by overstress in electronic components.Weibull distribution, on the other hand, is suitable for designingfatigue failure.

(b) The component repair process In many situations thecomponent repair process is best described by Lognormaldistribution. Indeed, many authors prefer it to otherdistributions such as Exponential, Erlang, Weibull, etc.

(c) The system configuration The logical approach toavailability analysis is to resolve the system under considerationinto functional entities composed of components or subsystems,as a result of which a block diagram is obtained describing theconfiguration of the system. The block diagram shows how thesystem components are functionally connected and also therules of operation. The functional connections may be of theseries type, parallel type, or a combination of the two.

6. AVAILABILITY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES

Reliability and availability improvements are carried outmainly in the aerospace, defence and nuclear industries to ensure thehighest degree of safety. Because such industries involve large capitalinvestment, the methods for assessing and improving reliability andavailability are now being widely adopted in the more advanceddeveloping countries such as India, Pakistan, Brazil and so on. Indeed,it is interesting to note that at present availability/reliabilityestimation and evaluation are becoming increasingly important inalmost all industries, mainly in the manufacturing (process) sector,because of variations in demand over the planning period. Clearly, astudy of how to improve the availability of plants using theirperformance data over past periods be will of great help in matchingsupply to demand during periods of high demand. The question to beaddressed in this context is, 'how to increase the availability of a givenplant at the minimum possible cost?' No doubt, this question hasspecial poignancy for the developing countries. For example, in arecent survey of Indian maintenance management functions,Mohanty and Narasingham18 found that availability maximization,preservation of the value of the physical assets, and minimization ofcosts were the three dominant objectives in the minds of maintenance

16

managers. Reports of the Asian Productivity Organisation (APO)show, furthermore, that frequently the productivity of developingcountries is low because of out-dated plants and equipment and lackof concern for total quality assurance. Clearly, this situation cannot betolerated if these countries are to compete successfully in the market-place.

To understand the cost implications of availability improve-ments, let us first consider the bad effects of unreliable plants. A plantwhich is 100 percent reliable will operate at its full design productionrate throughout its operating life. Such a plant can therefore be takenas the 'bench-mark' with respect to which the cost of improvedreliability could be assessed. Two parameters are germane to such astudy; they are (a) production rate and (b) production cost.

Low reliability means reduced average production rate due tofrequent plant shut-downs caused by failure of some parts of theplant, planned shut-down for maintenance or the ageing of the plant.Low reliability has no effect on fixed costs, but has two direct costimplications on operating costs they are:

(a) Loss of sales due to low production rate and inability to meetdemand, and

(b) Savings arising from the reduced utilization of raw materials.

The net cost of lost production is clearly the difference between(a) and (b) above.

Low availability of plants due to sudden failure can beminimized by employing skilled man-power to repair the failedunit(s). Furthermore, low reliability caused by decreased plantefficiency, or steady loss of performance, can be improved upon byadopting a properly planned maintenance policy designed to reducethe periods and frequencies of shut-down (e.g. through the provisionof lubrication). The reliability of the plant can be estimated even atthe design stage by checking the reliability potentials of alternativedesigns or technologies.

Improvements in reliability are, however, subject to the 'law ofdiminishing returns'. The least-cost combination of availabilityimprovements for an existing plant can be found by adopting thefollowing procedures:

(a) Identification of the target production performance.

17

(b) Identification of the possible combination of availabilityimprovements with which the target performance could beachieved.

(c) Estimation of the cost of each improvement combination.

(d) Selection of the combination which achieves the targetproduction performance at the lowest cost.

6.1 Strategic Directions

Alternatives ways of looking at maintainability of productsystems in developing countries may be thought of in the followingstrategic and tactical directions:

(1) Elimination of the causes of failures by:

(a) designing of realistic working conditions(b) avoiding of operational faults and human errors, and(c) minimising negative external influences.

(2) Reduction of the efforts in maintenance:

In a survey conducted by this author, a Indian organisations hasrevealed that maintenance efforts are not commensurable withimprovements in availability. However, maintenance effortscan be reduced by adopting the following actions:

(a) shortening times for fault localisation, maintenance anddowntime.

(b) minimising maintenance costs, spare consumptions,personnel and down time costs.

(c) co-ordination of maintenance with production.

For example, this author in his consultancy experiences hadidentified the following areas require meaningful co-ordinationbetween various functional groups in an organisation:

(a) exchangeability of system elements susceptible to wear(b) standardisation of elements and systems(c) possibilities of repair through correct choice of materials

and procurement and design.

Further, this author has undertaken some recent studies indeveloping countries to identify the delays involved in maintenancerelated activities. Most critical delays that can be observed are:

18

(a) Diagnosis time and spare parts searching delay(b) Actual repair time delay.

Diagnosis time and Spare Parts Searching Delay (SPSD) is thetime required for the diagnosis of the fault, plus the time it takes tosearch for appropriate spare parts and tools; it depends upon thelocation of the stores department and the way in which spare partsand tools are stacked in the stores.

Actual Repair Time Delay (ARTD) is defined as the time ittakes to restore the faulty equipment to operating conditioneffectively. ARTD is primarily a function of the type or nature of thebreakdown and the experience and efficiency of the repairman.

Clearly therefore, the total equipment down-time, whichconsists of reporting, attending, diagnostic and spare parts searchingtimes, can be reduced by improving the flow of information, systemsand procedures. Furthermore, since machine waiting time is causedby non-availability of repairmen (as determined by manning level)and the actual repair time which is relatively uncontrollable, it wouldobviously be more appropriate to treat all available and unavoidabledelays separately than to group them into a single component ofdelay. This would provide useful insight into the magnitude of eachcomponent so that measures could be taken to reduce the totalequipment down-time, thus improving availability.

The fundamental objective of availability improvementthrough the management of break-down time can be seen as aplanned programme for predictable maintenance to be carried out atthe optimum time; that is, with the minimum of delay and maximumconsolidation of shut-down activities.

6.2 Design-out-tnaintenance

At present technologies are changing rapidly on a broad front,leading to increased automation and development of reliable systems,and the effect of these changes has brought a new demand on themaintenance function. Maintenance cannot and should not anylonger be seen as a job to be done only if or when something goeswrong. Indeed, the modern philosophy is that it can be designed-out.As a result, it has become necessary nowadays to improve designpractice such that maintenance requirements are simplified. Forexample, the Steel Authority of India has developed over the past fewyears several design-out maintenance policies to save on foreignexchange for the import of spare parts19. It has been observedsubstantially through proper design using aids to familiarization and

19

rapid comprehension. Modern thinking is that maintenanceimplications should be envisaged through automation andtechnological upgrading. Many of the maintenance problems stemfrom inadequate knowledge of the causes which create unavailability.Therefore, once the nature of these difficulties is understood, it shouldbe possible to minimize costs, improve designs and enhance systemreliability. Design-out maintenance can encourage familiarizationtoo, thus improving the learning process, and this has importantimplications on the developing countries.

There are, however, several other strategies for improvingavailability, namely: the provision of buffer storages in betweendifferent stages of production of the system; the introduction ofparallel stand-by systems, and so on. However, the adodption of thesestrategies in the developing countries is constrained by the scarcity ofcapital and, furthermore, there is always a trade-off between theamount of buffer between two stations and the consequentimprovement in availability, or between improvement in availabilityand the number of stand-by units employed. In the consideredopinion of the Author, priority should be given, certainly in thedeveloping countries, to improving availability of existing systemsthrough improved maintenance, design-out maintenance, provisionfor spare parts, etc.

7. CONCLUSIONS

With increasing mechanization and automation, a high deg-ree of interdependency is developing between elements of theproduction system in any organisation. Operations depend on aconsistent flow of resources, not on the elements of the system alone.Thus, uniform operating reliability becomes a paramountrequirement and, consequently, the management of the flow ofresources becomes the most important consideration in developingcountries.

To the modern entrepreneur a very important concern is theoperational readiness of his technological assets. Most of theentrepreneurs in the developing world today are concerned withreliability, down-time, supply, response time, and availability. Thelast is a single indicator which takes into account simultaneously mostof the other factors such as reliability, spares provisioning, supplyresponse time, administrative actions, maintenance efficiency, systemconfiguration, and operational deployment scenarios. In this paperavailability has been explained as a generic as well as an operationalconcept. Although availability would appear to be virtuallyindependent of the way it is estimated, many of the studies on the

20

subject specify that availability be evaluated as the ratio of the meantime-to-failure to the sum of mean time-to-failure and the meantime-to-repair the failed unit. Although this definition ignores manyof the critical factors of management interest, it nevertheless gives anaggregated measure. Several approaches have been classified in thispaper to facilitate a clear understanding of the concept of availability.

Clearly, it is for the management to resolve several of the basicissues of maintenance, down-time, flexibility and resource usageefficiency on which availability can be substantially dependent.Furthermore, productivity I strategies should be pursuedconjunctively with productivity II strategies. Also, value-creationand value-maintenance should go hand in hand to promote economicefficiency - an aspect which is of special significance to the developingcountries.

Technological system represents the synthesis of the threeprincipal attributes of software, hardware and organisation. Againstthe present economic background of much of the developing worldof today, no entrepreneur can afford to ignore or escape this trinity ofattributes. Therefore, while planning for the maximization of theavailability of their technological systems, it is also important for theentrepreneurs to be able to maek reasonably accurate forecasts and toprovide indices of evaluation. The indicies depends on our being ableto campare them with what should have been on the date from whichthey speak. The time has come to establish both positive and negativecontrols. Positive controls should set up a search and response thatwill close the performance gap. Negativ controls should establish theground rules or constraints within which organisations have tomaintain their assets and prevent disasters or catastrophes.

REFERENCES

1. D.B. Brown, 'A computerized algorithm for determining thereliability of redundant configuration', IEEE Transactions onReliability, R-20, (1971), pp.102.

2. F. Moscowitz, 'The analysis of redundancy networks', AIEETransactions, 77, (1958), pp.627.

3. S.K. Banerjee and K. Rajamani, 'Parametric representation ofprobability in two-dimensions - a new approach in system reliabilityevaluation', IEEE Transaction on Reliability, R-20, (1971), pp.88.

4. J.K. Buzacott, 'Automated transfer lines with buffer stocks', Int. J.Prod. Res., 5, no. 3, (1969).

21

5. K.B. Misra, 'A method for solving redundancy optimizationproblems', IEEE Transactions on Reliability, R-20, (1971), pp.117,

6. W. Chung, 'Generalized reliability functions for systems of arbitraryconfigurations', IEEE Transactions on Reliability, R-20, (1971),pp.85.

7. M.L Shoo nun. Probabilistic Reliability: An EngineeringApproach, McGraw-HiII, New York, 1968.

8. Kim et al., 'A method for computing complex reliability', IEEETransactions on Reliability, R-21, (1972), pp.215.

9. W.A. Feller, An Introduction to Probability Theory and itsApplications, vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1957.

10. G.E. Whitehouse, 'GERT: a useful technique for analyzing reliabilityproblems', Technometrics, 12, No.l, (1970)

11. Myers et al., Reliability Engineering for Electronic Systems,John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1957

12 W.E. Faragner and H.S. Watson, 'Availability analysis - a realisticmethodology', in Proc 10th National Symposium on Reliabilityand Quality Control, Washington, (1964)

13. P.S. Ufford, 'Equipment reliability analysis for large plants', ChemicalEngineering Progress, 68, No. 47, (1972)

14. K. Wood et al., 'Determining process plant reliability', ChemicalEngineering Progress, 70, No 10 (1974), pp.62-66)

15. D H. Alien, 'Advances m reliability technology', a symposium paperat the National Centre of System Reliability, Bradford, England,Apnll 1976

16. D.H. Alien and R.E. Thomas, 'Availability simulation as a tool forincreasing production from a continuous process plant', MaintenanceManagement International, 4, 117-129 (1984)

17. R P Mohanty and K.K. Mohanty, 'Availability estimation of acement manufacturing plant through simulation', MaintenanceManagement International, 6, (1986)

22

18. R.P. Mohanty and K. Narasingam, 'An assessment of maintenancemanagement functions in Indian industries', MaintenanceMangement Internation, 7, (1987).

19. S. Patnaik and R.P. Mohanty, 'Design-out-maintenance for anintegrated steel plant', Maintenance Management International, 5(1985).

23

BIODATA

Ir. Hj. Arshad Hj. Marsidi is currently the Direc-tor of National Productivity Centre (NPC), Pe-taling Jaya, Malaysia. He joined NPC as a Train-ing &' Investigating Officer in 1968 and was ap-pointed as Deputy Director in 1973 and Direc-tor of the Centre in 1981. Prior to joining theNPC he was with the mining industry where heobtained practical working experience after gra-duating as a Production Engineer. His post-gra-duate qualifications art: in Management Consul-

tancy and Quality Control. He has wide-ranging experience in management andsupervisory development, research and consultancy in the public and private sectors. He haspresented numerous papers at the national as well as international levels, published articles inboth local and foreign journals and chaired several national and international conferences onproductivity related issues.

For his invaluable contribution to the nation he was awarded the K.M.N. (1979) aiidj.S.M.(1985) by His Majesty the King.

24

LINKING WAGES TOPROFIT-RELATEDMEASUREMENTS

BYIr Hj Arshad Hj Marsidi

(Director of National ProductivityCentre)

INTRODUCTION

The idea of linking wages to profits is new in this country and itconstitutes a big departure from current practices. Traditionally, the issueof wages has been the major focus in any collective bargaining. It had beenaccepted that wages should reflect the increasing cost of living and as sucheach collective agreement would attempt at all costs to include the elementof annual increments which results in spiralling salary allocations, waybeyond the performance element. On top of this, the payment of bonus ismade contractual making it unrealistic in the sense that bonus would bepaid irrespective of the performance of the company.

In the earlier days, these issues were not addressed analytically norrationally. Situations then were different. High growth and high profitswere the norm rather than the exception. Unfortunately the good timescould not continue. It has become evident that many organisations can nolonger afford to provide continuous upward revision of salaries indefinitelyarid continue to pay the high bonuses of the good old days.

CURRENT SITUATION

The scenario of the eighties has been one of general recessionworldwide. Malaysia is no exception and has been plagued with lowgrowth rates, rising unemployment, continued low commodity prices,growing protectionism and growing competition overseas. Despite somerecent positive developments and signs, we cannot afford to becomplacent, rather, it is imperative for us to come to grips with thesituation. We must take action to prepare ourselves for the unpredictablefuture and not be caught with our pants down so to speak. To stay inbusiness we need to be competitive in order to sell our goods and services.

25

We are given to understand that more and more Malaysian productsare finding their way into the international markets. It would be interestingas well as pertinent for us to make a comparison of the productivity level ofMalaysia with those of the New Industrialised Economies (NIE). Pleaserefer to Graphs 1-4 (Appendix 1 - 4). Referring to the same graphs we canalso make a comparison of Malaysia with other developing countries in theAsian region. You would have noticed that Malaysia is doing not too badlyfor the period 1980 - 1985. We can take comfort from the fact that we arejust below the Republic of Korea and way above the other developingcountries in Asia, excluding the other NIEs. This is one instance when theperformance of others is interesting but irrelevant. We should not allowthis to lull us into a state of complacency.

There is a great deal more that needs to be done to improve ourproductivity if we wish to transform our aspiration of joining the ranks ofthe industrialised economies. We need to develop and build up a morecompetitive edge for our industries in order to survive. Our strategy shouldbe to emphasise on productivity and quality of our products and services. Inorder to achieve this, closer and more effective co-operation of the twopartners in business, namely the employers and employee/trade unions aswell as the government must be developed. We can no longer afford toconfront one another and for long term mutual overall benefits we mustwork together as partners in progress.

REACHING OUR GOALS

Creating A Bigger Cake To Share

In order to achieve our goal of linking wages to profits we must createthe profits first. How do we achieve this?

i) We need to create wealth through expanding the cake so that there issomething more to share. This calls for greater and more effective co-operation between the employers and the employees. Productionthrough economies of scale must be coupled with more efficientperformance through a change in attitude.

ii) Co-operation can pave the way for innovations and improvedprocesses and systems leading to flexibility in utilising capitalresources.

iii) The concept on human resource development can be re-examinedand refocused; the workforce should be regarded as a form ofinvestment and an asset rather than purely as a cost. Creativity andfirm commitment to the goals can be further developed to the full in

26

order to draw out the infinite human capabilities throughinvolvement and decision-making.

Towards Mutual Gains

The link between wages and profit can be illustrated in Appendix 5. Itis definitely very clear that both parties will reject the situation in Quadrant4 when both parties will suffer. In Quadrant 2 it will not be sustained asworkers would not be supportive in the long-run. Similarly in Quadrant 3situation, the survival of the organisation and the security will bejeopardised. So the only situation will be Quadrant 1 where both partieswill enjoy mutual benefits and growth. Once we accept this in principlethen it is only a matter of quantum which needs be worked out equitablyby the two parties concerned.

Approach By Productivity

Of late, much has been written and said on productivity. Basically,the definition is relatively simple:

n , . . OutputProductivity = -=———3 Input

Basing on the above equation there will be five ways to improveproductivity, namely, (refer Appendix 6)

i) reducing costii) managing growth

iii) working smarteriv) pare downv) working effectively

Factors In Productivity

Appendix 7 states the three main factors in productivity, viz. Human,Process and Product. On closer examination, the key is Human, im the sensethat ultimately, it is the Human who controls, utilises and improves theProcess and Products.

Being so, the equation can be redefined as follows:-

i) PRODUCTIVITY = (CONCEPT + SKILL) x ATTITUDE

ii) PRODUCTIVITY = (SCIENCE + TECHNOLOGY) xENTHUSIASM(where enthusiasm is equal to motivation)

27

Building Competitiveness Through Quality

We must realise that the situation has changed and we must therefore,change our ways of thinking. Gone are the days when we thought wewere in a sellers market. Under the old situation any company couldproduce goods for sale. The selling price would be:-

SELLING PRICE = COST + PROFIT

The company would determine the total cost of manufacturing theproduct and top it up with the profit margin and then sell it at that price.

The situation has now changed. It is no longer a sellers market butinstead a buyers market. The customer knows what he wants and he canchoose the types of products or from whom he buys. Under such asituation, quality is stressed and the selling price no longer exists. Insteadthere is the market price which is dictated by the consumer:

MARKET PRICE-COST = PROFIT

Marketing strategy has to be changed from "product out" to "marketin" concept. The emphasis is on full customer' satisfaction. Therefore, inorder to expand profits under such circumstances would be to contain andreduce the costs. The above formula stresses on the need for the reductionof the cost.

Broadly speaking the cost can be divided into two parts. One partconsists of the operation which can be defined as "every action whichincreases the added value". In the past we had concentrated on such actionslike automation, innovation and technology which were intended toincrease the performance of the operation. We have largely forgotten thatthere is a Second part i.e. wastages which can be defined as activity or actionwhich does not increase additional value. For example, transportation,inspection, rework, stocks, storage and so on are forms of waste and shouldbe eliminated.

The emphasis in quality has been highlighted again and again. PhilipCrosby says that by improving quality almost any company can increaseprofits by 5% to 10% of the company sales without any additional cost.Juran says that the causes of quality problems can be divided into twogroups:

28

a) "management controllable" which is estimated to be about 80%caused within the systems.

b) "worker controllable" which is 20% caused during the application ofthe system.

According to Juran these 20% of problems ought to be solved by theworkers themselves ideally under the voluntary basis. Examples of suchactivities are Quality Control Circles (QCC) and suggestion schemes.QCC for example, has demonstrated the feasibility and excellent resultsin cost reduction and process improvement. Of course, these activities canonly take place in the presence of suitable climate and management styles aswell as with sufficient motivation and recognition. Effective humanresources development should aim at obtaining employee involvement,employee participation, information sharing, constructive feedback,teamwork and collaboration, creating meaningful and challenging work aswell as employment security.

CASE FOR PROFIT SHARING SCHEMES

Motivation Towards Common Goals

One main objective of compensation schemes is to motivateemployees to perform if not excel at their jobs. Numerous programmes forlinking employees' wages with their performances have been tried sinceTaylor introduced his famous piecework incentive system.

With such individual merit payment schemes, individual employeesare motivated only to make more money; they have no interest in raisingproductivity or in management's productivity/organisational goals.However, under the proposed profit sharing scheme tied toproductivity/performance, which is a group-based reward system, theemployees will get the share of the company's profit due to an overallimprovement in productivity.

In most organisations with traditional incentives, only employeesinvolved in production, are covered; those not on the incentive scheme arealienated because they do not have an opportunity to increase theirearnings. Traditionally, incentives are usually designed for individualemployees or small groups; this encourages workers to build protectivewalls around their operations to maximise their earnings at all costs. Thesetypes of incentives fractionalise the work force and create conditions whichaccentuate employees' individual interests. Since employees are measuredonly on their output, they have little interest in overall quality, spoilage andplant-wide problems.

29

Profit sharing changes these attitudes. Employees will then beinterested in company-wide improvement as all employee are rewarded asa group for total gains achieved. Rewarding all workers for theproductivity (profit related) gains over a base period, will enable them tofocus their attention on the need to collectively reduce total costs of inputsand improve quantity of output.

Under the profit sharing system, employees will now be moreinterested in how the operations and systems work in the company,attending to more details and the production problems that occur aroundthem which in the past they had ignored or even encouraged. Since profits-related gains are shared, all innovations by workers or by management,will be welcomed because workers will gain from all improvement efforts.It will realign management and workers'interests and needs towards thecommon goal.

TO STAY COMPETITIVE

As shown in Graph 5, (Appendix 8) there are still many companiesfind themselves in an uncompetitive position, with their labour costs whichincreasing and labour productivity lagging behind the labour cost pereomployee, with an average annual increase of 4.23% and 18.01%respectively. If they want to be competitive and succeed, they should notcontinue to practise the conventional automatic yearly increment in paywithout regard to their company's performance and profitability. Profitsharing is a means of substituting this practice, where employees are able toearn higher pay through improved organisational performance and profit.In this way, with wages directly linked to profits, the wage system is morerational. One can receive more as the company becomes more and morecompetitive.

During the current business slowdown and increased competition,many companies turned to cutting 'heads' to reduce costs in the guise ofproductivity. In the short term this measure can be seen to be effective butunfortunately, this will be counter productive in the long run. Theemployees will be demoralised and pre-occupied in worrying 'who is next'thus affecting their work performance.

Profit sharing will be a scheme to minimise the need for work-forcereductions during difficult times as it provides for a built-in financialadjustment to reduce financial liabilities.

Since wage costs are partly variable, these input costs will be lower.These adjustments coupled with the employee efforts to reduce other inputcosts will lessen or eliminate the need for lay-offs.

30

However reduction in workforce can still take place through naturalattrition under normal circumstances.

TOWARDS DEVELOPING A PROFIT SHARING SCHEME

Objectives to be achieved by such a scheme:

O To increase employee output/performance;O To improve general attitudes towards work;O To improve co-operation between employees and management;O To reduce operating costs;O To develop employee identity with the company;O To encourage employees to continuously seek improvements and

innovations in work methods;O To link labour costs to company performance i.e. reducing liability

during bad times and increasing liability in good times;O To enable employees to contribute to the enterprise.

Current Labour-Management Relationship

The labour-management relationship must be right with a goodelement of trust and cooperation. The Union representatives must bebriefed on the objectives of the scheme to get their participation andinvolvement in designing the scheme. This would eliminate doubts,rumours and objections towards the scheme.

Establishing the Coverage

The question that is often asked regarding such profit sharing schemeis "Who are to be included?" The most common practice is to includeeveryone. With this, it encourages a sense of sharing common goalsamongst all the employees (Management and Workers) and focuses onteamwork and co-operation in improving organisational performance.

The Sharing Formula

Once the coverage on who are to be included is established, the profitsharing formula can then be worked out. Though there are physicalformula based on the improvement of the relationship of physical units ofoutput and physical units of input, the profit sharing scheme is bestadministered based on financial performance. With the financial approachto calculation of distribution of gains, part of the employee's wages will beaffected by market prices and conditions as well as by productivityperformance. This creates a sense of involvement and responsibility and afeeling of'mutual interest'. Part of the employee's wages will be flexiblerising and falling according to the overall financial and productivity

31

performance of the company. The other part is fixed in order to providefor a guaranteed minimum level of living standard for the employee.

There are various gain sharing plans, like the Scanlon Plan, RuckerPlan, Improshare and the Japanese flexible wage system, which can be usedto formulate an equitable formula.

The payout frequency may be weekly, monthly, quarterly orannually depending on

i) data availability for computationii) magnitude of the share

iii) administrative costs

NPC'S PRODUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT MODEL*

Financial And Productivity Ratios

For profit sharing to be equitably done, one must be able to accuratelymeasure the gains. The present hesitation of management to share a part ofits financial gain is due, partly to the lack of confidence in coming up withaccurate performance measures.

There are many ways of measuring performances, but not many linkoutput and input costs, profitability and productivity all in one model.Majority of the performance measures focus on either profitability orproductivity.

The National Productivity Centre, with the assistance of Dr. M.R.Ramsay, an ILO expert, has successfuly adapted his models whichcalculates partial and total productivity/performance measures and alsolinks productivity with return on investment and capital rotation. Thismodel can be extended to be used for computation in the profit sharingscheme.

Total Productivity Measurement Approach

It is important to develop a profit-related productivity base thatprovides an accurate measurement of productivity for an organisation. TheScanlon Plan and Improshare Plan consider only labour productivity. TheRucker Plan, though using value added in its computation, is still relatedonly to gains in labour productivity.

*adapted from Dr. M.R. Ramsay's RAPMODS Model

32

Take for example, a saving of $10,000 in labour costs may be achievedthrough lay offs but at the sametime, energy and material costs is allocatedto increase by the same amount, therefore no real improvement inproductivity is achieved. On the other hand, a $7,000 increase in labourcosts together with a savings of $8,000 in materials and energy will give anett positive result.

The essence of a practical Productivity Measurement Model is itsability to objectivate and adjust the consequences of changes in inputfactors to give the best nett result to the organisation. The NPC Model iscapable of doing just that. Further more,it can be used as a tool for unkingprofits to productivity, as illustrated, in a simplified manner, in Appendix9. Appendix 10 shows the complete NPC Productivity MeasurementModel with its simulation capabilities.

CONCLUSION

The proposed concept of profit-related sharing scheme is a way tobring about a long-term comprehensive change in an organisation'smanagement philosophy by creating new roles for all employees includingmanagers, breaking down harries to communication, enhancing co-operation and teamwork, grealer employee involvement, and giving thema sense of responsibility and a role in the organisation's success. This willresult in better quality of working life of employees and increasedcompetitiveness for the company.

It is needless to say we have lost much time and opportunity and if weare to continue to survive, some drastic steps must be taken to redress theunhealthy situation of the past. As mentioned earlier this conceptconstitutes a big departure from traditions and it will take a lot of courageto take this new step. Nevertheless we must take this bold step and with alot of understanding, sincerity, commitment and trust from all parties, Ibelieve we can succeed for succeed we must if we want to survive.

33

Appendix 5

WAGES AND PROFIT WINDOW

PROFITS

3LAW PROFITSHIGH WAGES

4LOW PROFITLOW WAGES

iHIGH PROFITSHIGH WAGES

2

HIGH PROFITSLOW WAGES

Appendix 9(i)

NPC PRODUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT MODELFOR COMPUTATION OF PROFIT SHARING

Column A Items

B Base Month Actual Financial Figures

C Computation of Factors Productivity Measures

(FPM) and Muldfactor Productivity Measure (MPM)

D Current Month Projected Figures Based on FPM/MPMof base month

E Current Month Actual Figures

Row 1 Monthly Sales Figures

2 Finished Goods Inventory (FG) - increase (decrease)

3 Work-in-Process Inventory - increase (decrease)

4 Total System Output [Row (1) + Row (2) + Row (3)]

5 Monthly Labour Costs

6 Monthly Material Costs

34

7 Other Related Costs Like Energy, Fuel, Transportationetc.

8 Aggregate Costs [Row (5) + Row (6) + Row (7)]

9 Gain over Month (Aggreate Projected Costs - AggreateActual Costs)

10 Contingency Fund (say 10% kept in reserve)

= -£ x Row (9)

11. Share for Distribution = Row (9) - Row (10)

12. Employees' Share (say 50%)

= x Row (11)

35

BIODATA

Leonard Yong (B. Sc (HONS); Dip. Ed; M. Ed;Ph.D) has been a lecturer in the Faculty of Edu-cation, Universid Malaya since 1981. He was achemistry and mathematics teacher in St. John'sInstitution before he joined Universiti Malayaas a tutor in 1979. Presently, he is attached to theDepartment of Pedagogy and Educational Psyc-hology in the Faculty of Education. His mainresearch interests are in educational psychology,particularly in creativity. He has written a book

on creativity in Malaysian students and published and edited more than 30 articles andpublications in local and foreign journals. Dr. Yong is also frequently been called upon toserve as a psychological and research consultant for market survey companies and majorresearch projects.

36

CREATIVITY FOR PRODUCTIVITYIN THE MALAYSIA CONTEXT

ByDr. Leonard Yong Mee Seng

(Lecturer in Faculty of Education,University of Malaysia)

Introduction

Currently there is concern regarding the adequacy of our scientificand technical manpower to meet the demands of Malaysia's rapid socialand economic changes. The pressing need to identify and encourageindividuals who are capable of high-level performance has directedattention to the techniques for recognising the capable individual as early inhis school career as possible. Studies of the last two decades have suggestedthat the creative potential of the citizens of a country could be one of itsgreatest national assets. As Nolan (1982: p66) aptly puts it in the context ofsuccessful business management:

"Creative skills are the key to open-mindedness, constructiveco-operative behaviour and all other desirable qualities... Weneed a new perspective on creativity, which recognises it asimportant as the logical analytical abilities that are so highlyprized in our current business culture."

The importance of creative thinking in enhancing learning andconsequently in the development of the individual and society cannot beoveremphasised. Over the past three decades, accumulated empiricalevidence suggests that the creative potential is latent in everyone and can bedeveloped through the application of appropriate strategies. In education,especially after the launching of the first space satellite by the Russians in1957, there was a call for educators in the United States to be moreresponsible in nurturing the creative abilities in students and to seek waysfor its development. This call has resulted in considerable research interestin creativity. The information obtained so far has contributed substantiallyto our understanding about creativity and the factors which affect itsmanifestations, but much research remains to be done before the results canbe universally generalised. In the context of the school, a large proportionof these research efforts should naturally be directed to obtain moreempirical data, especially in different national and cultural settings,regarding the influence of school and personal variables on the creativity ofstudents.

37

Creativity and the Educator

The last three decades of educational research and development haveled some educationists (Torrance, 1965; Jones, 1972) to suggest that manprefers to learn in creative ways through creative and inquiry-orientedactivities. This postulation has, consequently, motivated many researchersto seek and explore for ways of teaching in a creative manner. Someresearchers, for example Torrance (1970), have argued that teachingcreatively involves catering to a number of human needs such as curiosity,the need to meet challenges and attempt difficult tasks, the need to giveoneself completely to a task, and the need to be an individual, that is, to beoneself. In order to respond to thesecreative needs of the learner, the teacherwould be required to recognise and acknowledge the learner's potential.Such a recognition would enable the creative child to come to terms withhis deep feelings and emotions that are of fundamental importance to hispersonal development. To some educationists, raising the creative level ofthe students will enhance the welfare of the nation, as Torrance (1965: 11)implores:

As we studied creative behaviour among both children andadults, it became increasingly clear that perhaps nothing couldcontribute more to the general welfare of our nation and thesatisfaction and mental health of its people than a general raisingof the level of creative behaviour. There is little doubt thatprolonged and severe stifling of creative thinking cuts at thevery roots of satisfaction in living.

Rogers (1962) had proposed that certain conditions would facilitatethe development of creativity in all students. These conditions are that theperson should feel substantial 'worth to himself and his peers, and thatexternal criticism should be absent1. If the teacher were to provide theseconditions in the classroom, the teacher would be able to guide the learnerto a controlled kind of freedom necessary for creative behaviour. A similarview, though based on a different theoretical viewpoint, was held byMaslow (1959). Maslow in experimental psychologist, was of the opinionthat creativity was latent in every person although this could remain as asuppressed potential in many people. In his Self-Actualisation Theory, hesuggestied that even when all other needs were satisfied, there would still beproblems that a person would need to solve in order to achieve self-actualisation. Maslow's research also indicated that where conditions offreedom and syampathy prevail, creativity would emerge.

A number of other research studies indicate that not only is it possibleto develop creativity but also that this is desirable. Torrance (1963b: 16)suggests that children can be taught to bring their creative thinking abilitiesinto use "in acquiring even the traditional educational skills". Although

38

traditional forms of education have been criticised, there is little evidencethat other forms would be more successful in promoting creative talent. Infact, convincing evidence for the superiority of one form of education as ameans of promoting creativity over another is difficult to obtain.However, a number of educators (e.g. Ogilvie, 1973) have argued that theschool can serve as a unique place where creative abilities in children can bedeveloped by deliberate teaching methods or by modifications of theenvironment or by combinations of both. As long ago as 1967, Parnes(1967) had suggested that the schools can do much to assist pupils to achievetheir self-actualisationa as postulated by Maslow (1954). Parnes (1967: 41)writes on the matter as follows:

Education can do much to help the individual achieve this fullestself-realization, whatever his level of native capacity. Manypeople seem to possess the seeds of creativeness, but theeivironment fails to provide the nourishment for growth.Therefore, these persons never fully live. Education can providefor "creative calisthenics" to counteract this atrophying of ourtalents.

Yet another area where creativity is of great importance is in theeducation of gifted students. In studies to investigate the relationshipbetween creativity and gifted behaviour, Treffinger (1986: 16) suggested amodel of creative learning consisting of three levels:

Level I: Learning Basic Thinking Tools where there is a recognition of theimprotance of teaching students a number of fundamental "tools" forgenerating and analysing ideas such as brainstorming.

Level II: Learning and Practising Problem Solving Models where studentslearn and practise methods in which the basic thinking tools are applied in amore complex and systematic structure.

Level III: Dealing with Real Problems and Challenges where student arechallenged to use the basic tools and the problem-solving methods theyhave learned as they deal with real problems.

Based on this model of creative learning, Treffinger (1986) has made anumber of recommendations which are relevant to the nurturing andenhancement of creativity in gifted students.

Besides the nurturing of creativity in gifted students, educations hasthe important function of developing creativity in all students. If the aim ofthe school is to develop the full potential of its pupils in soul and body andto provide adequate preparation for everyday life in the world of work and

39

leisure, then it needs to offer a place for all kinds of work for creativitydevelopment. As Jones (1972: 110) explained:

The word "education" is derived from the Latin verbs"educare" (to bring up a child) and "educere" (to lead out) — abringing out of what is within. If the educationist's purpose is tonurture the child's innate capacities to the full and to give topeople not merely a useful occupation but a full and abundantlife then the creative process must in very possible way beactively stimulated.

Following Jones's argument it appears that schools need to find waysof rewarding creative achievement and of nurturing the development ofcreative thinking abilities in pupils.

Creativity in the Malaysian Context

The Malaysian education scene can be described as generally lackingin emphasis in encouraging students to be creative. In Malaysia, the schoolsystem has a six-three-two-two structure. Pupils undergo six years ofprimary schooling followed by three years of lower secondary education atthe end of which they sit for a national examination, the Peperiksaan SijilRendah Pelajaran or Lower Certificate of Education Examination. Themajority of pupils who pass this examination proceed to two years of uppersecondary schooling at the end of which they sit for the Peperiksaan SijilPelajaran Malaysia or Malaysia Certificate of Education Examination.Folowing these eleven years of schooling, the succesful student thenproceeds to two years of pre-university education to prepare for thePeperiksaan Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia (STPM) or the MalaysianHigher School Certificate Examination. Normally, the STPM is a pre-requisite for students to be considered for admission into the universitiesand other tertiary institutions.

Over the past two decades there has been an on-going process ofupgrading the school curriculum and it teaching. A recent effort directed atcurricular renewal is the development of the Kurikulum Baru SekolahRendah (KBSR) or New Primary School Curriculum which was launcedin 1982. The main purpose of the KBSR is to equip Malaysian childrenwith basic and foundational skills and knowledge of the 3Rs. However,despite efforts by educators and officers from the Ministry of Education tomodernise school teaching, the present schooling process has tended to beknowledge-centred and to produce students who are overly examination-oriented. This emphasis has taken a heavy toll on the creativity ofMalaysian students. Researchers such as Leong (1983) and Jasbir andMukherjee (1983) have reported that many important aspects of school life

40

and home learning climate were predominantly motivated by the need todo well in examinations.

There is, however, an increasing interest in providing students withsupplementary training which encourages creative thinking asbilities. Onetertiary institution, the Mara Institute of Technology (MIT), has offeredcourses which train students in lateral thingking, a strategy which has beensuggested by be Bono (1970). The Oxford English Dictionary defineslateral thinking as "a way of thinking which seeks the solution tointractable probelms through unorthodox methods". Since 1984, thisinstitution has offered the lateral thinking course in many of its branchesthroughout Malaysia. It is estimated that as many as 1500 of its 6000 studentsenrol for this course every year. Explaning why they introduced the coursethe Director-General of MIT, Mohammed Ridzuan (New Straits Times,1985) said:

While the traditional curriculum emphasises the accumulationof facts and knowledge, it is inadequate in stimulating thinking.We decided to introduce lateral thinking as a formal subject lastyear to help students think independently.

It can be argued that the development of Malaysia as a nation shouldtake cognisance of the need for creating a dynamic citizenry and aprogressive education system of which creativity is an importantcomponent. The above measure then, is but a small step in the rightdirection of ensuring that the pupil is encouraged and guided to express hisabilities in such a way that his creative tendencies are not hindered.Learning then becomes a satisfying, pleasant and extremely beneficialexperience. The creative potiential of Malaysian youth can therefore bedeveloped for the enhancement of the productivity of the nation.

REFERENCES

Ausubel, D. (1968) Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View, NewYork, Holt, Rinehart ans Winston.

Barren, F. (1963) Creativity and Psychological Health, Princeton, N.J.,Van Nostrand.

de Bono, E. (1970) Lateral Thinking, New York, Basic Books.

Foster, J.F. (1971) Creativity and the Teacher, London, MacMillan.

Gowan, J.C. (1972) The Development of the Creative Individual SanDiego, California, R. Knapp.

41

Jasbir, S.S. and H. Mukherjee (1983) "Higher education in developingcountries: question of relevance." In Khoo P.S., Leong Y.C. and KohB.B. (eds) Fikiran-Fikiran Mengenai Pendidikan Di Malaysia,Kuala Lumpur, Utusan Publications.

Jones, T.P. (1972) Creative Learning In Perspective, London, Butler &Tanner.

Lehman, H.C. (1953) Age and Achievement, Princeton, N.J., PrincetonUniv. Press.

Leong, Yin Ching (1983) "Schooling and development: a study ofsecondary school leavers in the district of Kuala Langat." In KhooP.S., Leong Y.C. and Koh B.B. (eds) Fikiran-Fikiran MengenaiPendidikan Di Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Utusan Publications.

MacKinnon, D.W. (1962) The Creative Person, University of CaliforniaPress.

Maslow, A.M. (1954) Motivation and Personality, New York, Harper &Row.

Maslow, A.H. (1959) "Creativity In Self-Actualising People." InAnderson, H.H. (ed) Creativity and its Cultivation, New York,Harper.

Nolan, Vincent (1982) "Who Needs Creativity?". Journal of ManagementDevelopment vl, n2, p66 - 71.

Ogilive, E. (1973) Gifted Children in Primary Schools, School CouncilPublication, London, Macmillan.

New Straits Times, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Thursday, April 18, 1985.

Osborn, A. (1957) Applied Imagination, rev. ed,, New York, CharlesScribner Sons.

Parnes, SJ. (1967) "Education and Creativity." In Gowan, J.G., DemosG.D. & Torrance, E.P. (Eds), Creativity: Its EducationalImplications,-New York, John Wilcy.

Rogers, C.R. (1959) "Towards a Theory of Creativity" In H.H. Anderson,ed., Creativity and its Cultivation, p69 - 82.

Rogers, C.R. (1969) "Towards a Theory of Creativity." In Parnes, S.V. &Harding, H.F. (Eds) A Source Book for Creative Thinking, NewYork, Charles Scribner & Sons, p64 - 72.

42

Torrance, E.P, (1965) Rewarding Creative Behaviour, EnglewoodCliffs, N.J., Prenctice-Hall.

Torrance, E.P. (1970) Encouraging Creativity In The Classromm,Iowa, Wm. C. Brown Co.

Torrance, E.P. (1970) Torrance Test of Creative Thinking, Lexington,Mass: Personal Press/Gomm and Company.

Treffmgger, Donald J. (1986) "Research on Creativity." Gifted ChildQuarterly, v30, nl, p!5 - 19.

Trefmer, Donald J., S.G. Isaksen, & R.L. Firestien (1983) "Theoreticalperspectives on creative learning and its facilatation: and overview."Jurnal of Creative Behavuiour, v!7, p9 - 17.

43

BIODATA

Md. Pishal Abdul Raof dilahirkan di TanjungBidara, Masjid Tanah, Mclaka pada 22hb September,1962. Mendapat didikan awal di Sekolah Rendah JenisKebangsaan Masjid Tanah dan Sekolah MonengahMasjid Tanah, scbclum incmasuki Sekolah MenengahSains Melaka pada tahun 1978.

' , Dalam bulaii Tanuari, 1980 bertolak ke Amerika/i J 'Syarikat bagi mendalami Bahasa Inggcris di SouthernIllinois University, dan kemudian melanjutkan pe-

ngajiannya kc peringkat Sarjana Muda di dalam bidang perniagaan di Western IllinoisUniversity hingga mendapat masters (MBA).

Sekembalinya dari Amerika Syarikat pada Tahun 1986 beliau bertugas di Politekmk KotaBaharu, Kclantan. Selang beberapa bulan selepas itu beliau ditawarkan bertugas di UKM,dan kini menjawat sebagai Pengcrusi Program Ekonomi & Pengurusan, Fakulti SainsPembangunan, UKM.

44

Usahawan dalarn Konteks TeoriCantillon dan McClelland

Oleh.Md Pishal Abd. Raof,

UKM, Eangi

PENGENALAN

Siapakah usahawan sebenarnya, apakah ciri-cin istimewa yangdimihkmya merupakan dua persoalan yang sermg menjadi topikperbmcangan apabila menyentuh tajuk usahawan dan keusahawananDanpada pembacaan yang dibuat, seolah-olah usahawan menyerupaiberbagai 'rupa' dan memegang berbagai watak dan peranan Ini dapatdirasakan dengan terdapatnya banyak teon yang telah dikemukakan olehahh-ahh ekonomi, sosiologi dan psikologi yang memperkatakan tentangsiapakah usahawan yang sebenarnya Pada dasarnya, memang pakar-pakarekonomi dan pemikir-pemikir hingga ke han mi masih belum bersepakatmengenai siapakah dia usahawan dan apakah tugas dan peranan yangdimamkannya1 Apakah yang rnenjadi persoalan, mehhat kepadaperkembangan yang sedang berlaku sekarang, di mana dasar kerajaanmenggalakkan pertumbuhan ekonomi dan pembangunan aktiviti-aktivitikeusahawanan, permasalahan mi lebih daripada hanya dilema akademikSelagi pakar-pakar ekonomi dan pembuat dasar tidak bersepakat terhadapidentiti dan fungsi usahawan, maka selama itulah hasrat dan dasar kerajaanuntuk mempertmgkatkan pengeluaran yang selama mi dikawal olehkeputusan-keputusan keusahawanan tidak mungkm tercapai sepenuhnyaDi atas kesedaran milah, maka artikel mi akan Cuba untuk mendedahkankembah dua teon yang ada menyebut tentang siapakah usahawan danbeberapa knteria yang harus dimihki oleh usahawan Dua teon yangdimaksudkan lalah Teori Cantillon dan Teori McClelland

Teori Cantillon2

Teori mi telah dikemukakan oleh seorang ahh ekonomi berbangsaPerancis yang bernama Richard Cantillon Dia merupakan mdividupertama yang telah memberikan golongan usahawan satu peranan penting

Pandangan mi dipegang oleh sebilangan besar ahh-ahh ekonomi termasuklah penuhs-penuhs "The Entreprenuer" laitu Robert F Hebert dan Albert N Link Mereka dikenahbukan kerana teori-teori mereka tetapi kntikan-kntikan mereka terhadap teon-teon yangtelah dikemukakan

45

dalam bidang permagaan. Cantillon serta beberapa individu lain sepertiLaw telah memperkenalkan beberapa sifat atau cm yang perlu ada pada dinseseorang usahawan, seperti berpandanganjauh, memihki kemahiran sertaberkebolehan, beram menanggung nsiko dan sentiasa mengambil sesuatulangkah dan tmdakan yang bermakna

Sumbangan terpentmg Cantillon, walaupun terdapat banyaksumbangannya yang lain, mlah menghasilkan teon ekonomi pertarnamengenai keusahawanan Di dalam bukunya, Cantillon membuat banyakrujukan yang menekankan usahawan sebagai tokoh utama yang beroperasidi dalam satu-satu set pasaran ekonomi Menurutnya, pasaran merupakan"a self-regulating network of reciprocal exchange arrangements"

Di pasaran milah harga-harga ditetapkan dan tidak ketmggalan dalammenentukan harga-harga pasaran itu lalah golongan yang dikenah sebagaiusahawan. Walaupun pandangan mengenai pasaran itu dikemukakan padaabad yang kelapanbelas lanya didapati agak moden dan diakui oleh J JSpengler (1960) Pandangannya mengenai pasaran itu juga dapat dihhatdengan lebih jelas di dalam penuhsan Hebert dan Link;

The parts that make up this system - custom, law, trade relations- evolve over time in response to "need and necessity", which mturn bind all the inhabitants together into reciprocalarrangements The driving force of this system is self-interestwhich is manifest most prominently Although not exclusively,by the actions of a class of entrepreneurs who are responsible, inCantillon's words for "all exchange and circulation of theState " (1982, 16)

Walau bagaimanapun apa yang menank perhatian, lalah personalitiusahawan menurut Cantillon mi tidak dapat disehtkan secara tersusun kedalam hiraki sosial yang wujud di zaman penuhsannya. Ini berlaku keranaCantillon sendm tidak menjadikan kedudukan sosial sebagai suatu yangperlu dan penting kepada bidang keusahawanan Sebahknya apa yangdikira perlu adalah fungsi, bukan personaliti usahawan itu Oleh keranaitu, tidak menjadi suatu kehairanan apabila dia bersedia menenma hattapemmta sedekah dan pencuri sekahpun sebagai usahawan Kerana padapendapatnya golongan im, seperti usahawan-usahawan lamnya, turutterpaksa menghadapi keadaan-keadaan ketidakpastian Pandangannya ituditegaskan lagi dengan menyatakan bahawa seseorang usahawan bolehmemegang beberapa tugas dan peranan pada satu-satu masa Umpamanya,apa yang sermg berlaku lalah usahawan-usahawan selalunya tenkat didalam beberapa persetujuan sahng-dagang dengan peserta-peserta pasaranyang lain Im menjadikan mereka pengguna pada suatu ketika danpelanggan pada ketika yang lam pula

46

Berkemahuati Kuat dan Berani

Di dalam teorinya mengenai usahawan, Cantillon bersependapatdengan McClelland bahawa salah satu ciri yang perlu ada pada diriseseorang usahawan ialah berkemahuan kuat dan berani menghadapisebarang cubaan — persamaan ini dapat dilihat dengan lebih ketara lagiapabila memperbincangkan teori McClelland kelak. Menurutnya lagi hasildaripada aktiviti berani usahawan itu, yang turut didorong dengankemahuan yang kuat, akan membawa kesan-kesan sosial. Ini dapatdiperhatikan daripada gelagat dan tingkahlaku seorang usahawan semasamenghadapi perubahan harga (iaitu peluang-peluang keuntungan) yangsecara berterusan akan mombawa kepada perseimbangan di antarapermintaan dan penawaran di dalam pasaran. Gambaran usahawan sebagaimekanisma pembawa perimbangan dalam sesebuah ekonomi pasaran ialahyang telah dijadikan sebagai asas rujukan kepada teori ekonomi mengenaipermintaan dan penawaran yang ada pada hari ini.

Penanggung Risiko

Cantillon seterusnya memperkenalkan usahawan sebagai penang-gung risiko. Beliau merupakan orang pertama yang menekankanpentingnya ciri tersebut kepada personaliti seorang usahawan. Pendapatbeliau itu masih diterima hingga ke hari ini. Melalui penekanan ciritersebut, beliau telah menghalakan teori keusahawana kesatu arah baru.Menurutnya keseluruhan penduduk boleh dibahagikan kepada duakategori. Golongan pertama merupakan golongan usahawan yangberpendapatan tidak tetap. Manakala golongan kedua pula mengandungiusahawan-usahawan yang berpendapatan tetap. Bagi kategori yangpertama, risiko merupakan unsur yang terpenting dan tidak bolehdiasingkan. Apatah lagi terutama apabila menyentuh bidang perniagaanyang sentiasa tidak dapat dipisah dari unsur persaingan. Oleh itu bagiCantillon, persaingan dan keusahawanan tidak boleh dipisahkan keranayang satu tercerna hasil daripada kewujudan yang satu lagi. Kategori yangkedua pula, tidak mempunyai ciri risiko seperti yang dimiliki oleh kategoriyang pertama tadi.

Berpandangan Jauh

Teori Cantillon mengenai peranan usahawan lebih menitikberatkanciri-ciri "supply-side." Pada pandangannya, usahawan-usahawan tidakmembuatkan permintaan bertambah. Mereka hanya berperananmenyediakan barangniaga di tempat yang dikira strategik bagi memenuhipermintaan pelanggan dan pengguna. Ini tentunya sedikit sebanyakmenyempitkan peranan usahawan sebenar dan tidak dapat diterima olehsegolongan besar teori selepasnya. Walau bagaimanapun apa yang inginditekankan di peringkat ini ialah, untuk membolehkan usahawan-

47

usahawan menentukan tempat-tempat dan lokasi-lokasi yang dikatakanstrategik tadi. Selain dari itu, mereka seharusnya memiliki ciri yangberikutnya iaitu berpandangan jauh. Sekali lagi di sini, Cantillon agakberbeza pendapat dengan pemikir-pemikir lain. Dia menegaskan bahawaberpandangan jauh tidak membuatkan usahawan sebagai pembawapembaharuan — walaupun kita akan kerapkali dapati yang usahawanlahmerupakan golongan pertama yang akan cuba untuk menyeimbangkanperbezaan yang berlaku di antara penawaran dan permintaan.

Penibabitan golongan usahawan dalam usaha menyeimbangkanpenawaran dan permintaan, secara tidak langsung, membayangkanberlakunya pakatan bersama pihak-pihak pengeluar atau pembekal.Pakatan sebegitu bukan sahaja mempunyai kesan ke atas perletakan harga,tetapi juga kuantiti pengeluaran. Melihatkan kepada peranan yangdimainkan oleh usahawan di dalam pakatan-pakatan seperti itu, merekalebih merupakan 'arbitrageur'. Di mana sebagai 'arbitrageur' diasemestinya akan mengambilkira kemungkinan-kemungkinan kerugianyang mungkin berlaku disebabkan perbezaan masa yang diambil untukmengadakan barangniaga di tempat-tempat strategik tadi. Kemungkinankerugian inilah yang merupakan risiko sebenar yang cuba untukditerangkan sebelum ini.

Teori McClelland3

Teori McClelland pula ialah satu teori psikologi yang telahdikemukakan pada tahun 1961 dan kemudian diadakan sedikit perubahanpada tahun 1969. Teori yang menekankan motif psikologi ini lebihmerupakan lanjutan daripada teori Schumpeter dan Weber.

Secara ringkas, Teori Schumpeter (1934) mengutarakan pandanganbahawa:

Fungsi tunggal usahawan ialah pembaharuan. Dalampengertian ini, seorang usahawan adalah seorang pemimpinperniagaan yang didorongkan oleh satu "atavistic will topower". la muncul secara rawak di dalam mana-manamasyarakat dengan sifat khususnya sebagai memilikikemampuan naluriah untuk melihat apa yang berlaku di se-kelilingnya dengan satu cara tersendiri yang kemudiannya pulaternyata benar, mempunyai keupayaan daripada segi fikirandan kemahuan untuk mengatasi cara berflkir yang kolot, danberkemampuan pula untuk menangkis tentangan sosial.

3' David McClelland, The Achieving Society, New York, 1961.

48

Manakala rangka Teori Weber (1965) pula menekankan bahawa:

Usahawan yang penuh tenaga dilahirkan oleh penerimaankepercayaan agama yang berasal dari luar. Penganut-penganutnya yang teguh imannya, yang berpegang kepadakonsep perintah tuhan dan takdir sebagaimana yangdisampaikan oleh penganjur agama itu menghasilkan ikhtiaryang intensif di dalam menjalankan pekerjaan, penyusunanyang sistematik ke atas cara-cara dan matlamat, danpengumpulan harta yang produktif.

Kedua-dua teori di atas, seolah-olah dilanjutkan lagi olehMcClelland yang kemudiannya menegaskan bahawa "keperluan kepadapencapaian" merupakan faktor terpenting yang menghasilkan usahawan."Keperluan kepada pencapaian" atau "need for achievement" itu pulasebaliknya bergantung kepada suasana kekeluargaan di mana individutersebut telah dibesarkan. Suasana kekeluargaan yang wujud itumencerminkan nilai dan penghargaan ibu-bapa yang kemudiannyamempunyai kesan yang besar terhadap pertumbuhan dan perkembanganpemikiran anak-anak.

Kebebasan dan Keahlian

Menurut McClelland, "keperluan kepada pencapaian" akan tercernasekiranya kanak-kanak dilatih supaya pandai menjaga diri dari semenjakkecil lagi dengan diberi sokongan dan tunjukajar yang secukupnya untukberkebolehan semasa berhadapan dengan orang ramai dan dalammenghadapi perkara-perkara yang berlaku disepanjang kehidupannya.Walau bagaimanapun latihan dan tunjukajar itu tidak boleh berlaku terlaluawal atau terlalu lewat. Sekira ia berlaku pada peringkat yang terlalu awal,ini memungkinkan berlakunya "parental authoritarianism". Di manasianak menjadi "pak turut" yang hanya akan melakukan sesuatu setelahdiperintah melakukannya. Ini sama sekali akan menyekat kebolehan anakuntuk membuat pilihan sendiri dan tidak membolehkan anak tadimembentuk satu sikap berdikari yang merupakan unsur penting dalam"keperluan kepada pencapaian". Keadaan yang tidak diingini ini seringdidapati wujud di dalam keluarga kelas rendah. Di mana bapakebiasaannya akan bersifat "authoritarian" dan berkehendakkan anak-anak menjaga diri mereka sendiri seberapa cepat yang mungkin demimeringankan beban kewangan yang ditanggung oleh keluarga.

Sebaliknya pula, kebanyakan kanak-kanak dalam keluarga kelaspertengahan dan atasan diberi perlindungan yang terlalu lama.Perlindungan yang terlalu lama daripada memikul tanggungjawab yangberat, seperti menjaga diri, boleh menyebabkan anak-anak tadi terlalubergantung kepada keputusan ibubapa. Ini sama sekali bertentangan

49

dengan hasrat untuk mewujudkan sifat "keperluan kepada pencapaian"yang diinginkan. Ringkasnya, mengikut kajian yang telah dijalankan,kanak-kanak akan membesar dengan sifat "keperluan kepada pencapaian"yang tinggi sekiranya diberi latihan yang betul dan sempurna pada umurantara enam hingga lapan tahun.

Sokongan Suasana Keluarga

Satu perkara penting dalam pembangunan sifat "keperluan kepadapencapaian" yang tinggi ialah sokongan dalam bentuk suasana yang betuldari keluarga. Di sini kanak-kanak perlu diberi rangsangan dan dorongandalam menghadapi apa jua cabaran. Ibubapa di peringkat ini dikehendakimenetapkan satu tahap pencapaian yang tinggi tetapi masih boleh dicapai.Kepada kanak-kanak tadi, mereka akan mengambil piawai tersebut danakan cuba sedaya upaya untuk mencapainya tanpa meluahkan rasa tidaksetuju mereka. Di pihak ibubapa pula, mereka akan membiarkan anak-anaknya untuk cuba mencapai piawai yang ditetapkan tanpa banyakcampur tangan. Kejayaan yang dicapai oleh anak-anak mereka akandisambut dengan cara yang sebaik-baiknya tanpa keterlaluan sehinggaboleh menyekat peluang dan ruang anak-anak mereka bergerak lebihmaju. Hasil daripada kajiannya, McClelland mendapatt bahawa keadaanyang serupa, seperti yang dijelaskan di atas,.banyak berlaku di kalangankelas pertengahan bawahan yang merupakan kelas terbanyak meng-hasilkan usahawan.

Jelasnya, untuk melihat lebih ramai golongan usahawan yangmemiliki sifat "keperluan kepada pencapaian", kedua-dua faktorkebebasan dan keahlian kanak-kanak serta sokongan persekitaran ke-keluargaan amatiah diperlukan.

Keperluan Kepada Pencapaian

'Keperluan kepada pencapaian" ialah faktor pendorong psikologiterpenting yang dapat menggerakkan seseorang usahawan itu. Ke-perluan ini boleh dimengertikan sebagai satu keinginan atau dorongandi dalam diri seseorang yang dapat menggerakkan tingkahlaku ke arahpencapaian. Di mana pencapaian pula, dalam konteks keusahawanan,merupakan pencapaian satu-satu matlamat atau cita-cita yang selama inimenjadi satu cabaran kepada kemampuan individu tersebut. Sehubungandengan itu jika sesuatu tugas atau tanggungjawab itu dilihat sebagai senang,mudah dan tidak membawa apa-apa cabaran, rnaka tidak terdapat didalamnya unsur-unsur penggerak dan pendorong.

Keinginan Kepada Tanggungjawab

Menurut McClelland, usahawan-usahawan sentiasa menginginkantugas peribadi untuk disempurnakan. Mereka lebih suka untuk

50

menggunakan sumber-sumber sendiri dengan cara pilihan mereka dalammengajar cita-cita dan sanggup memikul apa sahaja risiko hasil daripadatindakan yang diambil. Bekerja dalam bentuk kumpulan tidak menjadisatu masalah kepadanya, selagi mereka dapat memberi sumbangan secaraperibadi ke atas hasil yang dicapai.

Cenderung Kepada Risiko Berbentuk Sederhana

Kepada McClelland, usahawan-usahawan bukanlah pemain-pemainjudi. Mereka lebih suka mempunyai cita-cita yang memerlukan kepadasatu tahap pencapaian yang tinggi. Satu tahap yang, mereka rasakan akanmenuntut satu usaha yang gigih, tetapi pada masa yang sama, yakin akandapat memenuhinya. Di sini McClelland bersetuju dengan pandanganCantillon yang lebih awal tetapi McClelland rnenghadkan risiko-risikohanya kepada risiko yang berbentuk sederhana sahaja.

Kemungkinan Mencapai Kejayaan

Yakin dengan kebolehan sendiri, untuk mencapai apa yang dicita-citakan, adalah satu kualiti utama peribadi seseorang usahawan. Mengikutpandangan McClelland, usahawan-usahawan selalunya akan mengkajiterlebih dahulu fakta-fakta yang boleh mereka kumpulkan. Melalui fakta-fakta yang telah mereka kumpulkan mereka membuat pendirian.Sekiranya fakta-fakta yang dikumpulkan tadi mencukupi, mereka akanberpegang kepada keyakinan mereka yang asal dan akan meneruskan tugasyang sedia menanti.

Dorongan Melalui MaklumbalasSemua usahawan ingin mengetahui tahap pencapaian mereka sama

ada ianya menggalakkan atau sebaliknya. Mereka tidak mudah berputusasa malah belajar daripada pengalamannya. Dengan mengetahuipencapaiannya selama ini, mereka akan lebih terdorong untuk mencapaisatu tahap pencapaian yang lebih tinggi lagi.

Aktiviti Penuh BertenagaUsahawan-usahawan mempamerkan satu tahap daya dan tenaga yang

lebih tinggi daripada purata individu lain. Mereka selalunya aktif dancergas dan kerap menghabiskan masa mereka untuk memenuhi kehendaktugas. Bagaimanapun masa yang berlalu tetap diambil kira dan sentiasadalarn perhatian. Kesedaran inilah yang turut memberi dorongan untuksentiasa bertenaga dalam menjalankan setiap kerjaya mereka.

Berorientasikan Masa Depan

Seperti juga Cantillon, usahawan McClelland merancang danmemikirkan apakah perkara-perkara yang akan dan mungkin berlaku pada

51

masa hadapan. Dalam berbuat demikian, usahawan tidak lari daripadahasrat untuk mencari peluang dan potensi baru untuk mendapatkan sesuatuyang berharga dan bernilai.

Kemahirari Dalam Pengorganisasian

McClelland seterusnya berpendapat, bahawa usahawan-usahawanselalunya menunjukkan kemahiran yang tinggi dalam pengorganisasiankedua-dua kerja dan tenaga manusia untuk pencapaian apa yang dicita-citakan. Mereka juga meletakkan objektif yang tinggi dalam pemilihanindividu-individu untuk tugas-tugas khusus. Hanya personaliti yangbenar-benar berkemahiran, dan tidak sahabatnya, dipilih untuk menjamindan mempastikan kerja yang dibuatnya adalah lebih sempurna danberkesan.

Sikap Terhadap Wang

Akhir sekali, McClelland melalui kajian dan penelitiannyamerumuskan yang usahawan tidak meletakkan wang sebagai objektifpertamanya. Bagi golongan usahawan, keuntungan dalam bentuk wangadalah perkara kedua selepas pencapaian cita-cita pertamanya iaitu untukberjaya dalam apa juga yang dilakukannya. Golongan yang benar-benarusahawan menilai wang bukan untuk tujuan peribadi semata-mata.Mereka melihat wang tidak lebih daripada sebagai satu simbol konkrit kearah pencapaian objektif yang lebih mencabar — satu bukti kepadakebolehan serta kesanggupan mereka yang unggul.

Kesimpulan

Melihat kepada keadaan ekonomi dunia yang semakin mencabar,bidang keusahawanan sudah sewajarnya mendapat lebih perhatian.Langkah bagi menekankan bidang ini amat perlu agar setiap negara tidakterus terlalu bergantung kepada negara-negara lain. Sehubungan denganitu, adalah penting untuk sumber-sumber yang ada di negara ini dapatdigunakan; pertamanya; oleh usahawan-usahawan anak tempatan sebelumyang selebihnya dijual dan dieksport ke negara mar. Dengan cara begituhasil negara tidak terlalu bergantung kepada pasaran antarabangsa semata-mata di mana tanpa pasaran luar, sumber-sumber yang ada terpaksa dijualdengan harga yang rendah dan, lebih teruk lagi, terbiar tanpa pengguna.

Oleh kerana itu penekanan ke atas bidang keusahawanan merupakansatu langkah yang bijak pada ketika ini. Namun hasrat yang sedemikianharus diikuti dengan penerangan dan penjelasan lanjut mengenai apakahbidang keusahawanan dan siapakah yang seharusnya mengambil peluang-peluang yang disediakan itu. Kerana bukan semua golongan layak danboleh berjaya sebagai usahawan. Tanpa ciri-ciri tertentu yang perlu ada

52

sebelum seseorang layak digelar usahawan, kemungkinan-kemungkinankerugian amatlah besar. Semoga pendedahan kembali dua teori di atasdapat mendorong lebih banyak penulisan seperti ini dan seterusnya dapatmenolong dasar kerajaan di dalam mempertingkatkan pengeluaran danmenggalakkan usaha-usaha ke arah peningkatan bidang keusahawanan.

RUJUKAN

Cantillon, R. 1931. Essai sur la nature du commerce en general, editedand translated by H. Higgs. Macmillan London.

Hebert, R.F & Link, A.L. 1982. The Entrepreneur, Praeger Publishers,New York.

McClelland, D. 1961. The Achieving Society, Litton EducationalPublishing, Inc., New York.

Hj. Yaakob, M.F. 1981. Peniaga dan Perniagaan Melayu: Suatu KajianDi Kota Baharu Kelantan, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, KualaLumpur.

Schumpeter, J.A. 1934. The Theory of Economic Development,Oxford University Press, New York.

Spengler, JJ. W.R. Alien 1960. 'Richard Cantillon: First of theModerns'. In Essays in Economic Thought: Aristotle toMarshall, edited by JJ. Spengler and Rand McNally, Chicago.

Weber, M. 1965, The Protestant Ethnics and The Spirit ofCapitalism, Urwin University Books, London.

53

BIODATA

Sabitha binti Marican dilahirkan di Johor. Men-dapat Diploma dalam bidang Mikrobiologi dariInstitut Teknologi Mara tahun 1982, sebelumbertugas sebagai Penolong Pegawai Penyclidikselama 3 bulan, dan 7 bulan sebagai PegawaiPcrhubungan A warn di Mardi, Selangor. Ke-mudian melanjutkan pelajaran di Amerika Sya-

) " rikat dalam bidang Kesihatan Alam Sekitar danrncncrima Ijazah Serjana Muda dari Point ParkCollege tahun 1985. Selepas itu beliau diberi pe-

luang pula mcnjalankan praktikal selama 2 bulan di Department of Environment ResouncesPittsburgh, sebelum melanjutkan pelajaran ke peringkat Ijazah Lanjutan dan mcnerimaIjazah Pentadbiran Awam di Universiti Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania pada tahun 1987. Padamasa ini bertugas sebagai Pensyarah di Universiti Utara Malaysia dalam BahagianPentadbiran Awam.

Bidang pengkhususan ialah 'Dasar Awam', 'Stress Management', 'Conflict Management'dan 'Career Development'. Pernah juga menjaiankan penyelidikan tentang kesankependudukan setinggan di Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur.

54

PENELITIAN TERPERINCI KEATAS PRODUKTIVITI WANITA

DI TEMP AT KERJA

Oleh:Sabitha Marican

(Pensyarah Universiti Utara Malaysia)

PENGENALAN

Amnya pekerja yang dikatakan produktif ialah apabila tenaga yangdicurahkan oleh mereka menolong organisasi mencapai matlamatorganisasi dengan berkesan. Di sini penulis akan memberi tumpuan padapekerja wanita dan produktiviti di tempat kerja.

Sebagai perbandingan wanita moden kini sudah mula melayakkandiri sebagai sama dengan saingan mereka, di mana wanita boleh memilikiharta sendiri, persamaan dari segi poiitik, ada hak mengundi dan memasukibidang pendidikan dan kerja yang dahulu hanya layak disandang olehkaum lelaki sahaja. Walau bagaimanapun, apabila kebanyakan pengurusanmendengar ungkapan 'pekerja wanita*, ia masih membawa konotasiyang negatif, disebabkan peranan mereka selalunya dikaitkan denganperkahwinan atau sebagai ibu atau surirumah. Ini menunjukkan merekatiada ruang untuk menceburkan diri dalam pekerjaan di luar rumah. Tetapikini kita sudah berada di zaman serba moden di mana kita tidak boleh lagiberpegang pada pandangan yang sudah usang dan tidak produktif ini. Dariitu pengurusan harus melihat dengan serius lagi akan masalah wanita yangselalu dikatakan tidak produktif itu dan cara-cara mengatasinya.

Diskriminasi dan Eksploitasi Wanita

Mengikut Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu, sebanyak 70%daripada pekerja di zon perdagangan bebas selatan dan Asia Tenggara,Filipina, Afrika dan Amerika Latin terdiri daripada wanita. (DewanMasyarakat, Nov. 1987).

Merujuk kepada perangkaan yang didapati dari Kajian TenagaBuruh 1980 pula menunjukkan kedudukan wanita Malaysia memangtersekat dari segi pentadbiran dan pengurusan. Data menunjukkan bahawakerja-kerja pentadbiran dan pengurusan hanya dipegang oleh 6.5% wanitadan yang selebihnya 93.5% oleh kaum lelaki. Dan di tahap profesional danteknikal 61% adalah di tangan lelaki dan hanya 39% dipegang olehwanita. Ini amatlah menyedihkan memandangkan pekerja wanita di

55

negara ini yang dianggarkan sebanyak 1.7 juta orang. Dari rajah 1 juga kitadapat lihat bahawa peluang wanita dalam bidang pentadbiran danpengurusanlah yang paling tipis sekali iaitu hanya 0.4%. Sedangkan yangpaling banyak sekali ialah dalam kerja-kerja buruh, di mana 40% darijumlah buruh di negara ini terdiri dari kaum wanita. (Rancangan Nona,TV3, 28/11/88)

Dari segi pembayaran gaji pula, sembilan persepuluh buruh wanitamendapat gaji kurang daripada $375 sebulan. Kebanyakan majikanmengambil kaum wanita bekerja bukan sahaja kerana mereka, mendapattenaga kerja yang murah, tetapi rajin dan senang diarah.

Persepsi Masyarakat

Mengikut kata-kata Tan Sri Kadir Yusof sebagai Peguam Negara,pada bulan April 1975 dalam satu seminar, "Tidak ada undang-undangyang mendiskriminasikan wanita di negara ini. Undang-undang diMalaysia memberikan peluang yang sama antara lelaki dan wanita. Apasahaja diskriminasi yang berlaku di negara ini berpunca dari sikapseseorang".

Ekoran daripada kata-kata 'sikap' yang diucapkan oleh Tan Sri, kitaboleh katakan bahawa ia berhubung rapat dengan persepsi masyarakat.Oleh kerana pengurusan juga merupakan anggota masyarakat, maka kitatidak boleh lari dari membicarakan peranan masyarakat dan persepsimereka dalam menghalang kerjaya wanita. Kebanyakkannya berpuncadari stereotaip dan prejudis yang dibawa oleh mereka yang akhirnyamembuat wanita didiskriminasi dan dieksploit.

Salah satu aspek yang patut dilihat ialah pendidikan. Jika diteh'ti daripenngkat sekolah rendah, menengah dan seterusnya, penekanan subjek-subjek bagi penuntut wanita adalah mirip ke arah domestik. Biasanyakanak-kanak perempuan ini digalakkan mengambil Sains Rumahtangga,Sains Pertanian dan jarang sekali Seni Perusahaan atau Seni Perdagangan.Tetapi sekarang masa telah berubah, ramai penuntut wanita telahmenceburi pelajaran-pelajaran dan bidang-bidang yang dimonopoli olehlelaki seperti kejuruteraan, doktor, kejenteraan dan sebagainya.

Selari dengan pandangan di atas, walaupun dengan wujudnya per-gerakkan dan pertubuhan wanita yang menjaga imej wanita, masyarakatmasih mengharapkan pekerja wanita yang telah berkahwin untuk me-neruskan tugas-tugas tradisional mereka sebagai seorang isteri, ibu, men-jaga kebersihan rumah dan melayan tetamu dan sebagainya. Dengan ituwanita juga selalu menghadapi konflik apabila hal rumahtangga bergeserdengan kerjaya mereka. Contohnya, apabila anak-anak mereka sakit ataupening, giliran siapa pula untuk menjaga mereka. Dan jika anak-anak

56

mereka menghadapi masalah di sekolah, siapa pula yang akan ke sekolahuntuk berbincang dengan guru-guru mereka? Lebih-Iebih lagi dalammenjaga anak-anak. Anak-anak yang mempunyai ibu-ibu yang bekerjadikatakan penjagaan anak-anak mereka selalu terabai kerana terlalu sibukdengan tugas masing-masing, tetapi sekarang kita patut sedar bahawakanak-kanak yang mendapat jagaan rapi ibunya siang dan malam tidaksemestinya akan membina kanak-kanak yang lebih sihat.

Umpamanya kanak-kanak yang lebih terbuka dengan orang dansuasana yang berlainan akan mengembangkan otak yang lebih cergas. Jikadipandang ibu-ibu yang menyumbangkan sepenuh masa di rumah akanlebih senang untuk menjerit atau memarahi anak mereka daripada ibu-ibuyang bekerja. Bagaimanapun, ibu-ibu yang bekerja biasanya menyedariakan hakikat bahawa masa yang sedikit bersama anak-anak itu amatberharga. Oleh itu ianya akan digunakan dengan sepenuhnya.

Wanita kerjaya juga terpaksa menghadapi cabaran dan konflik apabilatimbul persoalan dalam mencari peluang untuk menimba kejayaan dalamkarier. Adakah itu hak suami atau isteri? Seterusnya jika kerjaya salahseorang lebih menonjol dari yang satu lagi, siapakah yang harus berkor-ban? Memandangkan berbagai-bagai konflik yang akan wujud, samadawanita kerjaya yang berkahwin atau belum, pihak pengurusan selalu cubamengambil langkah awal, dengan tidak mengambil pekerja wanita; kalauadapun untuk kerja-kerja 'pelengkap' yang tidak ada peluang untukmeninggikan kerjaya mereka. Tidak kurang juga yang menganggapbahawa wanita hanya bekerja untuk mendapat duit tambahan untukbelanja. Sekarang hakikatnya bukan begitu. Ramai wanita bekerja keranakeperluan ekonomi dan tidak kurang juga untuk mengembangkan statussebagai wanita profesional, dan meninggikan lagi harga diri (self-esteem)wanita. (Dewan Masyarakat, Nov. 1987).

Mengikut kata Ashley Montagu (Montagu, A, 1962:191) bahawa apayang dikehendaki oleh wanita Amerika ialah banyak simpati dan difahamioleh orang lain. Dan tidak kurang pentingnya juga ialah kematangan

.pemikiran kaum lelaki terhadap peranan wanita. Kita boleh katakanbahawa ini bukan sahaja benar untuk wanita Barat tetapi juga bagi wanitaTimur. Kerana Puan Azah Aziz pernah menyebut bahawa "Yang kitahendak lawan sebenarnya bukan diskriminasi tetapi semangat chauvinis.lelaki."

Disebabkan oleh berbagai-bagai anggapan yang negatif ini, wanitaterpaksa bekerja dengan lebih keras jika dibandingkan dengan pekerjalelaki untuk menunjukkan kesungguhan dan kebolehannya dalam tugas-tugas yang diberikan kepada mereka. Bukannya senang untuk kitamengubah persepsi masyarakat yang telah berakar umbi berdekad-dekadlamanya.

57

Mengapa Wanita Dianggap Tidak Produktif

Stereotaip yang negatif terhadap wanita telah menjadikan kaumwanita sendiri sebagai mangsa. Ini disebabkan ramai kaum wanita sendiriyang mempercayai stereotaip yang negatif ini, sehinggakan merekamenilai rendah terhadap kerja-kerja yang dilakukan oleh wanita. Inimenjadi sebahagian daripada punca halangan kepada pencapaian mereka.Mengikut kajian Goldberg (1972), beliau mendapati bahawa wanitaprofesional akan menilai dengan lebih tinggi bagi kerja yang samadilakukan oleh orang lelaki daripada wanita. Walaupun kerja itu secaratradisional dimonopoli oleh kaum wanita seperti jururawat.

Walaupun wanita mendapat pendidikan yang sama seperti lelaki,tetapi pekerja lelaki tetap diberikan jawatan dan gaji yang lebih menarikdan baik. Selain daripada itu, pengurusan juga selalu menumpukan usahadan masa yang lebih untuk 'menjaga pekerja-pekerja lelaki dari wanita'.Tindakan seperti ini tentulah menimbulkan ketidakpuasan dalarn kerja dansudah pasti mengganggu produktiviti kerja mereka dan dengan secaratidak langsung, produktiviti pekerja wanita tentu akan menurun.

Disebabkan oleh prejudis dan stereotiap inilah ramai wanita cubamengelakkan diri mereka dari apa-apa kejayaan ataupun bercita-citatinggi, kerana kesemuanya ini akan mencerminkan bahawa ia tidak selarasdengan sifat seorang wanita tradisional. Kalau adapun mereka terpaksamengharungi berbagai-bagai cabaran dan dugaan.

Mengapa campurtangan pengurusan perlu untuk meningkatkanproduktiviti wanita

Adalah amat penting bagi pengurusan campurtangan jika hendakmeninggikan produktiviti wanita di tempat kerja. Ini disebabkankebanyakan daripada polisi-polisi yang wujud dalam organisasi tidakmenolong kebanyakan pekerja wanita. Kenyataan ini tidak bolehdikatakan keterlaluan. Untuk memper-kuatkan kenyataan ini penulis akanmengutarakan beberapa kajian dan pendapat pakar pengurusan tentangproduktiviti di tempat kerja. Pertama sekali ialah tentang motivasi. Kitatahu motivasi adalah salah satu daripada faktor yang penting untukmeninggikan produktiviti pekeija. Mengikut teori Herzberg (Herzberg, F.1968:57) tentang motivasi, pekerja secara am, boleh dikategorikan kepadadua. Pertamanya ialah faktor yang membuat pekerja-pekerjanya berasatidak puashati. lanya berkaitan dengan:

1. Polisi-polisi yang wujud dalam organisasi dan pentadbirannya.2. Penyeliaan3. Hubungan dengan penyelia/ketua4. Suasana kerja

58

5- Gaji6. Hubungan dengan teman sekerja7. Peribadi8. Hubungan dengan subordinat9. Status

10. Keselamatan

Sebaliknya faktor-faktor yang memberikan kepuasan kepada pekerjaialah:

1. Pencapaian2. Dikenali ramai3. Kerja yang disandang sekarang4. Tanggungjawab5. Dapat meninggikan lagi kerjayanya6. Pengembangan diri

Dan semua faktor-faktor yang diberikan oleh Herzberg memangketara bahawa sebahagian besar daripada faktor-faktor yang bolehmemberikan kepuasan tidak wujud di kalangan pekerja wanita yangakhirnya mengurangkan motivasi untuk bekerja dan secara langsungmenjadikan mereka tidak produktif di tempat kerja. Dari itu pengurusanharus melihat kembali faktor-faktor ini dengan lebih serius lagi.

Layanan yang adil di tempat kerja adalah satu lagi isu yang selaluditimbulkan oleh pekerja wanita. Layanan yang adil (equity causes satis-faction) akan membuat pekerja berasa puas hati dan produktif, jika tidakmereka akan berasa tidak senang hati tidak produktif, dan kecewa. Tahapkeadilan yang dikecapi atau dirasai itu akan menentukan tahap kepuasandalam kerjanya. Ini adalah berdasarkan kepada dua teori.

Pertama ialah teori 'discrepancy'. (Lawler, 1973:49-60). Teori inimenyatakan keadilan yang dapat dirasai itu ditentukan oleh pengimbangandi antara ganjaran yang mereka rasa patut di terima dan ganjaran yangmereka terima sebenarnya. Jika ganjaran yang diterima sebenarnya samaseperti apa yang diharapkannya maka pekerja itu akan berasa puas hati. Jikatiada pengimbangan antara apa yang diharapkan dan dikecapinya akanmembawa perasaan tidak puas hati. Contohnya, wanita yang menerimagaji yang tidak setimpal dengan kuantiti kerja yang dilakukan.

Satu lagi teori ialah teori keadilan (equity teory). Mengikut teori inipula pekerja akan membanding jenis ganjaran yang diterimanya denganorang lain. Jika pekerja itu mendapati orang yang dirujuknya mendapatganjaran yang -lebih bagi usaha yang sama, ini akan menimbulkanketidakpuasan dalam kerjanya itu. Contohnya, wanita yang menaburkan

59

usaha yang sama seperti saingan mereka menghadapi lebih banyak cabarandan dugaan dan mempunyai peluang yang kurang daripada pekerja lelakidalam mendapat kenaikan pangkat.

Pekerja yang mendapat kepuasan dalam kerja akan menjadi lebihproduktif. Ini disebabkan pekerja yang mendapat kepuasan itu akanmenunjukkan sikap yang lebih positif terhadap kerja, teman sekerja danorang atasan mereka. lanya juga akan mendorong pekerja itu untukbekerja lebih keras dan gigih sebagai membalas budi organisasi itu dansecara langsung meninggikan produktiviti. Di samping itu, mereka jugaakan menaruh perasaan setia terhadap organisasi kerja, di manamenyenangkan pengurusan berurus dengan mereka. Pendapat ini seakan-akan sama dengan teori yang berpendapat bahawa penglibatan dalam kerjaakan membuat seseorang itu terikat (committed) kepada kerjaya, danapabila ia berasa terikat maka dia akan bermotivasi untuk bekerja dengancara yang dapat membantu organisasi itu dalam mencapai matlamatnya(Reif, W.E. 1973:26). Teori ini amatlah penting untuk difahami olehpengurusan kerana ramai wanita dianggapkan tidak 'committed' dengankerjayanya.

Satu lagi teori yang boleh menunjukkan bahawa rasa puas hati danmotivasi dalam kerja adalah faktor-faktor yang penting dalammewujudkan pekerja yang produktif, dan bukannya disebabkan ia lelakiatau wanita, ialah teori Herzberg. Pendapat Herzberg adalah seperti dalamrajah berikut (Herzberg, 1959)

^____________________o___________________+_- ketidakpuasan - tiada ketidakpuasan - kepuasan dalam kerja

dalam kerja dalam kerja

- orientasi yang - perasaan neutral — perasaan positifnegatif terhadap terhadap kerja terhadap kerjakerja

Seterusnya pekerja yang berasa puas hati itu juga akan mengurang-kan kadar ganti pusing dan ponteng kerja. (Porter, 1973:151 - 176). Me-mandangkan kedua-dua faktor negatif ini merangkumi sebahagianbesar daripada kos tenaga kerja, dan selalunya wanita yang dianggapberbuat demikian, maka dengan secara tidak langsung, ini akanmengurangkan perbelanjaan organisasi itu.

Selain daripada itu, pekerja yang puashati dengan kerja mereka akanlebih stabii dari segi mental dan fisikal mereka. Dari itu pekerja akanmenghadapi tekanan hidup yang kurang di tempat kerja yangmembolehkan pengurusan menyalurkan tenaga kerja pekerja itu kepadahal-hal yang lebih produktif, di samping mengurangkan kos yang terpaksa

60

dibiayai oleh mereka jika pekerja diserang apa-apa penyakit hasil dari-pada tekanan hidup di tempat kerja.

Pernyataan ini dapat dikuatkan lagi dengan pendapat pakar fisiologiHans Selye. Mengikut beliau tanpa tekanan seseorang itu boleh dikatakanseperti mati. Tetapi terlalu banyak tekanan juga akan membawa akibatyang buruk terhadap pekerja. Ini boleh ditunjukkan seperti dalam rajah-rajah berikut:

Rajah IProduktif

Rajah II

Rendah Optimum Tinggi

Tekanan di tempat kerja

Contoh: Ketidakpuasan dalam kerja

KefungsianInstrumental

cuba melawanperasaan kehabisan tenaga perasaan

kejutan tekanan

H. Selye (1956). The Stress of Life. New York: McGra-Hill, p.87.

61

Dari gambarajah di atas dapatlah kita rumuskan bahawa pengurusanharuslah berhati-hati agar tekanan-tekanan yang dihadapi oleh pekerjawanita tidak melebihi had optimumnya. Ini bukan sahaja akanmenyenangkan wanita menyesuaikan diri di tempat kerja, tetapi jugapenglibatan mereka dalam hal-hal yang diluar kerja ataupun rumah-tangganya. Contohnya, jika pengurusan dapat mengurangkan tekanan-tekanan disebabkan oleh halangan-halangan di tempat kerja, maka inisekurang-kurangnya dapat mengimbangkan tekanan yang dihadapi olehpekerja-pekerja yang mempunyai dua peranan, di mana kebanyakan dariwanita terpaksa mengurus dan menjalankan kedua-dua beban kerja dirumah dan di tempat kerja.

Selalu benar kita dengar bahawa pusing ganti pekerja wanita adalahtinggi, dari itu pengurusan mendapati pekerja wanita hanya akanmerugikan organisasi. Jika diteliti tentang kesahihannya, kebanyakanwanita menjawat jawatan-jawatan seperti kerani, jurutaip dan kerja-kerjalain yang senang ditukar, diganti ataupun diberhentikan. Dari itu jeniskerja-kerja yang diberikan kepada pekerja yang membuat mereka senangditukar ganti dan bukanlah disebabkan mereka seorang wanita. Denganitu pengurusan hendaklah menyemak kembali polisi-polisi dan proseduryang ada dari masa ke semasa agar dapat mengurangkan halangan-halangan yang ada supaya tidak kehilangan tenaga kerja wanita yangberpotensi.

Cara-cara mengatasi halangan

Di antara beberapa cara meningkat produktiviti wanita di tempatkerja ialah dengan mengurangkan halangan-halangan yang mereka hadapi.Pengurusan boleh mengadakan program-program untuk menukarpandangan mereka terhadap wanita. Salah satu langkah yang bolehdiambil ialah dengan memberika-ii maklumat- maklumat yang 'sebenar'tentang peranan wanita kepada pekerja. Sesi perbincangan yangmengandungi lelaki dan perempuan harus digalakkan, agar dapatmenjelajah dan menjelaskan segala salah faham yang timbul. Kadang-kadang lakonan peranan (role playing) juga boleh dilakukan agar dapatmenukar pandangan mereka (lelaki) yang salah terhadap wanita. Misalnya,seorang lelaki (x) akan mengambil alih peranan wanita (y) dan (y) pulacuba melakukan tugas-tugas yang dijalankan oleh (x). Program-programbegini dapat menolong menukar pandangan setengah-setengah lelaki yangprejudis atau stereotaip terhadap wanita, dengan harapan dapat membinasatu suasana yang lebih menggalakkan dan produktif bagi kaum wanitayang bekerja.

Beberapa kajian (Bern, 1979, 1980, Spence & Helmreich, 1978, 1979),menunjukkan bahawa individu yang mempunyai ciri-ciri androgini(androgyny), iaitu ciri-ciri kelelakian dan kewanitaan selalunya adalah

62

lebih gembira dan dapat menyesuaikan diri dengan lebih baik daripadaterlalu terikat dengan stereotaip dan peranan-peranan tradisional sebagaiseorang wanita atau lelaki. Yang dimaksudkan di sini ialah apabila seorangwanita dapat menunjukkan ciri-ciri lelaki seperti sedia bersaing danmenghadapi cabaran, berani menentang dan sebagainya, dan seorang lelakipula yang boleh menunjukkan kelembutan atau lain-lain ciri-cirikewanitaan, akan lebih senang menyesuaikan diririya daripada indlviduyang tidak fleksibal langsung. Irii menunjukkan bahawa tidak salah jikawanita berani melangkah ke hadapan untuk mencuba ciri-ciri (trait) yangselama ini dikatakan hanya mampu dilakukan oleh orang lelaki sahaja.

Dalam pada itu wanita itu sendiri mesti cuba menukar nasibnya.Memang benar masyarakat kita seolah-olah telah mengabadikan perananwanita tradisional sebagai seorang surirumah tangga. Selagi seorang wanitamempercayai dan menganggap dirinya sedemikian, mereka selalunyatidak dapat merasakan mereka punya status yang sama walaupun di rumah.Peranan sebagai surirumah itu sendiri selalunya mengekalkan status wanitasebagai orang bawahan dan menghadkan kebebasan mereka.

Satu lagi kelemahan yang patut diatasi oleh kaum wanita ialah takutuntuk mencuba. Selalunya orang-orang yang selalu mengecapi kejayaanialah mereka ingin mengambil risiko dan ingin mencuba. Kadang-kadangindividu itu sanggup mengabaikan masa, tenaga, pangkat dan apa sahajaasalkan mereka dapat menaiki ke mercu kejayaan mereka. Tetapi selalunyakaum wanita takut untuk mencuba, bukan kerana mereka tidak tahu,tetapi mereka hendak mempastikan bahawa mereka mempunyai jawapanbagi kesemua masalah dan mempastikan bahawa mereka boleh berjaya.Tetapi ini tentulah mustahil kalau kita secara perseorangan mempunyaijawapan bagi kesemua masalah. Tidak ada seorangpun yang mempunyaijawapan bagi semua masalah dan tidak ada suatupun yang boleh menjaminkejayaan untuk selama-lamanya. Hanya yang wujud ialah masalah yangmasih ketandusan jawapan dan peluang-peluang yang menanti untukdicuba. Dengan lain perkataan, wanita patut sedar bahawa semua orangmembuat kesilapan; dari itu tidak salah kalau kaum wanita membuat silap;tetapi apa yang diharapkan dari semua (lelaki dan wanita) agar janganmengulangi kesilapan yang sama. Tanpa ingin cuba mengambil risiko,bukan sahaja wanita, tetapi tiada siapapun yang akan dapat membinakeyakinan untuk menjalankan apa jua tugas.

Bagi mengatasi masalah ini, pengurusan boleh menggunakanpeneguhan positif (positif reinforcement) untuk meninggikan pandanganwanita terhadap diri mereka (self-esteem). Ini disebabkan kebanyakan wa-nita yang dalam keadaan konflik selalunya cuba memendamkan perasaanmereka dan membuat tindakan hanya untuk mengambil hati orang lain.Sebaliknya kaum lelaki pula mempunyai cara yang lain, atau mungkinlebih suka berkonfrantasi dengan keadaan itu dari cuba mengelakkannya.

63

Jika dilihat dari sudut yang lain pula, halangan-halangan ini jugadisebabkan kebanyakan daripada program-program latihan secaratradisional adalah berorientasikan untuk kaum lelaki. Dari itu perancangprogram organisasi itu mestilah berusaha agar program-program yangwujud sekarang itu dapat dikaji dan dirombak mengikut kesesuaian masadan kehendak orang ramai yang menjalani latihan, iaitu untuk kaumwanita dan lelaki.

Program khas untuk wanita perlu diadakan. Ini penting, keranawanita mempunyai masalah seperti harga diri (self-esteem) dan peranansebagai wanita kerjaya yang patut diatasi, di mana ianya akan "tergendaladengan adanya orang lelaki dalam program itu. Ada kajian menunjukkanbahawa jika seorang wanita itu menganggap dirinya dipilih keranajantinanya, maka tanggungjawabnya terhadap organisasi itu akan ber-kurangan dan wanita itu akan menghadapi masalah dalam mendapat ke-puasan dari kerja, penyelia ataupun kawan sekerjanya, wanita itu jugaakan mengalami lebih banyak konflik dalam kerjanya jika dibandingkandengan wanita yang tidak mempunyai anggapan sedemikian. Aimes danHeide, mengesyorkan bahawa pendedahan dan latihan patut diberikankepada wanita berkenaan kemahiran dan perihal sikap. Dalam fasa pertamamereka dikenalkan pada topik-topik yang berkaitan dengan pengurusanatau lain-lain topik yang berkaitan dengan kerja mereka, termasuklahpolitik organisasi (organizational politics) dan pandangan terhadap dirimereka. Fasa kedua, pendedahan adalah berkaitan dengan dua dimensiyang agak runiit iaitu sikap yang diterima umum dan persediaan dari segipsikologi dan sosial untuk menghadapi halangan-halangan tersebut dandapat meningkatkan lagi produktiviti mereka.

Tetapi ini tidak bermakna latihan bersama tidak patut diadakanlatihan. Malah secara bersama (lelaki dan wanita) ini akan dapatmenimbulkan keghairahan masing-masmg untuk bekerjasama danmenimbulkan perasaan percaya mempercayai dan menjadi kawanseperjuangan dan bukan ingin tindas menindas. Dari itu latihan bersama inipatut dianjurkan selepas program khas bagi wanita.

Mengikut Halcomb, memang telah diterima secara am bahawawanita perlukan pertolongan dari mentor, sama ada ia bergantung padalelaki atau tidak. Kajian juga telah menunjukkan bahawa dengan adanyamentor bagi wanita, dan dengan mendedahkan mereka pada modelperanan pegawai-pegawai atau individu lain yang berjaya dalam pekerjaanyang berkaitan dengannya, akan dapat menolong dan mendorong wanitaitu untuk memperbaiki kerjayanya. Dari itu pengurusan juga patutmengambil usaha untuk mengadakan atau menggalakkan proses mentorini.

64

Satu lagi cara yang boleh diusahakan oleh pengurusan ialah denganmelihat kembali teori Herzberg tentang motivasi pekerja dan produktiviti.Herzberg telah menyenarai sebab-sebab mengapa pekerja-pekerja berasatidak puas hati. Kalau hendak diikutkan, senarai ini boleh dipanjangkanlagi tanpa berakhir. Memang tabii manusia begitu di mana senang hendakmencari perkara-perkara yang negatif. Dari itu pengurusan boleh melihatdari sudut yang lebih positif tentang faktor-faktor Herzberg yang bolehmembawa kepuasan dalam kerja, di samping menggunakan faktor-faktoryang tidak membawa kepuasan sebagai satu peringatan. Jika ditelitikembali faktor-faktor kepuasan Herzberg, ianya saling berkait antara satusama lain. Contohnya anggapan yang mengatakan bahawa wanita selaludiberikan kerja-kerja sebagai pelengkap dalam organisasi. Dari KajianTenaga Buruh 1980, menunjukkan hanya 0.4% wanita sahaja terdapatdalam bidang pentadbiran dan pengurusan. Yang lainnya dalam bidangperkeranian dan tugas berkaitan (11.0%), jualan dan tugas berkaitan (8.7%),perkhidmatan (11.7%). Dari itu tahap pencapaian wanita memanglah agakrendah. Kebanyakan kerja yang disandang oleh mereka terdapat di bawahhirarki ataupun sebagai pekerja pelengkap. Keadaan ini menjadi masalahbagi pekerja wanita untuk mengembangkan kerjaya atau kebolehan yangada pada diri mereka. Tanggungjawab mereka dalam banyak hal adalahmelaksanakan tugas yang telah dikerahkan kepada mereka dan bukan ataskeputusan mereka sendiri. Sebagai tambahan, mengikut Wall StreetJournal, kaum wanita hanya memegang 6% daripada semua pekerja kelaspertengahan dan 1% sahaja yang memegang jawatan sebagai pengarah/ketua jabatan (Wall Street Journal, 1977). Dari itu pengurusan mestilahberjaga-jaga agar langkah-langkah yang diambil tidaklah meng-halangperkembangan kerjaya wanita dalam organisasi itu. Ini penting kerana,ianya juga merupakan salah satu faktor yang asas dalam meningkatkanproduktiviti pekerja.

Seterusnya, pengurusan juga harus berhati-hati dalam pemberian gajiyang setimpal. Gaji juga merupakan salah satu faktor yang utama membuatwanita tidak puas hati tentang kerja mereka. Pembahagian gaji yang tidaksetimpal memang wujud di mana-mana. Mengikut satu kajian yang di-lakukan di Arnerika, menunjukkan bahawa hanya 1% wanita sahaja men-dapat lebih dari US$10,000/tahun jika dibandingkan dengan 13% lelakiyang berada dalam lingkungan ini. Yang lebih ketara ialah graduan wanitamendapat gaji yang lebih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan graduan lelaki(Dept. of Labor, U.S, 1972:17). Tujuan penulis mengambil kajian di luarnegeri ialah sebagai satu perbandingan, untuk menunjukkan halangan-halangan dan cabaran-cabaran yang terpaksa diharungi oleh kaum wanitadi Amerika walaupun dengan adanya pergerakan yang menjaga hak asasiwanita dan persamaan di tempat kerja. Di Malaysia tidak ada undang-undang yang mendiskriminasikan wanita di tempat kerja dan pada masayang sama undang-undang tidak pula akan mengambil tindakan walaupunorganisasi berbuat demikian (Worker's Guide 19). Dari itujika pengurusan

65

membuat apa-apa keputusan yang mendiskriminasi wanita atas sebabjantina, maka la adalah terpulang pada budi bicara orgamsasi untukmenentukan nasib wanita itu seterusnya Oleh itu bukan sahaja pihakpengurusan dan orang-orang atasan sahaja mengonentasikan pemikiranmereka ke arah yang lebih positif terhadap wanita, tetapi juga seluruhanggota orgamsasi itu, tidak kira wanita atau lelaki Salah satu caranya mlahdengan membuka peluang bagi pekerja wanita yang berkelayakkan untukmenyandang jawatan yang setimpal dengan usaha mereka. Dan itu,pengurusan untuk produktiviti bukan sahaja menjalar dan atas ke bawahtetapi dua hala Dengan adanya pergabungan usaha semasa anggotaorgamsasi itulah yang akan menentukan kejayaan dan produktivitisesebuah orgamsasi itu pada akhirnya

Dalam pada itu kaum wanita juga secara perseorangan mesti cubamemngkatkan produktiviti mereka Di antara caranya lalah wanitaharuslah mengenah dan mempelajan untuk mengatasi 3 jems halanganyang mereka hadapi itu. Halangan-halangan mi boleh dikategorikansebagai halangan-halangan psikologi, sosial, orgamsasi Secara nngkashalangan psikologi mi mlah kurang mempercayai din sendin, ataupandangan yang negatif terhadap din sendiri disebabkan oleh batasan-batasan yang dikenakan ke atas dinnya sebagai seorang wanita tradisionalWalhal halangan sosial pula mlah dan segi pandangan dan penekanan olehmasyarakat tentang servis dan peranan wanita itu sendiri Dengan kata lainseseorang wanita yang tampak telah melanggar batasan tatasusila yangtelah ditetapkan, akan mengalami lekanan sosial Sementara halangan danorgamsasi mlah dan segi pentadbiran personalia, suasana orgamsasi danperhubungan antara kawan dan teman sekerja Secara am, imlah bcntuk-bentuk halangan yang patut dimgati apabila hendak cuba mengatasicabaran di tempat kerja Dan itu wanita yang hendak maju dan mara kehadapan megtilah menghadapi cabaran mi, dan memlai secara reahstik akankos dan faedahnya Wanita itu juga patut menyedari bahawa mlai-mlai dansistem kepercayaan kita adalah bergantung pada sikap dan tmdakan kitaWanita yang dapat mengubahsuai sikapnya dan menyesuaikan din denganstrategi pengurusan yang tertentu adalah berdasarkan kepada mlai-nilaidirinya. Keselesaan yang dialammya itu akan mencermmkan samadastrategi itu selaras atau tidak dengan kepercayaan yang dipegang olehnya

Seterusnya mengikut Stoll (Stoll, 1973), bahawa wanita sukan masakim adalah lebih gagah dan apa yang dihhat 30 tahun dahulu Immenunjukkan bahawa 'kelemahan' seorang wanita adalah mengikutpandangan tradisional masyarakat sahaja dan bukan disebabkan olehjantma mereka Dengan itu kaum wanita juga mampu menjalankan apa-apa tugas yang dibenkan pada mereka, walaupun yang memerlukankekuatan fizikal

66

Kesimpulan

Dalam mengatasl halangan di tempat kerja bagi meninggikanproduktiviti wanita di bidang pengurusan haruslah punya penglibatankediia-dua pihak pengurusan dan kaum wanita. Sementara pihakpengurusan pula harus mengambil pandangan yang positif terhadappekerja wanita. Wanita itu hendaklah dipandang sebagai individutersendiri dan bukan dari persepsi mereka yang diubahsuai oleh stereotaipdan prejudis yang ada dalam masyarakat kita. Produktiviti dalam sesebuahorganisasi tidak akan wujud dengan sendirinya, lebih-lebih lagi pro-duktiviti yang diharapkan dari kaum wanita yang menghadapi berbagai-bagai cabaran dan halangan di tempat kerja yang akan terus berlarutanselagi tindakan dan perubahan tidak dilaksanakan dalam menguruskanpekerja wanita.

RUJUKAN

1. Bern, S.L. (1979) Theory and measurement of androgyny: A reply tothe Pedhazur — Teten bum and Locksley — Colten Critiques. Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 37, 1047 - 1054.

2. Bern, S.L. (1980) Beyond androgyny: Some presumptuouspreseribtions for a liberated sexhal identify. In J. Sherman and F.Denmark (Eds.). The future of woman: Issues in psychology. NewYork: Psychgologkal Dimensiions.

3. Goldberg, P. (1972). Are women prejudiced against women. In C.Safilios-Poths Child (Ed.), Inward a Sociology of Women. New York:Wiley

4. Herzberg, F. Mauner, B., and Sdkyderman, B. (1959). The motivationto work (2nd. ed.) New York: Wiley

5. Herzberg, F. (1968). 'One More Time: How do you motivateEmployees?' Howard Business Review, January - February: 57

6. L.W. Porter and R.M. Steers, (1973) Organization, Work andPersonal Factors in Employees, Turnover and Absenteeism.Psychological Buletin, 80, 151 - 176

7. Lawler E.E (1973). Motivation in Work Organizations. California:Brooks/Cole Company.

8. (1986) Worker's guide in labour laws in Malaysia. Marican and Sons(M'sia) Sdn. Bhd.

67

9. Montagu, Ashley (1962). the humanization of Man. New York: GrovePress, 191.

10. SpenceJ.T., Helmreich, R.L. (1978). Masculinity and faminity. Autin:University of Texas Press.

11. Spence, J.T., and Helmreich, R.L. (1979) The Many Faces ofAdnrogyny: A reply to Locksley and Colten. Journal of Personalityand Social Psychology, 37, 1032 - 1046

12. United States, Dept. of Labor, Women's Bureau: Underutilization ofwomen markers. Washington D.C. (1972) Women's Bureau,Workplace standards Administration, hal: 17.

13. Wall Street Journal (1977). April, hal: 26

14. William E. Reif and Gerald Bassford, (1973) "What MBO Really is",Business Horizons, 16,: 26

Jenis Pekerjaan Peratus

Profesional dan teknikal 7.9Pentadbiran dan Pengurusan 0.4Perkeranian dan tugas berkaitan 11.0Jualan dan tugas berkaitan 8.7Perkhidmatan 11.7Pertanian 39.0Pengeluaran, pengangkutan dan lain-lain 21.4

68