PENGENALAN PSIKOLOGI

MINGGU 1

DEFINISI PSIKOLOGI

• Psikologi adalah kajian saintifik mengenai tingkah laku dan proses kognitif– Tingkah laku – overt/covert– Proses kognitif – proses pemikiran/minda

termasuklah aktiviti menerima, memproses dan mengeluarkan maklumat.

• Ahli psikologi berminat untuk mendapatkan maklumat secara saintifik mengenai apa saja yang manusia dan organisma hidupan lain fikir, rasa dan lakukan

FALSAFAH DAN SAINS DALAM PSIKOLOGI

TOKOH-TOKOH PENTING• WILHEM WUNDT (1832-1920)• Orang pertama menemui makmal

psikologi yang pertama (1879)• Psikologi harus fokus terhadap

pengalaman atas sedar (conscious experience).

• Menganalisis deria, perasaan dan imaginasi dari akar umbi untuk mengetahui ciri sebenar minda manusia melalui kaedah INTROSPECTION – tanya individu supaya menjelaskan apa yang ada dalam pemikiran melalui tugasan yang diberi.

• WILLIAM JAMES (1842-1950)• Penulis awal buku psychology –

Principles of Psychology• Tidak setuju dengan Wilhem

Wundt kerana:– minda tidak statik dan selalu

berubah, – tujuan utama psikologi adalah

untuk memahami bagaimana minda berfungsi dalam kehidupan seharian, bagaimana minda menyesuaikan dengan persekitaran yang kompleks.

• JOHN B. WATSON (1878-1958)

• Mengubah psychology daripada kajian terhadap minda kepada kajian terhadap tingkah laku overt.

• Memperkenalkan pendekatan Behaviorisme

TIMELINE OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY

PENDEKATAN TEORI PSIKOLOGI

BEHAVIORISME

• Fokus terhadap tingkah laku overt.• Hanya aspek tingkah laku yang boleh dilihat

sahaja yang boleh diukur secara saintifik.• Ahli behaviorisme terkemuka:– Ivan Pavlov– B. F. Skinner– Edward Thorndike– John B. Watson– Clark Hull

COGNITIVISM

• Mengkaji tingkah laku manusia melalui bagaimana cara dia berfikir, menghasilkan maklumat, membentuk konsep, menyimpan, memprose dan mengeluarkan maklumat.

• Ahli cognitivism terkemuka:– William James– Jean Piaget

PSYCHODYNAMIC / PSYCHOANALYTIC

• Mengkaji tingkah laku manusia melalui analisis tenaga dalaman yang mencetuskan konflik tingkah laku.

• Kebanyakan aspek tingkah laku berasal daripada tenaga dalaman yang terselindung di senalik personaliti manusia.

• Ahli psychoanalysis terkemuka ialah Sigmund Freud.

HUMANISTIC

• Mengkaji tingkah laku manusia melalui kecenderungan motivasi ke arah mencapai kesempurnaan kendiri.

• Kecenderungan manusia untuk menjadi insan yang terbaik

• Ahli humanistic terkenal ialah Abraham Maslow

PERSONEL DALAM PSIKOLOGI

• PSYCHIATRIST– Seorang ahli fizik, selepas menamatkan pengajian dalam

bidang perubatan, beliau membuat pengkhususan pula dalam bidang merawat masalah kecelaruan mental.

• PSYCHOLOGIST– Mendapat latihan dan bergraduat dalam bidang Psikologi,

membuat Master dan seterusnya PHD dalam bidang yang sama.

– Untuk membuat pengkhususan dalam bidang-bidang tertentu dalam psikologi, seperti rawatan terhadap kecelaruan mental, perlu melengkapkan sesi latihan di hospital, klinik atau industri

PENGKHUSUSAN DALAM BIDANG PSIKOLOGI

• CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY: Clinical psychologists assess and treat people with psychological problems. They may act as therapists for people experiencing normal psychological crises (e.g., grief) or for individuals suffering from chronic psychiatric disorders. Some clinical psychologists are generalists who work with a wide variety of populations, while others work with specific groups like children, the elderly, or those with specific disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). They are trained in universities or professional schools of psychology. They may be found working in academic settings, hospitals, community health centers, or private practice. (See also Counseling Psychology.)

• COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY: Counseling psychologists do many of the same things that clinical psychologists do. However, counseling psychologists tend to focus more on persons with adjustment problems rather than on persons suffering from severe psychological disorders. They may be trained in Psychology Departments or in Schools of Education. Counseling psychologists are employed in academic settings, community mental health centers, and private practice. (See also Clinical Psychology.)

• DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: Developmental psychologists study how we develop intellectually, socially, and emotionally over the lifespan. Some focus on just one period of life (e.g., childhood or adolescence). Developmental psychologists usually do research and teach in academic settings, but many act as consultants to day care centers, schools, or social service agencies.

• EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: Educational psychologists are concerned with the study of human learning. They attempt to understand the basic aspects of learning and then develop materials and strategies for enhancing the learning process. For example, an educational psychologist might study reading and then develop a new technique for teaching reading. They are typically trained in Schools of Education and employed in academic settings. (See also School Psychology.)

• EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: This area includes a diverse group of psychologists who do research in the most basic areas of psychology (e.g., learning, memory, cognition, perception, motivation, and language). Their research may be conducted with animals instead of humans. Most of these psychologists work in academic settings.

• FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY: Forensic psychologists are involved in analyzing crime evidence and aiding law enforcement agencies in criminal investigations. See the brochure from the Psychology and Law division of the American Psychological Association, on this site, for useful information.

• HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY: Health psychologists are concerned with psychology's contributions to the promotion and maintenance of good health and the prevention and treatment of illness. They may design and conduct programs to help individuals stop smoking, lose weight, manage stress, and stay physically fit. They are employed in hospitals, medical schools, rehabilitation centers, public health agencies, academic settings, and private practice.

• HUMAN FACTORS PSYCHOLOGY: Human Factors researchers study the human/machine interface. They may help make appliances such as cameras user-friendly, or they may do studies of safety-related issues in the design of machinary, airplane controls and instrument layouts, or they may do basic research on human perceptual and motor abilities as they relate to the operation of machines, computers, and other mechanical devices.

• INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: Industrial/organizational psychologists are primarily concerned with the relationships between people and their work environments. They may develop new ways to increase productivity or be involved in personnel selection. They are employed in business, government agencies, and academic settings.

• PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY: Physiological psychologists study the physiological correlates of behavior. They study both very basic processes (e.g., how brain cells function) and more readily observable phenomena (e.g., behavioral changes as a function of drug use or the biological/genetic roots of psychiatric disorders). Most are employed in academic settings.

• SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: School psychologists are involved in enhancing the development of children in educational settings. They assess children's psychoeducational abilities and recommend actions to facilitate student learning. They are typically trained in Schools of Education and work in public school systems. They often act as consultants to parents, teachers, and administrators to optimize the learning environments of specific students. (See also Educational Psychology.)

• SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: Social psychologists study how our beliefs, feelings, and behaviors are affected by other persons. Some topics of interest to social psychologists are attitude formation and change, aggression, prejudice, and interpersonal attraction. Most social psychologists work in academic settings, but some work in federal agencies and businesses doing applied research.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DIVISION IN AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)

1. Society for General Psychology2. Society for the Teaching of Psychology3. Experimental Psychology5. Evaluation, Measurement and Statistics6. Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology7. Developmental Psychology8. Society for Personality and Social Psychology9. Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues

(SPSSI)10. Society for the Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and

the Arts

12.Society of Clinical Psychology13.Society of Consulting Psychology14.Society for Industrial and Organizational

Psychology15.Educational Psychology16.School Psychology17.Society of Counseling Psychology18.Psychologists in Public Service19.Society for Military Psychology20.Adult Development and Aging

21. Applied Experimental and Engineering Psychology22. Rehabilitation Psychology23. Society for Consumer Psychology24. Society for Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology25. Behavior Analysis26. Society for the History of Psychology27. Society for Community Research and Action: Division

of Community Psychology28. Psychopharmacology and Substance Abuse29. Psychotherapy30. Society of Psychological Hypnosis

31. State, Provincial and Territorial Psychological Association Affairs

32. Society for Humanistic Psychology33. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities34. Society for Environmental, Population and Conservation

Psychology35. Society for the Psychology of Women36. Society for the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality37. Society for Child and Family Policy and Practice38. Health Psychology39. Psychoanalysis40. Clinical Neuropsychology

41. American Psychology-Law Society42. Psychologists in Independent Practice43. Society for Family Psychology44. Society for the Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay,

Bisexual and Transgender Issues45. Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority

Issues46. Society for Media Psychology and Technology47. Exercise and Sport Psychology48. Society for the Study of Peace, Conflict and Violence:

Peace Psychology Division49. Society of Group Psychology and Group Psychotherapy

50.Society of Addiction Psychology51.Society for the Psychological Study of Men and

Masculinity52.International Psychology53.Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent

Psychology54.Society of Pediatric Psychology55.American Society for the Advancement of

Pharmacotherapy56.Trauma Psychology

PENYELIDIKAN DALAM BIDANG PSYCHOLOGY

• NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION– Pelbagai aspek tingkah laku diperhati secara teliti

dalam konteks semulajadi

• CASE STUDY– Penyelidikan dibuat dengan mendapatkan

maklumat terperinci mengeni sesorang individu bagi menghasilkan sesuatu prinsip umum tentang tingkah laku

• SURVEY METHOD– Penyelidikan melibatkan orang ramai menjawab

soal selidik mengenai konsep yang ingin dikaji dalam tingkah laku.

• CORRELATIONAL METHOD– Penyelidikan terhadap dua atau lebih pemboleh

ubah dan menentukan sama ada perubahan sesuatu pemboleh ubah turut diikuti dengan perubahan pemboleh ubah yang lain.

• EKSPERIMEN– Melibatkan kajian tentang sesuatu rawatan /

intervensi sama ada memberi kesan ke atas tingkah laku atau tidak

PERANAN TEORI DALAM PSIKOLOGI

• Teori mengandungi beberapa konsep asas, dan mempunyai satu penyataan yang menjelaskan tentang hubungkait konsep-konsep tersebut.

• Teori digunakan dalam psikologi untuk memerhati, menjelaskan dan membuat kesimpulan tentang sesuatu fenomena tingkah laku.

Teori tentang sesuatu aspek tingkah laku

Teori tentang sesuatu aspek tingkah laku

Jangkaan dihasilkan melalui teori (hipotesis)

Jangkaan dihasilkan melalui teori (hipotesis)

Penyelidikan dibuat untuk

menguji teori atau hipotesis

Penyelidikan dibuat untuk

menguji teori atau hipotesis

Keyakinan ketepatan teori

meningkat

Keyakinan ketepatan teori

meningkat

Jangkaan teori / hipotesis disahkan

Jangkaan teori / hipotesis disahkan

Jangkaan teori / hipotesis tidak

disahkan

Jangkaan teori / hipotesis tidak

disahkan

Keyakinan ketepatan teori

menurun

Keyakinan ketepatan teori

menurunTeori / hipotesis ditolak

Teori / hipotesis ditolak

Teori / hipotesis diubahsuai,

menghasilkan jangkan yang baru

Teori / hipotesis diubahsuai,

menghasilkan jangkan yang baru

PERANAN TEORI DALAM PENYELIDIKAN

ISU ETIKA DALAM PENYELIDIKAN PSIKOLOGI

• Huraikan konsep etika yang berikut:– Informed Consent– Debriefing– Protection of participant– Deception– Confidentiality– Withdrawal from investigation