TEORI PIAGET

Teori ini diperkenalkan oleh Jean Piaget, berasal daripada Switzerland, merupakan ahli psikologi yang banyak menyumbang kepada pemahaman bagaiman kanak-kanak belajar. Dari kajain dan permerhatiannya, Piaget mendapati bahawa perkembangan kognitif kanak-kanak berbeza dan berubah melalaui empat peringkat iaitu peringkat deria motor (0 – 2 tahun), pra-operasi ( 2 – 7 tahun), operasi konkrit (7 – 11 tahun) dan operasi formal ( 11 tahun ke dewasa). Walau bagaimana, usia ini tidak tetap kerana ia mengikut kemampuan pelajar itu sendiri.

  Menurut Jere Confrey (1999), “ Piagetian theory kindled my intense enjoyment of children and deep respect for their capabilities.”

Sebagai seorang guru matematik sekolah rendah, kita harus memberi tumpuan terhadap perkembangan kanak-kanak pada peringkat operasi konkrit. Ketika usia sebegini kanak-kanak hanya boleh memahami konsep matematik melalui pengalaman konkrit. Oleh itu, alat bantuan mengajar dapat membantu murid-murid memahami konsep matematik. Paiget berpendapat bahawa asas pada semua pembelajaran ialah aktiviti kanak-kanak itu sendiri. Beliau juga menegaskan kepentingan interaksi idea-idea antara kanak-kanak tersebut dengan kawan-kawan sejawatnnya penting untuk perkembangan mental.

 

TEORI BRUNER

Jerome Bruner, seorang ahli psikologi yang terkenal telah banyak menyumbang dalam penulisan teori pembelajaran, proses pengajaran dan falsafah pendidikan. Bruner bersetuju dengan Piaget bahawa perkembangan kognitif kanak-kanak adalah melalui peringkat-peringkat tertentu. Walau bagaimanapun, Bruner lebih menegaskan pembelajaran secara penemuan iaitu mengolah apa yang diketahui pelajar itu kepada satu corak dalam keadaan baru (lebih kepada prinsip konstruktivisme).

Menurut kajian dan pemerhatian yang telah dibuat oleh Bruner dan pembantunya, Kenney, pada tahun 1963 mereka berjaya membina empat teorem pembelajaran matematik ( Mok Soon Sang, 1996) iaitu:

¯     Teorem Pembinaan

o       Cara yang paling berkesan bagi kanak-kanak mempelajari konsep, prinsip atau hukum matematik ialah membina perwakilan dan menjalankan aktiviti yang konkrit.

¯     Teorem Tatatanda

o       Tatatanda matematik yang diperkenalkan harus mengikut perkembangan kognitif murid tersebut.

¯     Teorem Kontras dan Variasi

o       Konsep yang diterangkan kepada murid harus berbeza dan pelbagai supaya murid dapat membezakan konsep-konsep matematik tersebut.

¯     Teorem Perhubungan

o       Setiap konsep, prinsip dan kemahiran matematik hendaklah dikaitkan dengan konsep, prinsip dan kemahiran matematik yang lain.

Selain daripada kajian tersebut, Bruner percaya bahawa kanak-kanak lebih dimotivasikan oleh masalah yang menarik yang tidak mampu diselesaikan oleh mereka dengan mudah seandainya tidak menguasai isi kandungan mata pelajaran dan kemahiran tertentu.

 TEORI GAGNE

Robert M. Gagne, seorang professor dan ahli psikologi yang telah banyak membuat penyelidikan mengenai fasa dalam rangkaian pembelajaran dan jenis pembelajaran matematik. Teori pembelajaran Gagne berbeza dengan Teori Piaget dan Bruner. Menurut Gagne, terdapat empat kategori yang harus dipelajari oleh kanak-kanak dalam matematik iaitu fakta, kemahiran, konsep dan prinsip.

  Gagne mempunyai hierarki pembelajaran. Antaranya ialah pembelajaran melalui isyarat, pembelajaran tindak balas rangsangan, pembelajaran melalui rantaian, pembelajaran melalui pembezaan dan sebagainya. Menurut Gagne, peringkat yang tertinggi dalam pembelajaran ialah penyelesaian masalah. Pada peringkat ini, pelajar menggunakan konsep dan prinsip-prinsip matematik yang telah dipelajari untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang belum pernah dialami.

 

TEORI DIENES

  Professor Zolton P. Dienes, seorang ahli matematik, ahli psikologi dan pendidik, pernah memberi banyak sumbangan dalam teori pembelajaran. Beliau telah merancang satu sistem yang berkesan untuk pengajaran matematik untuk menjadikan matematik lebih mudah dan berminat untuk mempelajari. Mengikut Dienes konsep matematik boleh dipelajari melalui enam peringkat iaitu

permainan bebas, permainan berstruktur, mencari ciri-ciri, perwakilan gambar, perwakilan simbol dan akhirnya formalisasi.

  Teori Dienes mengariskan beberapa prinsip bagaimana kanak-kanak mempelajari matematik iaitu:

     Prinsip Konstruktiviti

o       Pelajar haruslah memahami konsep sebelum memahaminya dengan analisa yang logik. 

     Prinsip Perubahan Perspeptual

o       Kanak-kanak didedahkan pelbagai keadaan supaya dapat memaksimakan konsep Matematik.

     Prinsip Dinamik

o       Kanak-kanak mempelajari sesuatu melalui pendedahan dan eksperimen untuk membentuk satu konsep.

 

Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne) Overview:

This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.

In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:

(1) gaining attention (reception) (2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy) (3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) (4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception) (5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) (6) eliciting performance (responding) (7) providing feedback (reinforcement) (8) assessing performance (retrieval) (9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).

These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992).

Scope/Application:

While Gagne's theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in all domains (Gagner & Driscoll, 1988). In its original formulation (Gagne, 1 962), special attention was given to military training settings. Gagne (1987) addresses the role of instructional technology in learning.

Example:

The following example illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine instructional events for the objective, Recognize an equilateral triangle:

1. Gain attention - show variety of computer generated triangles 2. Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?" 3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles 4. Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle 5. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral 6. Elicit per formance - ask students to create 5 different examples 7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect 8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation 9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals

Gagne (1985, chapter 12) provides examples of events for each category of learning outcomes.

Principles:

1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning.

3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each different type of learning outcome.

4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction.

References:

Gagne, R. (1962). Military training and principles of learning. American Psychologist, 17, 263-276.

Gagne, R. (1985). The Conditions of Learning (4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston .

Gagne, R. (1987). Instructional Technology Foundations. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.

Gagne, R. & Driscoll, M. (1988). Essentials of Learning for Instruction (2nd Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Gagne, R., Briggs, L. & Wager, W. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design (4th Ed.). Fort Worth, TX: HBJ College Publishers.

Robert Gagne(1916-2002)

Index | Sources | Home | Join an Online Community  

Education

Yale, A.B. 1937 Brown, Ph.D. 1940

Career Highlights

Professor, Connecticut College (1940-49) Professor, Penn State University (1945-46) Director of Perceptual and Motor Skills Laboratory, U.S.

Air Force (1949-58)

Professor, Florida State University (present)

Major Contributions to Instructional Development

co-developer of "Instructional Systems Design" wrote The Conditions of Learning, 1965 co-wrote Principles of Instructional Design

Findings, Research, Studies

Although Gagne's earlier work reflected behaviorist thought, he is considered to be an experimental psychologist who is concerned with learning and instruction. In 1965, Gagne published The Conditions of Learning which outlined the relation of learning objectives to appropriate instructional designs. Gagne identifies five categories of learning:

Taxonomy of Learning

OutcomesExample

Critical Learning Conditions

Verbal Information

Stating previously learned materials such as facts, concepts, principles, and procedures, e.g., listing the seven major symptoms of cancer

1. Draw attention to distinctive features by variations in print or speech.

2. Present information so that it can be made into chunks.

3. Provide a meaningful context for effective encoding of information.

4. Provide cues for effective recall and generalization of information.

Intellectual Skills:

Discriminations, Concrete Concepts, Defined

Concepts, Rules, Higher Order Rules

Discriminations: Distinguishing objects, features, or symbols, e.g., hearing different pitches played on a musical instrument

Concrete Concepts: Identifying classes of concrete objects, features, or events, e.g., picking out all the green M&Ms from the candy jar

Defined Concepts: classifying new examples of events or ideas by their definition, e.g., noting "she sells sea shells" as alliteration

Rules: Applying a single relationship to solve a class of problems, e.g., calculating the earned run averages (ERA) of the Atlanta Braves

Higher Order Rules: Applying a new combination of rules to solve a

1. Call attention to distinctive features.

2. Stay within the limits of working memory.

3. Stimulate the recall of previously learned component skills.

4. Present verbal cues to the ordering or combination of component skills.

5. Schedule occasions for practice and spaced review.

6. Use a variety of contexts to promote transfer.

complex problem, e.g., generating a balanced budget for a state organization

Cognitive Strategies

Employing personal ways to guide learning, thinking, acting, and feeling, e.g., devising a corporate plan to improve customer relations

1. Describe or demonstrate the strategy.

2. Provide a variety of occasions for practice using the strategy.

3. Provide informative feedback as to the creativity or originality of the strategy or outcome.

Attitudes Choosing personal actions based on internal states of understanding and feeling, e.g., deciding to exercise daily as a part of preventive health care

1. Establish an expectancy of success associated with the desired attitude.

2. Assure student identification with an admired human model.

3. Arrange for communication or demonstration of choice of personal

action.

4. Give feedback for successful performance; or allow observation of feedback in the human model.

Motor Skills

Executing performances involving the use muscles, e.g., doing a triple somersault dive off the high board

1. Present verbal or other guidance to cue the executive subroutine.

2. Arrange repeated practice.

3. Furnish immediate feedback as to the accuracy of performance.

4. Encourage the use of mental practice.

Information from: Driscoll, M.(1991) Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Allyn and Bacon.

Gagne's idea is tied to Skinner's idea of sequenced learning events as displayed in his Nine Events of Instruction. The table below shows Gagne's events of instruction and an example lesson that follows it.

 

Example Lesson: Be Inspired Using Kidspiration

Objective: Students will learn how to use the Kidspiration multimedia software program to create a diagram.Note: This lesson is geared for K-5 teachers with basic computer skills.

Event of Instruction

Lesson Example Rationale

1. Gaining Attention

Teacher tells learners how she has used Kidspiration in the classroom.Shows an example diagram made using Kidspiration on projection screen/TV monitor.Asks learners questions about diagramming.

Giving background information creates validity.The use of multimedia grabs the audience's attention.Asking questions in the beginning creates an interactive atmosphere.

2. Informing the Learner of the Objective

Teacher says, "Today I am going to show you how to use a multimedia presentation software called Kidspiration."

Make learners aware of what to expect so that they are aware and prepared to receive information.

3. Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning

For this particular group of learners, they have learned previously about Mind Mapping and Schemata. Teacher associates this knowledge with lesson at hand.

When learning something new, accessing prior knowledge is a major factor in the process of acquiring new information.

4. Presenting the Stimulus

Teacher gives students step-by-step tutorial on

The goal is information acquisition,

using Kidspiration. (My eCoach Kidspiration Guide) and has installed Kidspiration software on their computers.

therefore, the stimulus employed is written content and the actual software program.

5. Providing Learner Guidance

Teacher demonstrates how to create a diagram on the video projection screen/TV monitor. Teacher shows students how to use Kidspiration tools to type in text, add links, add symbols, use sounds, etc.Learners are allowed to try the tools demonstrated in partners on their computers.

Teacher uses "discovery learning" because learners are adults and it gives them the freedom to explore. Teacher facilitates the learning process by giving hints and cues when needed. Since the audience are teachers with some basic level of technology skills and the software program is easy to follow and understand, guidance is minimal.

6. Eliciting Performance

Teacher asks students to demonstrate Kidspiration tools.

Requiring the learner to produce based on what has been taught enables the learner to confirm their learning.

7. Giving Feedback

Teacher gives immediate feedback to learners after eliciting responses.

Regular feedback enhances learning.

8. Assessing Performance

Assign a practice activity - Create a

Independent practice forces

diagram that focuses on Farm Animals.Teacher checks work.

students to use what they learned and apply it. Assessing such gives instructors a means of testing student learning outcomes.

9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer

Teacher asks learners to create activities using Kidspiration for 2nd grade students.Teacher also charges learner with teaching another learner how to use Kidspiration.

Applying learning in real-life situations is a step towards Mastery Learning.

 

Sources

Conditions of Learning: Gagnehttp://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html

Robert Gagne's Instructional Design Approachhttp://www.gsu.edu/~mstswh/courses/it7000/papers/robert.htm

Driscoll, M.(1991) Psychology of Learning for Instruction: Allyn and Bacon.

 

jerome bruner and the process of education

Jerome Bruner has made a profound contribution to our appreciation of the process of education and to the development of curriculum theory. We explore his work and draw out some important lessons for informal educators and those concerned with the practice of lifelong learning.

contents: introduction | jerome s. bruner - his life | the process of education | the culture of education | conclusion | further reading and references | links

It is surely the case that schooling is only one small part of how a culture inducts the young into its canonical ways. Indeed, schooling may even be at odds with a culture's other ways of inducting the young into the requirements of communal living.... What has become increasingly clear... is that education is not just

about conventional school matters like curriculum or standards or testing. What we resolve to do in school only makes sense when considered in the broader context of what the society intends to accomplish through its educational investment in the young. How one conceives of education, we have finally come to recognize, is a function of how one conceives of culture and its aims, professed and otherwise. (Jerome S. Bruner 1996: ix-x)

Jerome S. Bruner (1915- ) is one of the best known and influential psychologists of the twentieth century. He was one of the key figures in the so called 'cognitive revolution' - but it is the field of education that his influence has been especially felt. His books The Process of Education and Towards a Theory of Instruction have been widely read and become recognized as classics, and his  work on the social studies programme - Man: A Course of Study (MACOS) - in the mid-1960s is a landmark in curriculum development. More recently Bruner has come to be critical of the 'cognitive revolution' and has looked to the building of a cultural psychology that takes proper account of the historical and social context of participants. In his 1996 book The Culture of Education these arguments were developed with respect to schooling (and education more generally). 'How one conceives of education', he wrote, 'we have finally come to recognize, is a function of how one conceives of the culture and its aims, professed and otherwise' (Bruner 1996: ix-x).

Jerome S. Bruner - life

Bruner was born in New York City and later educated at Duke University and Harvard (from which he was awarded a PhD in 1947). During World War II, Bruner worked as a social psychologist exploring propaganda public opinion and social attitudes for U.S. Army intelligence. After obtaining his PhD he

became a member of faculty, serving as professor of psychology, as well as cofounder and director of the Center for Cognitive Studies. 

Beginning in the 1940s, Jerome Bruner, along with Leo Postman, worked on the ways in which needs, motivations, and expectations (or 'mental sets') influence perception. Sometimes dubbed as the 'New Look', they explored  perception from a functional orientation (as against a process to separate from the world around it). In addition to this work, Bruner began to look at the role of strategies in the process of human categorization, and more generally, the development of human cognition. This concern with cognitive psychology led to a particular interest in the cognitive development of children (and their modes of representation) and just what the appropriate forms of education might be.

From the late 1950s on Jerome Bruner became interested in schooling in the USA - and was invited to chair an influential ten day meeting of scholars and educators at Woods Hole on Cape Cod in 1959 (under the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences and the National Science Foundation). One result was Bruner's landmark book The Process of Education (1960). It developed some of the key themes of that meeting and was an crucial factor in the generation of a range of educational programmes and experiments in the 1960s. Jerome Bruner subsequently joined a number of key panels and committees (including the President's Advisory Panel of Education). In 1963, he received the Distinguished Scientific Award from the American Psychological Association, and in 1965 he served as its president. 

Jerome S. Bruner also became involved in the design and implementation of the influential MACOS project (which sought to produce a comprehensive curriculum drawing upon the behavioural sciences). The curriculum famously aimed to address three questions:

What is uniquely human about human beings?

How did they get that way?

How could they be made more so? (Bruner 1976: 74)

The project involved a number of young researchers, including Howard Gardner, who subsequently have made an impact on educational thinking and practice. MACOS was attacked by conservatives (especially the cross-cultural nature of the materials). It was also difficult to implement - requiring a degree of sophistication and learning on the part of teachers, and ability and motivation on the part of students. The educational tide had begun to move away from more liberal and progressive thinkers like Jerome Bruner. 

In the 1960s Jerome Bruner developed a theory of cognitive growth. His approach (in contrast to Piaget) looked to environmental and experiential

factors.  Bruner suggested that intellectual ability developed in stages through step-by-step changes in how the mind is used. Bruner's thinking became increasingly influenced by writers like Lev Vygotsky and he began to be critical of the intrapersonal focus he had taken, and the lack of attention paid to social and political context. In the early 1970s Bruner left Harvard to teach for several years at the university of Oxford. There he continued his research into questions of agency in infants and began a series of explorations of children's language.  He returned to Harvard as a visiting professor in 1979 and then, two years later, joined the faculty of the new School for Social Research in New York City. He became critical of the 'cognitive revolution' and began to argue for the building of a cultural psychology. This 'cultural turn' was then reflected in his work on education - most especially in his 1996 book: The Culture of Education. 

The process of education

The Process of Education (1960) was a landmark text. It had a direct impact on policy formation in the United States and influenced the thinking and orientation of a wide group of teachers and scholars, Its view of children as active problem-solvers who are ready to explore 'difficult' subjects while being out of step with the dominant view in education at that time, struck a chord with many. 'It was a surprise', Jerome Bruner was later to write (in the preface to the 1977 edition), that a book expressing so structuralist a view of knowledge and so intuitionist an approach to the process of knowing should attract so much attention in America, where empiricism had long been the dominant voice and 'learning theory' its amplifier' (ibid.: vii).

Four key themes emerge out of the work around The Process of Education (1960: 11-16):

The role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching. The approach taken should be a practical one. 'The teaching and learning of structure, rather than simply the mastery of facts and techniques, is at the center of the classic problem of transfer... If earlier learning is to render later learning easier, it must do so by providing a general picture in terms of which the relations between things encountered earlier and later are made as clear as possible' (ibid.: 12).

Readiness for learning. Here the argument is that schools have wasted a great deal of people's time by postponing the teaching of important areas because they are deemed 'too difficult'. 

We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development. (ibid.: 33)

This notion underpins the idea of the spiral curriculum - 'A curriculum as it develops should revisit this basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped the full formal apparatus that goes with them' (ibid.: 13).

Intuitive and analytical thinking. Intuition ('the intellectual technique of arriving and plausible but tentative formulations without going through the analytical steps by which such formulations would be found to be valid or invalid conclusions' ibid.: 13) is a much neglected but essential feature of productive thinking. Here Bruner notes how experts in different fields appear 'to leap intuitively into a decision or to a solution to a problem' (ibid.: 62)  - a phenomenon that Donald Schön was to explore some years later - and looked to how teachers and schools might create the conditions for intuition to flourish.  

Motives for learning. 'Ideally', Jerome Bruner writes, interest in the material to be learned is the best stimulus to learning, rather than such external goals as grades or later competitive advantage' (ibid.: 14). In an age of increasing spectatorship, 'motives for learning must be kept from going passive... they must be based as much as possible upon the arousal of interest in what there is be learned, and they must be kept broad and diverse in expression' (ibid.: 80). 

Bruner was to write two 'postscripts' to The Process of Education: Towards a theory of instruction (1966) and The Relevance of Education (1971). In these books Bruner 'put forth his evolving ideas about the ways in which instruction actually affects the mental models of the world that students construct, elaborate on and transform' (Gardner 2001: 93). In the first book the various essays deal with matters such as patterns of growth, the will to learn, and on making and judging (including some helpful material around evaluation). Two essays are of particular interest - his reflections on MACOS (see above), and his 'notes on a theory of instruction'. The latter essay makes the case for taking into account questions of predisposition, structure, sequence, and reinforcement in preparing curricula and programmes. He makes the case for education as a knowledge-getting process:

To instruct someone... is not a matter of getting him to commit results to mind. Rather, it is to teach him to participate in the process that makes possible the establishment of knowledge. We teach a subject not to produce little living libraries on that subject, but rather to get a student to think mathematically for himself, to consider matters as an historian does, to take part in the process of knowledge-getting. Knowing is a process not a product. (1966: 72)

The essays in The Relevance of Education (1971) apply his theories to infant development.

The culture of education

Jerome Bruner's reflections on education in The Culture of Education (1996) show the impact of the changes in his thinking since the 1960s. He now placed his work within a thorough appreciation of culture: 'culture shapes the mind... it provides us with the toolkit by which we construct not only our worlds but our very conception of our selves and our powers' (ibid.: x). This orientation 'presupposes that human mental activity is neither solo nor conducted unassisted, even when it goes on "inside the head" (ibid.: xi). It also takes Bruner well beyond the confines of schooling.

Conclusion

Jerome S. Bruner has had a profound effect on education - and upon those researchers and students he has worked with. Howard Gardner has commented:

Jerome Bruner is not merely one of the foremost educational thinkers of the era; he is also an inspired learner and teacher. His infectious curiosity inspires all who are not completely jaded. Individuals of every age and background are invited to join in. Logical analyses, technical dissertations, rich and wide knowledge of diverse subject matters, asides to an ever wider orbit of information, intuitive leaps, pregnant enigmas pour forth from his indefatigable mouth and pen. In his words, 'Intellectual activity is anywhere and everywhere, whether at the frontier of knowledge or in a third-grade classroom'. To those who know him, Bruner remains the Compleat Educator in the flesh... (Gardner 2001: 94)

To be completed

Further reading and references

Bruner, J (1960) The Process of Education, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 97 + xxvi pages. Rightly recognized as a twentieth century educational 'classic', this book argues that schooling and curricula should be constructed to foster intuitive 'graspings'. Bruner makes the case for a 'spiral curriculum'. The second edition, 1977, has a a new preface that reassesses the book. 

Bruner, J. S. (1966) Toward a Theory of Instruction, Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp Press. 176 + x pages.

Bruner, J. S. (1971) The Relevance of Education, New York: Norton. In this book Bruner applied his theories to infant development.

Bruner, J. (1996) The Culture of Education, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 224 + xvi pages.

Constructivist Theory (J. Bruner) Overview:

A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given".

As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to discover principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e., socratic learning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned.

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.

In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990, 1996) has expanded his theoretical framework to encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning as well as the practice of law.

Scope/Application:

Bruner's constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development research (especially Piaget ). The ideas outlined in Bruner (1960) originated from a conference focused on science and math learning. Bruner illustrated his theory in the context of mathematics and social science programs for young children (see Bruner, 1973). The original development of the framework for reasoning processes is described in Bruner, Goodnow & Austin (1951). Bruner (1983) focuses on language learning in young children.

Note that Constructivism is a very broad conceptual framework in philosophy and science and Bruner's theory represents one particular perspective. For an overview of other Constructivist frameworks, see http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/constructivism.html.

Example:

This example is taken from Bruner (1973):

"The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table , so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed mutiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized."

Principles:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

References:

Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. (1973). Going Beyond the Information Given. New York: Norton.

Bruner, J. (1983). Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language. New York: Norton.

Bruner, J. (1986). Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. (1996). The Culture of Education, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J., Goodnow, J., & Austin, A. (

Jerome BrunerFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Jerome S. Bruner (b. 1 October 1915) is an American psychologist who has contributed to cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology and to the general philosophy of education. Bruner is currently a senior research fellow at the New York University School of Law.

Bruner's ideas are based on categorization. "To perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize." Bruner maintains people interpret the world in terms of its similarities and differences. Like Bloom's Taxonomy, Bruner suggests a system of coding in which people form a hierarchical arrangement of related categories. Each successively higher level of categories becomes more specific, echoing Benjamin Bloom's understanding of knowledge acquisition as well as the related idea of instructional scaffolding.

He has also suggested that there are two primary modes of thought: the narrative mode and the paradigmatic mode. In narrative thinking, the mind engages in sequential, action-oriented, detail-driven thought. In paradigmatic thinking, the mind transcends particularities to achieve systematic, categorical cognition. In the former case, thinking takes the form of stories and "gripping drama." In the latter, thinking is structured as propositions linked by logical operators.

In his research on the development of children (1966), Bruner proposed three modes of representation: enactive representation (action-based), iconic representation (image-based), and symbolic representation (language-based). Rather than neatly delineated stages, the modes of representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they "translate" into each other. Symbolic representation remains the ultimate mode, for it "is clearly the most mysterious of the three." Bruner's theory suggests it is efficacious when faced with new material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners. A true instructional designer, Bruner's work also suggests that a learner (even of a very young age) is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists.

Contents[hide]

1 The Narrative Construction of Reality 2 Former Students 3 Bibliography

o 3.1 Books

o 3.2 Articles

[edit] The Narrative Construction of Reality

In 1991, Bruner published an article in Critical Inquiry entitled "The Narrative Construction of Reality." In this article, he argued that the mind structures its sense of reality through mediation through "cultural products, like language and other symbolic systems" (3). He specifically focuses on the idea of narrative as one of these cultural products. He defines narrative in terms of ten things:

1. Narrative diachronicity: The notion that narratives take place over some sense of time.

2. Particularity: The idea that narratives deal with particular events, although some events may be left vague and general.

3. Intentional state entailment: The concept that characters within a narrative have "beliefs, desires, theories, values, and so on" (7).

4. Hermeneutic composability: The theory that narratives are that which can be interpreted in terms of their role as a selected series of events that constitute a "story." See also Hermeneutics

5. Canonicity and breach: The claim that stories are about something unusual happening that "breaches" the canonical (i.e. normal) state.

6. Referentiality: The principle that a story in some way references reality, although not in a direct way that offers verisimilitude.

7. Genericness: The flipside to particularity, this is the characteristic of narrative whereby the story can be classified as a genre.

8. Normativeness: The observation that narrative in some way supposes a claim about how one ought to act. This follows from canonicity and breach.

9. Context sensitivity and negotiability: Related to hermeneutic composability, this is the characteristic whereby narrative requires a negotiated role between author or text and reader, including the assigning of a context to the narrative, and ideas like suspension of disbelief.

10. Narrative accrual: Finally, the idea that stories are cumulative, that is, that new stories follow from older ones.

Bruner observes that these ten characteristics at once describe narrative and the reality constructed and posited by narrative, which in turn teaches us about the nature of reality as constructed by the human mind via narrative.

[edit] Former Students

Jean PiagetFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Piaget, by André Koehne

Jean Piaget [ʒɑ̃ pjaˈʒɛ] (August 9, 1896 – September 16, 1980) was a Swiss philosopher, natural scientist and developmental psychologist, well known for his work studying children and his theory of cognitive development. According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is also "the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing"[1].

Contents[hide]

1 Biography 2 The stages of cognitive development 3 Piaget's view of the child's mind 4 The developmental process 5 Influence

o 5.1 Developmental psychology o 5.2 Education o 5.3 Historical studies of thought and cognition o 5.4 Evolution of human intelligence o 5.5 Primatology o 5.6 Philosophy o 5.7 AI

6 Major works and achievements o 6.1 Major works o 6.2 Other works o 6.3 Appointments

7 Piagetian and post-Piagetian stage theories 8 Quotations 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References

12 External links

[edit] Biography

Piaget was born in Neuchâtel in the French-speaking part of Switzerland. His father, Arthur Piaget, was a professor of medieval literature at the University of Neuchâtel. Piaget was a precocious child who developed an interest in biology and the natural world, particularly mollusks, and even published a number of papers before he graduated from high school. In fact, his long career of scientific research began when he was just eleven, with the 1907 publication of a short paper on the albino sparrow. Over the course of his career, Piaget wrote more than sixty books and several hundred articles. Piaget received a Ph.D. in natural science from the University of Neuchâtel, and also studied briefly at the University of Zürich. During this time, he published two philosophical papers which showed the direction of his thinking at the time, but which he later dismissed as adolescent work. His interest in psychoanalysis, a strain of psychological thought burgeoning at that time, can also be dated to this period.

He then moved from Switzerland to Grange-aux-Belles, France, where he taught at the school for boys run by Alfred Binet, the developer of the Binet intelligence test. It was while he was helping to mark some instances of these intelligence tests that Piaget noticed that young children consistently gave wrong answers to certain questions. Piaget

did not focus so much on the fact of the children's answers being wrong, but that young children kept making the same pattern of mistakes that older children and adults did not. This led him to the theory that young children's thought or cognitive processes are inherently different from those of adults. (Ultimately, he was to propose a global theory of developmental stages stating that individuals exhibit certain distinctive common patterns of cognition in each period in their development.) In 1921, Piaget returned to Switzerland as director of the Rousseau Institute in Geneva.

In 1923, he married Valentine Châtenay, one of his students; together, the couple had three children, whom Piaget studied from infancy. In 1929, Jean Piaget accepted the post of Director of the International Bureau of Education and remained the head of this international organization until 1968. Every year, he drafted his “Director’s Speeches” for the IBE Council and for the International Conference on Public Education in which he explicitly expressed his educational credo.

[edit] The stages of cognitive developmentMain article: Theory of cognitive development

Piaget served as professor of psychology at the University of Geneva from 1929 to 1975 and is best known for reorganizing cognitive development theory into a series of stages, expanding on earlier work from James Mark Baldwin: four levels of development corresponding roughly to (1) infancy, (2) pre-school, (3) childhood, and (4) adolescence. Each stage is characterized by a general cognitive structure that affects all of the child's thinking (a structuralist view influenced by philosopher Immanuel Kant)[citation needed]. Each stage represents the child's understanding of reality during that period, and each but the last is an inadequate approximation of reality. Development from one stage to the next is thus caused by the accumulation of errors in the child's understanding of the environment; this accumulation eventually causes such a degree of cognitive disequilibrium that thought structures require reorganizing.

The four development stages are described in Piaget's theory as

1. Sensorimotor stage : from birth to age 2 years (children experience the world through movement and senses and learn object permanence)

2. Preoperational stage : from ages 2 to 7 (acquisition of motor skills) 3. Concrete operational stage : from ages 7 to 11 (children begin to think logically

about concrete events) 4. Formal operational stage : after age 11 (development of abstract reasoning).

These chronological periods are approximate, and in light of the fact that studies have demonstrated great variation between children, cannot be seen as rigid norms. Furthermore, these stages occur at different ages, depending upon the domain of knowledge under consideration. The ages normally given for the stages, then, reflect when each stage tends to predominate, even though one might elicit examples of two, three, or even all four stages of thinking at the same time from one individual, depending upon the domain of knowledge and the means used to elicit it.

Despite this, though, the principle holds that within a domain of knowledge, the stages usually occur in the same chronological order. Thus, there is a somewhat subtler reality behind the normal characterization of the stages as described above.

The reason for the invariability of sequence derives from the idea that knowledge is not simply acquired from outside the individual, but it is constructed from within. This idea has been extremely influential in pedagogy, and is usually termed constructivism. (See "Constructivism (learning theory)") Once knowledge is constructed internally, it is then tested against reality the same way a scientist tests the validity of hypotheses. Like a scientist, the individual learner may discard, modify, or reconstruct knowledge based on its utility in the real world. Much of this construction (and later reconstruction) is in fact done subconsciously.

Therefore, Piaget's four stages actually reflect four types of thought structures. The chronological sequence is inevitable, then, because one structure may be necessary in order to construct the next level, which is simpler, more generalizable, and more powerful. It's a little like saying that you need to form metal into parts in order to build machines, and then coordinate machines in order to build a factory.

[edit] Piaget's view of the child's mind

Piaget viewed children as little philosophers, which he called tiny thought-sacks and scientists building their own individual theories of knowledge. Some people have used his ideas to focus on what children cannot do. Piaget, however, used their problem areas to help understand their cognitive growth and development.

[edit] The developmental process

Piaget provided no concise (or clear) description of the development process as a whole. Broadly speaking it consisted of a cycle:

The child performs an action which has an effect on or organizes objects, and the child is able to note the characteristics of the action and its effects.

Through repeated actions, perhaps with variations or in different contexts or on different kinds of objects, the child is able to differentiate and integrate its elements and effects. This is the process of reflecting abstraction (described in detail in Piaget 2001).

At the same time, the child is able to identify the properties of objects by the way different kinds of action affect them. This is the process of empirical abstraction.

By repeating this process across a wide range of objects and actions, the child establishes a new level of knowledge and insight. This is the process of forming a new cognitive stage. This dual process allows the child to construct new ways of dealing with objects and new knowledge about objects themselves.

However, once the child has constructed these new kinds of knowledge, he or she starts to use them to create still more complex objects and to carry out still more complex actions. As a result, the child starts to recognize still more complex

patterns and to construct still more complex objects. Thus a new stage begins, which will only be completed when all the child’s activity and experience have been re-organized on this still higher level.

This process is not wholly gradual, however. Once a new level of organization, knowledge and insight proves to be effective, it will quickly be generalized to other areas. As a result, transitions between stages tend to be rapid and radical, and the bulk of the time spent in a new stage consists of refining this new cognitive level. When the knowledge that has been gained at one stage of study and experience leads rapidly and radically to a new higher stage of insight, a "gestalt" is said to have occurred.

It is because this process takes this dialectical form, in which each new stage is created through the further differentiation, integration, and synthesis of new structures out of the old, that the sequence of cognitive stages are logically necessary rather than simply empirically correct. Each new stage emerges only because the child can take for granted the achievements of its predecessors, and yet there are still more sophisticated forms of knowledge and action that are capable of being developed.

Because it covers both how we gain knowledge about objects and our reflections on our own actions, Piaget’s model of development explains a number of features of human knowledge that had never previously been accounted for. For example, by showing how children progressively enrich their understanding of things by acting on and reflecting on the effects of their own previous knowledge, they are able to organize their knowledge in increasingly complex structures. Thus, once a young child can consistently and accurately recognize different kinds of animals, he or she then acquires the ability to organize the different kinds into higher groupings such as ‘birds’, ‘fish’, and so on. This is significant because they are now able to know things about a new animal simply on the basis of the fact that it is a bird – for example, that it will lay eggs.

At the same time, by reflecting on their own actions, the child develops an increasingly sophisticated awareness of the ‘rules’ that govern in various ways. For example, it is by this route that Piaget explains this child’s growing awareness of notions such as ‘right’, ‘valid’, ‘necessary’, ‘proper’, and so on. In other words, it is through the process of objectification, reflection and abstraction that the child constructs the principles on which action is not only effective or correct but also justified.

One of Piaget’s most famous studies focused purely on the discriminative abilities of children between the ages of two and a half years old, and four and a half years old. He began the study by taking children of different ages and placing two lines of M & M’s, one with the M & M’s in a line spread further apart, and one with the same number of M & M’s in a line placed more closely together. He found that, “Children between 2 years, 6 months old and 3 years, 2 months old correctly discriminate the relative number of objects in two rows; between 3 years, 2 months and 4 years, 6 months they indicate a longer row with fewer objects to have "more"; after 4 years, 6 months they again discriminate correctly” (Cognitive Capacity of Very Young Children, p. 141). Initially younger children were not studied, because if at four years old a child couldn’t conserve

quantity, how could a child that is younger? The results show however that children that are younger than three years and two months have quantity conservation, but as they get older they lose this quality, and don’t recover it until four and a half years old. This attribute may be lost due to a temporary inability to solve because of an overdependence on perceptual strategies, which correlates more candy with a longer line of candy, or due to the inability for a four year old to reverse situations.

By the end of this experiment several results were found. First, younger children have a discriminative ability that shows the logical capacity for cognitive operations exists earlier than acknowledged. This study also reveals that young children can be equipped with certain qualities for cognitive operations, depending on how logical the structure of the task is. Research also shows that children develop explicit understanding at age 5 and as a result, the child will count the M & M’s to decide which has more. Finally the study found that overall quantity conservation is not a basic characteristic of man’s native inheritance.

[edit] Influence

Despite ceasing to be a fashionable psychologist, the magnitude of Piaget’s continuing influence can be measured by the global scale and activity of the Jean Piaget Society, which holds annual conferences and attracts very large numbers of participants. His theory of cognitive development has proved influential in many different areas:

Developmental psychology Education Historical studies of thought and cognition Evolution of human intelligence Primatology Philosophy Artificial Intelligence (AI)

On the other hand, Piaget does not seem to have influenced therapeutic methods or models to any significant degree.

[edit] Developmental psychology

Piaget is without doubt one of the most influential developmental psychologists, influencing not only the work of Lev Vygotsky and of Lawrence Kohlberg but whole generations of eminent academics. Although subjecting his ideas to massive scrutiny led to innumerable improvements and qualifications of his original model and the emergence of a plethora of neo-Piagetian and post-Piagetian variants, Piaget’s original model has proved to be remarkably robust (Lourenço and Machado 1996).

Stage One - Sensorimotor (birth to 1.5 years)Stage Two - Preoperational (1.5 years to 7 years)

Stage Three - Concrete Operations (7 years to 11 years)Stage Four - Formal Operations (11 years and onward)

[edit] Education

During the 1970s and 1980s, Piaget’s works also inspired the transformation of European and American education, including both theory and practice, leading to a more ‘child-centred’ approach. In Conversations with Jean Piaget, he says: "Education, for most people, means trying to lead the child to resemble the typical adult of his society . . . but for me and no one else, education means making creators. . . . You have to make inventors, innovators—not conformists," (Bringuier, 1980, p.132).

[edit] Historical studies of thought and cognition

Historical changes of thought have been modelled in Piagetian terms. Broadly speaking these models have mapped changes in morality, intellectual life and cognitive levels against historical changes (typically in the complexity of social systems). Robinson's History of Human Reason (2004) also suggests that history itself is the expression of our intelligence.

Notable examples include:

Michael Barnes' study of the co-evolution of religious and scientific thinking (Barnes 2000)

Peter Damerow's theory of prehistoric and archiac thought (Damerow 1995) Kieran Egan 's stages of understanding James W. Fowler 's stages of faith development Suzy Gablik's stages of art history (Gablik 1977) Christopher Hallpike’s studies of changes in cognition and moral judgment in pre-

historical, archaic and classical periods (Hallpike 1979, 2004) Lawrence Kohlberg 's stages of moral development Don Lepan's theory of the origins of modern thought and drama (LePan 1989) Charles Radding's theory of the medieval intellectual development (Radding

1985) R.J. Robinson's stages of history (Robinson 2004)

[edit] Evolution of human intelligence

The origins of human intelligence has also been studied in Piagetian terms. Wynn (1979, 1981) analysed Acheulian and Oldowan tools in terms of the insight into spatial relationships required to create each kind. On a more general level, Robinson’s Birth of Reason (2005) suggests a large-scale model for the emergence of a Piagetian intelligence.

[edit] Primatology

Piaget’s models of cognition have also been applied outside the human sphere, and there is a thriving community of primatologists assessing the development and abilities of primates in terms of Piaget’s model. Notable names include Sue Taylor Parker and Francesco Antinucci. A summary of the very extensive literature can be found in Parker and McKinney (1999).

[edit] Philosophy

Some have taken account of Piaget's work. For example, the philosopher and social theorist Jürgen Habermas has incorporated Piaget into his work, most notably in The Theory of Communicative Action. The philosopher Thomas Kuhn credited Piaget's work in helping him understand the transition between modes of thought which characterized his theory of paradigm shifts. Shortly before his death (october 1975), Piaget was involved in a debate about the relationships between innate and acquired features of language, at the Centre Royaumont pour une Science de l'Homme, where he discussed his point of view with the linguist Noam Chomsky as well as Hilary Putnam and Stephen Toulmin.

[edit] AI

Piaget also had a considerable impact in the field of computer science and artificial intelligence. Seymour Papert used Piaget's work while developing the Logo programming language. Alan Kay used Piaget's theories as the basis for the Dynabook programming system concept, which was first discussed within the confines of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, or Xerox PARC. These discussions led to the development of the Alto prototype, which explored for the first time all the elements of the graphical user interface (GUI), and influenced the creation of user interfaces in the 1980's and beyond.

[edit] Major works and achievements

[edit] Major works Piaget, J. (1950). Introduction à l’Épistémologie Génétique. Paris: Presses

Universitaires de France. Piaget, J. (1961). La psychologie de l'intelligence. Paris: Armand Colin (1961,

1967, 1991). Online version Piaget, J. (1967). Logique et Connaissance scientifique, Encyclopédie de la

Pléiade.

Inhelder, B. and J. Piaget (1958). The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence. New York: Basic Books.

Inhelder, B. and Piaget, J. (1964). The Early Growth of Logic in the Child: Classification and Seriation. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1928). The Child's Conception of the World. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1932). The Moral Judgment of the Child. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co.

Piaget, J. (1952). The Child's Conception of Number. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1953). The Origins of Intelligence in Children. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1955). The Child's Construction of Reality. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1971). Biology and Knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Piaget, J. (1995). Sociological Studies. London: Routledge. Piaget, J. (2001). Studies in Reflecting Abstraction. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.

[edit] Other works Beth, E.W., and Piaget, J. (1966). Mathematical Epistemology and Psychology.

Dordrecht: D. Reidel. Piaget, J. (1942). Les trois structures fondamentales de la vie psychique: rythme,

régulation et groupement. Rev. Suisse de Psychologie Appliquée, 1/2 9–21. Piaget, J. (1948). Où va l’éducation? UNESCO. Piaget, J. (1951). Psychology of Intelligence. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul

Piaget, J. (1953). Logic and Psychology. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Piaget, J. (1962). Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood. New York: Norton. Piaget, J. (1966). Nécessité et signification des recherches comparatives en

psychologie génétique. Journal International de Psychologie, 1 (1): 3-13. Piaget, J. (1970). Structuralism. New York: Harper & Row. Piaget, J. (1972). Psychology and Epistemology: Towards a Theory of

Knowledge. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Piaget, J. (1972). Insights and Illusions of Philosophy. London: Routledge and

Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1974). Experiments in Contradiction. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press. Piaget, J. (1974). The Place of the Sciences of Man in the System of Sciences.

New York: Harper and Row, Publishers. Piaget, J. (1975). The Origin of the Idea of Chance in Children. London:

Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1977). The Grasp of Consciousness. London: Routledge and Kegan

Paul. Piaget, J. (1978). Success and Understanding. London: Routledge and Kegan

Paul. Piaget, J. (1979). Behaviour and Evolution. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1980). Adaptation and Intelligence. London: University of Chicago

Press. Piaget, J. (1980). Les Formes Élémentaires de la Dialectique. Paris, Editions

Gallimard.

Piaget, J. (1981). Intelligence and Affectivity. Their Relationship during Child Development. Palo Alto: Annual Reviews.

Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget's theory. In P. Mussen (ed.). Handbook of Child Psychology. 4th edition. Vol. 1. New York: Wiley.

Piaget, J. (1985). The Equilibration of Cognitive Structures: The Central Problem of Intellectual Development. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Piaget, J. (1987). Possibility and Necessity. 2 vols. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Piaget, J. (2000). Commentary on Vygotsky. New Ideas in Psychology, 18, 241-59.

Piaget, J., and Garcia, R. (1989). Psychogenesis and the History of Science. New York: Columbia University Press.

Piaget, J., and Garcia, R. (1991). Towards a Logic of Meanings. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Piaget, J., and Inhelder, B. (1962). The Psychology of the Child. New York:Basic Books

Piaget, J., and Inhelder, B. (1967). The Child’s Conception of Space. New York: W.W. Norton.

[edit] Appointments 1921-25 Research Director, Institut Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Geneva 1925-29 Professor of Psychology, Sociology and the Philosophy of Science,

University of Neuchatel 1929-39 Professor of the History of Scientific Thought, University of Geneva 1929-67 Director, International Bureau of Education, Geneva 1932-71 Director, Institute of Educational Sciences, University of Geneva 1938-51 Professor of Experimental Psychology and Sociology, University of

Lausanne 1939-51 Professor of Sociology, University of Geneva 1940-71 Professor of Experimental Psychology, University of Geneva 1952-64 Professor of Genetic Psychology, Sorbonne, Paris 1955-80 Director, International Centre for Genetic Epistemology, Geneva 1971-80 Emeritus Professor, University of Geneva

[edit] Piagetian and post-Piagetian stage theories Michael Barnes ' historical stages of religious and scientific thinking (Barnes

2000) Peter Damerow 's theory of prehistoric and archiac thought (Damerow 1995) Kieran Egan 's stages of understanding James W. Fowler 's stages of faith development Suzy Gablik 's stages of art history (Gablik 1977) Christopher Hallpike 's historical stages of cognitive moral understanding

(Hallpike 1979, 2004) Lawrence Kohlberg 's stages of moral development Don Lepan 's theory of the origins of modern thought and drama (LePan 1989)

Charles Radding 's theory of the medieval intellectual development (Radding 1985)

R.J. Robinson 's stages of history (Robinson 2004) Robert Kegan 's constructive-developmental theory (Kegan 1982) Allen Ivey 's developmental counseling and therapy (DCT) (Ivey 1986) Keith S. Lockwood 's constructivist practice with children who are deaf or hard of

hearing (Lockwood 2006)

[edit] Quotations