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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TUSHAR SAWANTROHIT SINGHANIANITIN BHANUSHALIDAVID RAO


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Search for knowledge Scientific and

Systematic search for

pertinent information ona specific topic It is an art of scientific

investigation It is a careful

investigation or enquiryspecially through searchfor new facts in anybranch of knowledge

Instinct of inquisitiveness Method which a person

employs for obtaining

the knowledge ofwhatever the unknown,can be termed asresearch


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Clifford Woody

Research comprises defining and redefining

problems, formulating hypothesis or suggestedsolutions; collecting, organising and evaluatingdata ; making deductions and reaching

conclusions ; and at last carefully testing the

conclusions to determine whether they fit theformulated hypothesis.


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A scale is a technique to measure some thing. Scaling is used in ordering a series of items

along sort of continuum. they are methods of turning a series of

qualitative facts into aquantitative series


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Measurements are yardsticks Measurement is a process of assigning

numbers to objects or observations Measurement in research consists of

assigning numbers to empirical events incompliance with a set of rules


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1. Selecting observable empirical events2. Developing a set of mapping rules i.e. a

scheme for assigning numbers3. Applying mapping rule to each observation

of that event. Example of studying peoplewho attend a auto show


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1. Validity The extent which an instrument measures

what it intended to measure The extent which differences found with a

measuring instrument reflect truedifferences among those being measured.

Validity can also be thought of as utility


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A. Predictive validity: usefulness of a test inpredicting some future performance

B. Concurrent validity : usefulness of a test inclosely relating to other measures of knownvalidity

C. Face Validity : refers to the subjectiveagreement among professionals that a scalelogically appears to reflect accurately what itpurports to measure.


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D. Content Validity: the content of the scaleappears to be adequate.


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Instrument should provide consistent results Contributes to validity Take care of non interference of transient &

situational factorsI. Stability : securing consistent results with

repeated measurements of the same person &with the same instrument

II. Equivalence : how much error may getintroduced by different investigators ordifferent samples of the items


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I. Economy : Data collection methods should bepracticable. A trade off between ideal research& affordable cost or available budget is

necessary. E.g: length of measuring instrument.II. Convenience : Easy to administer. E.g: proper

layout of instrumentIII. Interpretability : give detailed instructions for

administering scorings keys. also giveguidelines for using the test & interpreting theresult.


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Precise Unambiguous

Free from errors Valid Reliable Practical


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Concept of development Understanding of the major studies More apparent in theoretical studies

Specification of concept dimension By deduction (more or less intuitive) By empirical correlation of individual dimension with the

total concept and/or the other concepts Selection & development of indicators

For measuring each concept element Ex. Questions, scales, etc.

Formation of index Combining various indicator into an index

Index provide better measurement than a single indicator


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Types of scale


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It is simply a system of assigning numbersymbols to events in order to label them

example: assigning numbers to football players

in order to identify them just for convenienceno quantitative value can not come out witha meaningful value

We use Mode as the measure of Central

Tendency eg. classifying the residents of a city according

to religious preferences.


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The lowest level of the ordered scale that iscommonly used is the ordinal scale

This scale places events in orderE.g. Rank orders represent ordinal scales a

students rank in his graduation class involvesthe use of ordinal scale

these scales have no absolute valuesall that we can say is that one person is higher

or lower in rank on the scale


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It has the power of nominal and ordinal scale plus oneadditional strength, the concept of equality ofintervals

E.g. the interval between 1 and 2 equals the differencebetween 2 and 3. In this case the intervals areadjusted in terms of some rule that has beenestablished as a basis for making the units equal

These scales can have an arbitrary zero it lacks atrue zero

The Fahrenheit scale is an example of an interval scaleMean is the appropriate measure of centraltendency


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It incorporates all the powers of previousthree Scales

They have an absolute or true zero ofmeasurement Eg measurement of physical dimensions like

height, weight, distance and area- geometricmean or harmonic mean are the measures ofcentral tendency


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ScaleNominal Numbers

Assignedto Runners

Ordinal Rank Orderof Winners

Interval Performance

Rating on a0 to 10 Scale

Ratio Time toFinish, in

Seconds

Thirdplace

Secondplace

Firstplace

Finish

Finish

8.2 9.1 9.6

15.2 14.1 13.4


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Scaling : It is defined as the procedure for theassignment of numbers ( or symbols) to a property ofobjects in order to impart some of the characteristics

of numbers to the properties in question. It describes the procedure of assigning numbers to

various degrees of opinion, attitudes and otherconcepts a scale is a continuum, consisting of thehighest point and the lowest point

Scaling is a method of changing attributes intovariables

It is easier to measure variable than attributes


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It involves qualitative description of a limitednumber of aspects of a thing or of traits of aperson

we judge properties of objects withoutreference to other similar objects

these ratings are in the form of like

dislike, excellent-good-average-belowaverage-poor. In practice three to seven point scales are

generally used


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1.The Graphic Rating Scale : various points areusually put along the line to form a

continuum and the rater indicates his rating.

E.g.How do you like the product


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2. The Itemized rating scale ( Numerical Scale) : It presents a series of statements from which a

respondent Selects one as best reflecting his evaluation. Eg. suppose we want to enquire as to how well does a

worker get along with his fellow workers: He is almost always involved in some friction with fellow

worker

He is often at odds with one or more of his fellow workers He some times gets involved in friction He frequently becomes involved in friction with others He almost never gets involved in friction with fellow

workers


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The degree of positive or negative feeling associated with somepsychological object like symbol, phrase, slogan, person, institution,ideal or ideas towards which people can differ in varying degrees.

While measuring the attitudes of the people, we generally follow thetechnique of preparing the opinionnaire ( attitude scale) in such a way

that the score of the individual responses assigns him a place on a scale. People may conceal their attitudes and express socially acceptable

opinions

They may not really know how they feel about a social issue

People may be unaware of their attitude about an abstract situation

until confronted with real situation

even behaviour itself is at times not a true indication of attitude. Eg- Politicians kissing babies Is this bevaviour a true expression of affection towards infants? No Hence there is no sure method of measuring attitude.


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Respondent Situation

Measurer behaviour, style and looks ofinvestigator may encourage or discouragecertain replies from the respondent

Instrument eg. use of complex words,ambiguous meaning etc.


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