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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

AZADEH SHARIF

FBMK 2015 39

PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE IN SELECTED CEREMONIAL SPEECHES BY MOTHER TERESA

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PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE IN SELECTED CEREMONIAL SPEECHES BY

MOTHER TERESA

By

AZADEH SHARIF

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,

in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

February 2015

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COPYRIGHT

All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos,

icons, photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra

Malaysia unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within

the thesis for non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use

of material may only be made with the express, prior, within permission of Universiti

Putra Malaysia.

Copyright© Universiti Putra Malaysia

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DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate this study to

my lovely sister, Arezoo,

my parents,

my husband and

my adorable son, Amir.

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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment

of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

ABSTRACT PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE IN SELECTED CEREMONIAL SPEECHES BY

MOTHER TERESA

By

AZADEH SHARIF

February 2015

Chairman: Mohd. Faiz Sathi. Abdullah, PhD

Faculty: Moden Languages and Communication

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), as a multidisciplinary approach, views discourse

as a form of social action, which does ideological work in the representation of social

reality and the construction of identities. In analyzing language as discourse, together

with other semiotic modalities, CDA seeks to explain how functions, topics,

strategies, and other properties of discourse play a role in manifesting the public as

well as private intentions of the producer of discourse. The present study investigated

the persuasive discourse of Mother Teresa in selected ceremonial speeches via an

examination of textual patterns, generic move structures, social themes and topics, as

well as discursive strategies and related rhetorical devices.

The textual data of the study consisted of three selected speeches of Mother Teresa:

(1) the Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech (1979), (2) the Class Day address

(1982), and (3) the National Prayer Breakfast address (1994). The speech texts were

examined: (1) to identify textual patterns and construction of MT’s speeches selected

for the study; (2) to describe the main generic move structures and the related steps

used by Mother Teresa; (3) to determine the recurrent themes and topics; (4) to

identify the discursive strategies and the argumentative schemes; (5) to analyze the

linguistic means and devices employed; and (6) to reveal the ideological stances of

Mother Teresa that appear to underlie her discourse.

The results of the identification of the textual patterns and construction of MT’s

speeches revealed that MT’s speeches in general followed the pattern of Situation-

Problem-Response-Evaluation. However, it was found that Responses/solutions

mainly constructed MT’s discourse. The analysis of the means of persuasion

employed in giving Responses/solutions by MT in the speeches demonstrated that

emotional appeals of repetition and motive words were the chief sources of

persuasion. Appeal to logic by means of narration was found as the most recurrent

source of persuasion after emotional appeals. Finally, the results also indicated that

appeal to authority and the use of inclusive language were other repeated means of

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persuasion through character used by MT in offering Responses/solution in the

speeches.

The results of the identification of the generic move structures of the three selected

speeches of Mother Teresa showed that the predominant generic moves, and in

particular, their constituent steps which are potentially persuasive in nature, included

establishing commonalities with the audience, urging and inviting the audience to

take proactive actions, appealing to religious authorities, narrating anecdotes from

the Holy Book and the stories of her personal experiences, stating the humanitarian

activities of the Missionaries of Charity in a positive light, encouraging

collaboration, presenting social problems, stating her general and religious beliefs,

and providing statistics. Topics such as love, Jesus, and children along with the

related themes of sacrifice in love, passions/sacrifices of the Christ, and supporting

children constituted the core concerns of Mother Teresa’s selected speeches.

Discursive strategies such as nomination, predication, and argumentation were

utilized to advocate the moves, steps, topics, and themes. The discursive analysis

indicated that nomination strategy was mainly used to shape the beliefs, feelings, and

views of the audience by establishing credibility; emphasizing the messages and acts

of religious authorities; promoting peace, advocating giving love, encouraging

adoption, and calling attention to human values. Moreover, it was found that by

means of the predication strategy, there was a tendency to persuade the audience to

gain particular ideological views such as the omnipresence of Christ, as well as being

pro-children and the poor. In addition, the use of the argumentation strategy mainly

served to motivate the audiences to give love sacrificially and have trust in God’s

love.

Finally, the analysis indicated that Mother Teresa’s main ideological stances of anti-

abortion, pro-adoption and natural family planning, Jesus in the guise of the

poor/omnipresence of Jesus, and the necessity of doing sacrifice in love were

discursively realized via salient topics and themes, and particularly through

discursive strategies that were linguistically identified via a transitivity analysis. The

findings shed more light on our understanding of the nature of persuasion as a social

act in terms of its discursive construction and representation in ceremonial speeches

by a well-known social actor such as Mother Teresa.

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Asbtrak tesis dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai

memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah.

ABSTRAK

WACANA MEYAKINKANDI DALAM UCAPAN-UCAPAN TERPILIHMAJLIS

OLEH MOTHER TERESA

Oleh

AZADEH SHARIF

Februari 2015

Pengerusi: Mohd. Faiz Sathi Abdullah, PhD

Fakulti: Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi

Analisis Wacana Kritis (Critical Discourse Analysis atau CDA), sebagai pendekatan

rentas bidang, melihat wacana sebagai salah satu bentuk gerak laku sosial yang

melakukan kerja ideologi dalam pewakilan realiti social dan pembinaan identiti.

Dalam menganalisis bahasa sebagai wacana bersama-sama dengan modaliti semiotik

yang lain, CDA cuba untuk menjelaskan bagaimana fungsi, topik, strategi, dan ciri-

ciri wacana yang lain memainkan peranan dalam manisfestasi maksud awam dan

juga maksud peribadi penghasil wacana. Kajian ini mengkaji wacana pujukan

Mother Teresa dalam ucapan upacara yang terpilih menerusi penelitian struktur

langkah generik, tema social dan topik, serta strategi wacana dan peralatan retorikal

yang berkaitan.

Data tekstual kajian ini mengandungi tiga ucapan Mother Teresa yang terpilih: (1)

ucapan penerimaan Hadiah Keamanan Nobel (1979), (2) ucapan Class Day (1982),

dan ucapan National Prayer Breakfast (1994). Teks ucapan telah dikaji (1) untuk

mengenalpasti corak teks dan pembinaan ucapan terpilih MT di dalam kajian ini; (2)

untuk menggambarkan langkah struktur generic yang utama; tema berulang dan

topik; (3) untuk mengenalpasti tema yang berulang dan topik; (4) untuk

mengenalpasti strategi perbincangan dan skema penghujahan; (5) untuk menganalisis

sumber linguistik dan cara-cara yang digunakan; dan (6) untuk mendedahkan

pendirian ideologi Mother Teresa yang mendasari wacana beliau.

Dapatan daripada pengenalpastian corak teks dan pembinaan ucapan oleh MT

menunjukkan ucapan MT mengikut corak Situasi-Masalah-Maklumbalas-Penilaian.

Walaubagaimanapun, ia juga di dapati yang Maklumbalas/penyelesaian merupakan

cara pembinaan utama wacana MT. Analisis cara pujukan yang digunakan untuk

memberi Maklumbalas/penyelesaian oleh MT di dalam ucapannya menunjukkan

yang pengulangan rayuan emosi dan perkataan-perkataan motif adalah sumber utama

pujukan. Rayuan logik melalui penceritaan, sebagai sumber rayuan, adalah yang

paling kerap berulang selepas rayuan emosi.Akhir sekali, dapatan juga menunjukkan

yang rayuan orang berkuasa dan penggunaan bahasa inklusif, melalui watak yang

digunakan oleh MT, merupakan cara rayuan yang lain dalam memberi

maklumbalas/penyelesaian di dalam ucapanya.

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Dapatan daripada pengenalpastian struktur langkah generik bagi tiga ucapan Mother

Teresa menunjukkan yang langkah generik utama (khususnya sub-langkah yang

terkandung di dalamnya, yang berpotensi sebagai pujukan yang meyakinkan),

memasukkan kewujudan kesamaan dengan audiens, gesaan serta jemputan untuk

audiens melakukan tindakan proaktif rayuan kepada penguatkuasa keagamaan,

penceritaan anecdote daripada Kitab Suci dan kisah pengalaman peribadi beliau,

pernyataan aktiviti perikemanusian oleh Missionaries of Charity daripada sudut yang

positif, galakan kolaborasi, persembahan masalah sosial, mengutarakan kepercayaan

umum dan keagamaan beliau, dan persediaan maklumat statistik. Topik seperti cinta

dan kasih sayang, Nabi Isa, dan kanak-kanak disamping tema yang berkaitan seperti

pengorbanan dalam cinta, keghairahan/pengorbanan Nabi Isa, dan sokongan terhadap

kanak-kanak merupakan perkara utama dalam ucapan terpilih Mother Teresa.

Strategi wacana seperti pencalonan, predikasi, dan penghujahan digunakan untuk

menyokong langkah retorik, sub-langkah, topic, dan tema. Analisis wacana

menunjukan bahawa strategi pencalonan telah banyak digunakan untuk membentuk

kepercayaan, perasaan, dan sudut pandangan audiens dengan mewujudkan kredibiliti,

menekankan mesej dan tingkahlaku pihak berkuasa agama, mempromosikan

keamanan, cinta, penerimaan, dan nilai kemanusiaan. Tambahan lagi, ia juga didapati

bahawa dengan cara strategi predikasi, terdapat kecenderungan untuk memujuk

penonton untuk memperoleh pandangan ideologi yang tertentu seperti Isa yang Maha

Wujud, serta menjadi pro-kanak-kanak dan orang miskin. Juga, penggunaan strategi

penghujahan berfungsi terutamanya untuk memotivasikan audiens kearah

memberikan kasih saying secara pengorbanan di samping mempunyai kepercayaan

kepada cinta Tuhan.

Akhirnya, analisis menunjukkan bahawa pendirian ideologi utama Mother Teresa

tentang anti-pengguguran, sokongan terhadap pengambilan anaka ngkat, dan

perancangan keluarga semulajadi, penyamaran Isa sebagai orang

miskin/MahaWujud, dan keperluan untuk berkorban demi cinta telah direalisasikan

secara wacana menerusi topik dan tema yang menonjol, dan secara khususnya

menerusi strategi wacana yang telah dikenalpasti secara linguistik menerusi analisis

transiviti. Dapatan kajian menjelaskan dengan lebih lanjut tentang kefahaman kita

terhadap sifat pujukan sebagai tindakan sosial dari segi pembinaan wacana dan

pewakilannya dalam ucapan upacara oleh pelakon sosial yang terkenal seperti

Mother Teresa.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to extend my appreciation to all the sources that gave me strength,

inspiration, support and positive energy throughout my long journey of producing

this thesis.

First and foremost, I would like to thank God for being my everlasting companion

who has taken my hand and lifted me up particularly in the dark moments of utmost

pressure and depression I faced while in the process of preparing and completing this

thesis.

I wish to direct a special word of gratitude to Associate Professor Dr. Mohd. Faiz

Sathi Abdullah, the chairman of the committee, whose profound knowledge has

benefited this study and invaluable comments, feedback, and suggestions largely

contributed to the generation of this project. Appreciation also goes to Dr. Chan Mei

Yuit, member of the committee, for teaching me how to develop a critical stance in

doing discourse analysis, which has been one of the most precious and beautiful

lessons I have ever learned throughout this study. I am also grateful to Dr. Afida, the

second committee member, for the guidance and assistance she has given me.

My deepest thanks are extended to my sister, whose being has blessed my life and

her unfailing love and support that was the light in my darkest moments/ I am very

grateful to my mother, who made the opportunity of pursuing my study possible and

whose care and advice stroked my tired spirit and inspired me to complete this

project. I also thank my father for his patience and support.

I deeply appreciate my husband, whose sincere support and empathy have inspired

and encouraged me throughout my study. My most heartfelt thanks go to my lovely

son, Amir, whose being has revived my life and whose love warms my heart day by

day.

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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been

accepted as fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:

Mohd Faiz Sathi. Abdullah, PhD

Associate Professor

Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Chairman)

Chan Mei Yuit, PhD

Senior Lecturer



(Member)

Afida Binti Mohamad Ali, PhD

Senior Lecturer



(Member)

BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD

Professor and Dean

School of Graduate Studies


Date:

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Declaration by Graduate Student

DECLARATION

I hereby confirm that:

this thesis is my original work;

quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced;

This thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other

degree at any other institutions;

intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned by

Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Research) Rules 2012;

written permission must be obtained from the supervisor and the office of the

Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) before the thesis is

published (in written, printed or electronic form) including books, journals,

modules, proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers, manuscripts, posters,

reports, lecture notes, learning modules or any other materials as stated in the

Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;

there is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and

scholarly integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Graduate Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti Putra

Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012. The thesis has undergone plagiarism

detection software.

Signature: _________________________ Date: ______________________

Name and Matric No.: Azadeh Sharif (GS20370)

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Declaration by Members and Supervisory Committee

This is to confirm that:

the research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our supervision;

supervision responsible as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate

Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) are adhered to.

Signature: Signature:

Name of Name of

Chairman of Member of

Supervisory Supervisory

Committee: Mohd Faiz Sathi. Abdullah, PhD Committee: Chan Mei Yuit, PhD

Signature:

Name of

Member of

Supervisory

Committee: Afida Binti Mohamad Ali, PhD

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT i

ABSTRAK iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

APPROVAL vi

DECLARATION viii

LIST OF TABLES xiv

LIST OF FIGURES xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xviii

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of Study 1

1.2 Statement of Problem 4

1.3 Research Questions 8

1.4 Purpose and Scope of Study 8

1.5 Theoretical Perspectives 9

1.5.1 Genre Research Traditions and Guidelines 10

1.5.2 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) 13

1.5.3 Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA) 13

1.5.4 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) 17

1.5.5 Hoey’s SPRE Model 18

1.6 Conceptual Framework 20

1.7 Significance of Study 22

1.8 Limitations of Study 23

1.9 Definition of Key Terms 24

1.9.1 Persuasion 24

1.9.2 Genre 24

1.9.3 Topics/Themes 25

1.9.4 Discursive Strategies 25

1.9.5 Linguistic Means 26

1.9.6 Intertextuality 26

1.9.7 Recontextualization 27

1.9.8 Ideology 27

1.10 Organization of Thesis 27

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 29

2.1 Introduction 29

2.2 A Brief Biography of Mother Teresa and Her Socio-political Views 29

2.2.1 Main Tenets of Catholic Church Social Teachings 31

2.2.2 Criticisms of MT 31

2.3 Selected Speech Genres 32

2.3.1 Acceptance Speeches 34

2.3.2 Commencement Speeches 35

2.3.3 Keynote Speeches 35

2.4 Discourse and Textual Patterns 37

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2.5 Religious Language and Discourse 38

2.5.1 Religious Language in Linguistic and Sociolinguistic

Perspectives 39

2.6 Persuasion: Research, Language, Strategies, and Means 40

2.6.1 Means of Persuasion 42

2.6.2 Forms of Evidence 43

2.7 Genre Research Traditions 44

2.7.1 English for Specific Purposes (ESP) 45

2.7.2 New Rhetoric Genre Studies 47

2.7.3 Australian Genre Theory 48

2.8 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) 49

2.8.1 Fairclough’s Critical Approach 50

2.8.2 Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA) 54

2.9 Systematic Functional Linguistics (SFL) 56

2.9.1 Transitivity 57

2.10 Review of Related Past Studies 61

2.11 Summary 69

3 METHODOLOGY 70

3.1 Research Approach and Design 70

3.2 Sampling of Speech Texts 71

3.2.1 Nobel Peace Prize Acceptance Speech (NPP) 72

3.2.2 The Class Day Address (CD) 73

3.2.3 The National Prayer Breakfast Address (NPB) 73

3.3 Data Collection Procedures 73

3.3.1 Texts of MT’s Speeches 73

3.3.2 Video of MT’s Exclusive Interview with Irish TV (1974) 74

3.4 Framework for Data Analysis 74

3.4.1 Textual Patterns of the Selected Speeches 76

3.4.2 Guideline for Identifying Generic Move Structure of

MT’s NPP Acceptance Speech 77

3.4.3 Guideline for Identifying Generic Move Structure of

MT’s CD Address 79

3.4.4 Identifying Generic Move Structure of MT’s NPB Address 80

3.4.5 Analysis of MT’s Interview Video 83

3.5 Data Analysis Procedures 83

3.5.1 Identifying Textual Patterns 84

3.5.2 Generic Move Structure Identification 84

3.5.3 Topics and Themes Analysis 85

3.5.4 Transitivity Analysis 85

3.5.5 Analyzing Discursive Strategies and Argumentation Schemes 85

3.6 Presentation of Results 86

3.7 Validity and Reliability of Research 86

3.8 Summary 87

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4 ASPECTS OF PERSUASION: TEXTUAL PATTERNS, 88

GENERIC MOVE STRUCTURES, TOPICS, THEMES

AND TRANSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF MOTHER

TERESA’S SELECTED SPEECHES

4.1 Introduction 88

4.2 Textual Pattern Analysis of MT’s Selected Speeches 88

4.2.1 Situation (S) 88

4.2.2 Problem (P) 89

4.2.3 Response/solution (R) 90

4.2.4 Evaluation (E) 90

4.3 Generic Move Structure Identification 91

4.3.1 Mother Teresa’s Nobel Peace Prize Acceptance

Speech (1979) 91

4.3.2 Mother Teresa’s Class Day Address at Harvard

University (1982) 94

4.3.3 Mother Teresa’s National Prayer Breakfast Address (1994) 96

4.4 Topics and Themes Analysis of MT’s Speeches Selected for

the Study 98

4.4.1 Shared Topics and Themes among MT’s Speeches 102

4.4.2 Other Recurrent Topics and Themes Identified in

MT’s Speeches 109

4.4.3 Summary of the Main Topics and Themes Identified

in MT’s Selected Speeches 113

4.5 Transitivity Analysis 113

4.5.1 MT’s Nobel Peace Prize Acceptance Speech 113

4.5.2 Mother Teresa’s Class Day Address at Harvard University 117

4.5.3 Mother Teresa’s National Prayer Breakfast Address (NPB) 122

5 DISCURSIVE STRATEGIES ANALYSIS AND 126

RELATED PROCESSES

5.1 Introduction 126

5.2 MT’s Nobel Peace Prize Acceptance Speech 126

5.2.1 Nomination Strategy 128

5.2.2 Predication Strategy 130

5.2.3 Perspectivization Strategy 121

5.2.4 Intensification Strategy 132

5.2.5 Mitigation Strategy 132

5.2.6 Argumentation Strategy 134

5.3 Mother Teresa’s Class Day Address (speech 2) 134







5.4 Mother Teresa’s National Prayer Address 142




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5.5 Intertextuality, Interdiscursitivity, and Recontextualization

in MT’s Selected Speeches 150

5.6 Summative Discussion 154

6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 167

6.1 Introduction 167

6.2 Overview of Study 167

6.3 Summary of Main Findings 167

6.4 Conclusions 171

6.5 Recommendations for Further Research 173

REFERENCES 174

APPENDICES 193

BIODATA OF STUDENT 216

LISTS OF PUBLICATIONS 217

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

3.1 Framework of Data Analysis in Relation to Research Questions 75

‎3.2 Informative Guideline for Identifying Generic Move Structure of MT’s

NPP Acceptance Speech (Gamble & Gamble, 1998; Osborn &

Osborn,1991; Fluharty & Ross, 1996; Fortanet, 2005, pp.40-41) 78

‎3.3 Informative Guideline for Identifying Generic Move Structure of

MT’s CD Address (Gamble & Gamble, 1998; Osborn &

Osborn, 1991; Fluharty & Ross, 1996; Gault, 2008, p.37) 80

‎3.4 Informative Guideline for Identifying Generic Move Structure of

MT’s NPB Address (Ehninger et al., 1978; Lucas, 1995). 81

3.5 Analytical Framework for Determining Discursive Strategies Based

on DHA (Adopted from Reisigl & Wodak, 2009, p.94 and Wodak,

2001, pp.72-73) 82

‎3.6 Analytical Framework for Transitivity Analysis

(Eggins, 2004; Lock, 1996) 83

‎4.1 Main Topics and Themes of MT’s NPP Acceptance Speech 99

4.2 Main Topics and Themes of MT’s CD Address 100

‎4.3 Main Topics and Themes of MT’s NPB Address 101

‎4.4 Process Types Identified in MT’s NPP Acceptance Speech 113

4.5 Most Frequent Verbs of Material Processes of MT’s NPP

Acceptance Speech 114

4.6 Most Frequent Verbs of Mental Processes of MT’s NPP


4.7 Main Participants of the Verb ‘Love’ in MT’s NPP Acceptance Speech 116

‎4.8 Most Frequent Circumstances in MT’s NPP Acceptance Speech 117

‎4.9 Process Types Identified in MT’s CD Address 118

‎4.10 Most Frequent Verbs of Material Process Identified in MT’s

CD Address 118

‎4.11 Main Participants of the Material Verb ‘Give' 119

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‎4.12 Most Frequent Verbs of Mental Process Identified in MT’s

CD Address 119

‎4.13 Main Participants and Circumstances of Mental Verb ‘Love’ in

MT’s CD Address 120

‎4.14 Most Frequent Circumstances of MT’s CD Address 121

‎4.15 Process Types of MT’s NPB Address 122

4.16 Most Frequent Verbs of Material Process in MT’s NPB Address 122

4.17 Main Participants and Circumstances of the Material Verb

‘Give’ in MT’s NPB Address 123

‎4.18 Most Frequent Verbs of Mental Process Identified in MT’s NPB

address 124

‎4.19 Participants and Circumstances of the Mental Verb ‘Love’ in

MT’s NPB Address 124

4.20 Most Frequent Circumstances in MT’s NPB Address 125

‎5.1 Discursive Strategies, Their Frequencies, Objectives, Linguistic

Means and Devices Identified in Mother Teresa’s NPP



Means and Devices Identified in MT’s CD Address 135


Means and Linguistic Devices Identified in MT’s NPB Address 143

5.4 Generic Move Structures Identified in MT’s NPP

Acceptance Speech (Speech 1) 155

‎5.5 Generic Move Structures Identified in MT’s CD Address (Speech 2) 156

‎5.6 Generic Move Structures Identified in MT’s NPB Address (Speech 3) 157

5.7 Textual patterns of MT’s Speeches in Relation to the Identified

Generic Move Structures and Means of Persuasion 158

‎5.8 Main Topics and Themes of MT’s Selected Speeches 160

5.9 Summative Overview of Main Discursive Strategies,

Argumentative Schemes, Related Discourse Processes and Linguistic

Means Identified in MT’s Selected Speeches 162

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‎5.10 General and Specific Ideological Assumptions of MT Invested in

the Selected Speeches 164

5.11 Means of Persuasion in Selected Speeches of MT in Relation

to Particular Discursive Strategies and the Underlying

Ideological Assumptions 165

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1.1 Dimensions of Discourse and Discourse Analysis

(Fairclough, 1995b, p.98) 13

‎1.2 Interdiscursive and Intertetxtual Relationships between Discourses,

Discourse Topics, Genres and Texts (Reisigl &Wodak, 2009, p.92) 15

‎1.3 Context, Semantics and Lexico-Grammar (Eggins, 2004, p.112) 17

‎1.4 Schematic Illustration of the Synchrony among the Theories,

Approaches and the Related Guidelines of Analysis Selected for the Study 20

‎1.5 Conceptual Framework 21

‎2.1 Transitivity (Eggins, 2004, p.214) 60

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CDA Critical Discourse Analysis

DHA Discourse Historical Approach

MT Mother Teresa

SFL Systemic Functional Linguistics

NPP Nobel Peace Prize

NPB National Prayer Breakfast

CD

SPRE

Class Day

Situation-Problem-Solution-Evaluation

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CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

The most common types of public speeches are based on the overall goals and

general purposes of the speakers. They are usually divided into three main

categories: informative, persuasive and entertaining (Coopman & Lull, 2015, p.66).

The goal of an informative speech is “to describe, explain, or demonstrate

something”. In fact, informative speeches are aimed at increasing “listeners’

knowledge about a topic” (Coopman & Lull, 2015, p.66). However, when the overall

objective of a speaker is to persuade, she/he attempts to “reinforce, modify, or

change audience members’ beliefs, attitudes, opinions, values, and behaviors”

(Coopman & Lull, 2015, p.66). In the category of ‘speaking to persuade’, the speaker

intends to “prompt the audience to alter their thinking and possibly take action”

(Coopman & Lull, 2015, p.66). Finally, speaking to entertain aims at captivating

members of the audience and having them enjoy the speech (Coopman & Lull,

2015).

As social phenomena of persuasion and inspiration are close in terms of meaning, it

would be illuminating to slightly differentiate them from each other. Besides having

a general purpose, eachtype of public speech (informative, persuasive, or

entertaining) contains some specific sub-purposes. For example, some sub-purposes

of speaking to persuade include convincing “listeners to do something they are not

currently doing”, motivating listeners “to vote for a candidate” or “inspiring listeners

to volunteer time or donate to a worthy cause” (Wood, 2015, p.259). As can be seen,

inspiration is one of the sub-purposes of persuasion. In fact, persuasion encompasses

inspiration.Persuasion is the fundamental part of many of our communicative

attempts (Gass & Seiter, 2011). It is regarded as the foundation of a number of

attempts favoring society (Gass & Seiter, 2011). In fact, not much good in the world

could be attained without persuasion (Gass &Seiter, 2011).

In recent years, there has been a growing body of research literature on persuasive

discourse. Persuasion as a rhetorical act has been studied across various fields and

disciplines and by many scholars (e.g. Connors, Ede, & Lunsford, 1984; Halmari &

Virtanen, 2005; Perelman, 1982; and Roloff & Miller, 1980). More specifically,

persuasive discourse has been explored in areas of social practice as diverse as

business negotiations (Bulow-Moller, 2005), advertising (Patpong, 2009), judicial

argumentation (Tolonen, 2005), political speech (Halmari, 2005), editorial writing

(Alhudhaif, 2005; and Virtanen, 2005) and religious genres (Alexander, 1983;

Carruth, 1992; Juarez, 2007). In essence, research into the area of persuasion has

enchanted researchers since ancient times (Halmari & Virtanen, 2005). Indeed, the

formal study of persuasion can be traced back to the ancient Greeks (Larson, 2004).

They were the first to systemize the use of persuasion, calling it “rhetoric” (Larson,

2004). It was Aristotle who “developed the first scientific approach to rhetoric. Since

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then, numerous rhetorical books have been written, spanning oratory, language,

identification, and mass media” (Perloff, 2010, p.39).

Moreover, numerous studies have been undertaken on the persuasive nature of the

discourse of most influential world leaders such as Lincoln (Loudenslager, 2012),

Martin Luther King Jr. (Leff & Utley, 2004), and J.F Kennedy (Biane, 2011).

However, the nature of the words and the speeches of Mother Teresa (henceforth

referred to as ‘MT’), who “had the capacity to move, inspire, and mobilize people”

(Maalouf, 2001, p.18), is a subject which requires more intense attention from

researchers and scholars of various fields such as discourse analysis. MT has been

regarded as “a spiritual master” (Maalouf, 2001, p.21). According to Le Joly (1993,

p.7), “in the history of Christianity, Mother Teresa has been more than a personality;

she has truly proved to be an event”. MT “early showed a tendency for religious

devotion” (Greene, 2004, p.8). She established the Order of the Missionaries of

Charity in 1950 (Maalouf, 2001). Another significant philanthropic work of MT was

the establishment of “the first home for the dying” (Maalouf, 2001). In fact, her

selfless service to humanity fetched her global recognition and awards. In 1979, MT

was awarded the Noble Peace Prize. Mother Teresa was awarded the Medal of

Freedom from the United States in 1985 which is considered as the most elevated

pacificist award given (Greene, 2004). Thousands of essays, articles, and biographies

have been written on MT, such as the biographies by Chawla (1992); González-

Balado (1997); Hitchens (1995); Scott (2014); and Spink (1997).

On the other hand, movement toward an inquiry into the human sciences, including

discourse analysis, has witnessed rhetorical-oriented interest. Simons (1990) affirms

this view by noting that “recent movements to reconceive inquiry in the human

sciences seem to have been marked by ‘turns’. The initial turn was concerened with

linguistic aspect, then the turn moved to interpretive aspect, and now the turn is

focused on rhetorical aspect .Simons (1990) continues to state that one of the major

consequences of “the rhetorical turn” in the inquiry into discourses in various fields

“has been a renewed interest in the rhetoric of boundary relations among disciplines”

(p.7). Further, while persuasive rhetoric has been traditionally employed “as a tool of

religion, politics or law” (Simons, 1990, p.7), its psychoanalytic dimension on

intended audiences (and their sociopolitical environment) connects persuasion with

politics and religion:

Christian preaching is based on a prophetic nature whose interpretive key is

always in the pocket of the master. The preacher however is not supposed

to appeal to personal authority, but to refer the foundation of his discourse

to prophecy and to the Lord. …. The politician talks about the common

good and requests the support of the audience in making him their

representative in the pursuit of collective well-being. Political discourse is

supposed to capture the reasons of the community and express them in

such a way that they can be recognized by the audience as their own

reasons. What brings together politics, Christianity, and psychoanalysis is

that these subcultural spheres within the western tradition…have

established that persuasive appeals are more efficacious when they conceal

the intention to persuade, that is, when they are less imperative and more

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representational. As Pascal tersely puts it, ‘People are generally better

persuaded by the reasons which they have themselves discovered than by

those which have come into the minds of others’ (Simons, 1990, p.137).

Therefore, the overlap between religious discourse and political discourse is

undeniable. On the one hand, political discourse draws upon religious discourse to

probably win the trust and support of the audience. On the other hand, religious

discourse may be interwoven with the rules of politics to possibly gain authenticity

and justification. The interdisciplinary nature of persuasion as a social act opens the

way to politics and religion to synchronically help persuasion get realized in

discourse.

There has been a constant progress and interest in, and an expansion of writings on

discourse analysis as a method of research in recent years (Coulthard & Candlin,

1985; van Dijk, 1993a; and Zeeman, 2000). Discourse analysis has been employed as

a research methodology by a number of studies to investigate various social issues,

particularly issues related to ideology (Duncan, 1996; Lea, 1996; Sonderling, 1998;

Stevens, 1998; and van Dijk, 1993b, 1997). Van Dijk (1985, p.1) states that one of

the dominant features of the discipline of discourse analysis is “the explicit account

of the fact that discourse structures, at several levels, may have multiple links with

the context of communication and interaction”. Thus, discourse analysis is, in

essence “a contribution to the study of language ‘in use’, in the sense that it provides

an opportunity to explore “the cognitive and especially the social processes,

strategies, and contextualization of discourse taken as a mode of interaction in highly

complex sociocultural situations” (van Dijk, 1985, p.1). In addition, as power “is

exercised and enacted in discourse” (Fairclough, 2001, p.73) by “a person’s control

of a social occasion by means of the genre of a text or by the regulation of access to

certain public spheres” (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009, p.89), the study of the discourse of

those who have access to public spheres can contribute to an understanding of the

social power exercised by these individuals implicitly and explicitly through

discourse. Moreover, Lazar (2000, pp.376-377) points out that “discourses (and the

realities and subjectivities that they make available) can be taken apart in such a way

as to reveal that they are not immanent truths, but rather are constructed that way

from particular positions that serve particular interests, whilst subordinating others”.

Therefore, it can be said that the examination of discourse can also disclose which

and whose ideologies are being propagated through the use the speaker makes of

discourse.

On the other hand, genre approaches have considerably impacted the way we

understand discourse in the last decade (Hyland, 2002).Dudley-Evans and St John

(1998) describe genre analysis as “the study of the structural and linguistic

regularities of particular genres or text types and the role they play within a discourse

community” (p.xv). Bhatia (2002, p.4) points out that genre analysis as a multi-

disciplinary activity has attracted attention “not only from linguists (both applied and

computational), discourse analysts, communication experts and rhetoricians, but also

from sociologists, cognitive scientists, translators, advertisers, and plain English

campaigners”.

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However, Rhetorical Genre Studies (RGS), mentioned in Miller’s (1984) seminal

article “Genre as Social Action”, moves the study of genre beyond the exploration of

its textual features on to the analysis of the social contexts that give rise to and shape

genres (Freedman & Medway, 1994a, 1994b; and Miller, 1984). Thus, RGS provides

a useful theoretical framework to research into changes in genre creation,

development, learning, and use (Artemeva, 2008). Considering the fact that no prior

study has been found that surveyed genre structure and discursive strategies of

persuasion in MT’s discourse, there is a need to explore persuasion in her discourse

from a multi-disciplinary approach to arrive at a rich and deep explanation of her

discourse.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Persuasion has been investigated in various genres of discourse such as promotional

(see e.g. Patpong, 2009), editorial (Alhudhaif, 2005), political (Halmari, 2005), and

religious (Alexander, 1983) discourses. For example, Alhudhaif (2005) explored

persuasion in American and Arabic editorials from a speech act perspective, and

concluded that, in general, three major categories of speech acts contribute to the

overall persuasiveness of selected editorials: representatives (the most frequent),

directives and expressives.

Recent years have witnessed a growing body of literature on the ceremonial speeches

of famous world leaders (see Halmari, 2005; Gorsevski, 1995; Yamabhali, 1973;

Alkhirbakhsh, 2010; Warren, 1967; Wang, 2010; Ghazali, 2006, and Loudenslager,

2012). For example, Ghazali (2006) analyzed the first keynote address of Abdullah

Ahmad Badawi (Malaysia’s fifth Prime Minister) at the UMNO (United Malay

Nation Organization) general assembly from the point of ideological discourse

analysis while similar studies by Halmari (2005), Alkhirbakhsh (2010), and

Loudenslager (2012) critically examined political issues in the speech genre in

question.

Halmari (2005) used a rhetorical approach to analyze two key US presidents’ State of

the Union addresses to explore their persuasive strategies and found that both the

political leaders, Reagan and Clinton, employed rhetorical questions, appeal to

authority, appeal to logic, superlatives, poetic aspects of persuasion (e.g. alliteration,

metaphor and possessives), vocatives, humor, and unification. Loudenslager (2012)

studied three ceremonial speeches delivered by Abraham Lincoln to discover the

persuasive techniques that he used which propelled him to the presidency.

Loudenslager (2012) found that the persuasive rhetoric used by Lincoln included

figures of speech such as repetition, alliteration, metaphor, allusion, affirmative

dealing with adverse arguments, hyperbole/exaggeration, rhetorical questions, and

descriptive language.

Alkhirbash (2010) too examined persuasive language in three ceremonial speeches of

Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohammad from the pragmatic (Speech Acts) and (Aristotelian)

rhetorical angles. He found that the former Malaysian prime minister had sought to

persuade his audiences to act in the nation’s interest by establishing: (1) logical

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proofs such as providing reasons, facts, statistics, and recounting past events; (2)

emotional proofs by arousing the feelings of anger, sympathy, jealousy, resentment,

and compassion in the audience; and (3) ethical proofs by displaying knowledge,

competence, and awareness. The study concluded that the speech acts of assertives

and directives probably played a key role in persuading Mahathir’s audiences.

A related body of research on ceremonial speeches of popular world leaders

concentrated on transformational/spiritual/religious aspects. The studies conducted

by Gorsevski (1995), Yamabhali (1973), and Warren (1967) are worth mentioning

here. Gorsevski (1995) investigated the rhetoric of the Dalai Lama, the exiled

spiritual and temporal leader of Tibet, from the viewpoint of rhetorical criticism,

focusing on the concepts of ethics and nonviolent persuasion. Gorsevski (1995)

found that for the Dalai Lama, in “speaking as a religious teacher,…kindness” was a

quality which he used to instruct his audience with (p.218) besides “mysticism to

bolster his ethos, or …[a] sentimental style to move his supporters to action” (p.220)

.

Yamabhali (1973) critically analyzed selected speeches of M.K. Gandhi, often

associated with the non-violent movement for peace, to investigate his methods of

persuasion. He discovered that Gandhi supported his arguments by referring to

historical events including “factual information” (p.103), “appeal for justice”, and

“testimony from his direct experience” (104), and that “in none of the speeches did

Gandhi rely on means of persuasion based upon the using of his ethos or ethical

proof” (p.154).

In Warren’s (1967) rhetorical analysis of the public speeches of Dr. Martin Luther

King, Jr., he concluded that the persuasive devices used by Dr. King included

“theological topoi” (e.g. “God”, “Jesus Christ”, “the church”) (pp.95-106); “non-

artistic invention” including “examples, narratives and stories, statistics, and

quotations” (p.5); and “artistic elements” (ethical, logical, and pathetic proofs)

including “establishing himself as a clergyman of competence, character, and good-

will, reasoning (for example, entymeme, analogy, causal relation), and appeal to

motives” (p.177).

In fact, the use of the discourse of religion, ethics, spirituality or morality as vehicles

of persuasion appears to be a significant area of study. To start with, Kohnen (2010)

points out that “an analysis of religious discourse offers the possibility of creating a

fascinating and continuous picture of the development of pragmatic phenomena

across centuries” (p.523). Moreover, as Ellwood (2013) puts it, “in all ages and

among all people religion has been a powerful instrument of social control, because

it adds a supernatural sanction to conduct”, and that “religion and morality in social

life” function as “regulative institutions” (p.186).

However, despite its significance, religious discourse seems to lack attention from

linguists, discourse analysts, and language scholars. As Kohnen (2010) notes, “one of

the basic difficulties for an overview of the field of English religious discourse is that

the linguistic literature, in particular historical-pragmatic research, is scarce” (p.

523). He adds that the lack of available investigation “has been acknowledged with

regard to contemporary discourse studies in the religious domain” (Muhleisen, 2007,

p.485, cited in Kohnen, 2010, p. 523), an area eminently researchable given that in

having access to fame, respect, and public discourse, religious leaders have the social

power to control the actions and minds of people (van Dijk, 1997).

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Hence, few studies have therefore dealt with the religious discourse of Mother Teresa

(MT). Fosl (1999) describes MT in this way: “today, perhaps no figure has come to

symbolize undiluted goodness, piety, and compassion more than the small, elderly

Abanian nun Agnes Bojaxhiu– known to millions as Mother Teresa” (p.115). More

importantly, Marques (2007) obviously points up the persuasive potential in the

politico-religious discourse of this “small elderly Albanian nun” in that she

“exhibited transformational leadership…[and] influenced the lives of many of her

followers worldwide” (p.110) “…along with Mahatma Gandhi; Martin Luther King,

Jr.; Nelson Mandela; and other great leaders” (p.109). It can be argued that like

political leaders who use appropriate rhetoric to manipulate people and maintain

political influence (Fairclough, 1989; David, 2014), religious leaders act similarly in

their linguistic practice and “promote social change by personal actions, by

influencing the actions of groups, and by creating and shaping organizations toward

the common good” (Branson, 2013, p. 405).

MT as a distinguished religious leader and a social change activist inspirational, and

hence persuasive, rhetoric is perhaps best entrenched equally in “matters of faith,

math, and reading; and centers and mobile clinics that ministered to the needs of

people with leprosy and AIDS” (Youssef, 2004, p.1033).

Viewed from this social activism angle, it has been noted that MT speaks on behalf

of the oppressed and for the most part in her speeches drawing on the suffering of the

powerless and destitute to appeal to aspects of religiosity of her audiences. In this

way, MT’s persuasive discourse highlights the plight of the poor and disenfranchised

and through a call to God seeks to delegitimize dominant discourses through

resistance to these discourses (Simounet, 2008). Accordingly, she has been

presented as “a hierarchy-attenuating agent” (Sidanius et al, 1996, p. 145) within the

framework of a social dominance (SD) model in which the stability of “group-based

social hierarchy (e.g. race, class, and gender systems)” is determined by “the

counterbalancing effect of two types of social agents, hierarchy-enhancing [HE]

agents and hierarchy-attenuating [HA] agents” (p. 146). HE agents, Sidanius et al

(1996) argue:

Tend to support and facilitate the disproportionate allocation of things

with positive social value…to dominant social groups and things with

negative social value to subordinate social groups. Everything being

equal, the SD model assumes that the more powerful these HE agents

are, the greater the degree of inequality between dominant and

subordinate social groups will be. ... Hierarchy attenuating agents are

defined as social institutions, social roles, and social ideologies that tend

to support and facilitate an egalitarian allocation of positive social value

to subordinate and dominant social groups" (p. 146).

Hence, MT speaks up for the delegitimized, subaltern members of society from the

vantage of her power of personage as a prominent member of the church. Studies

undertaken on related aspects of rhetoric appeal in the discourse of MT would

include, among others, Juarez (2007), Kuseski (1988), and Kamthorn (2007).

Juarez’s (2007) study concerned the religious rhetoric of MT based on analyzing her

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speeches and letters to identify three rhetorical tools of persuasion: redefinition,

identification and the focus on antithetical ideas in her message. Kuseski (1988) also

did a critical assessment of MT’s Noble Peace Prize acceptance speech to uncover

implicit or inductive arguments for her positions and to provide insight into the

layers of meaning in the key term “love” used in her speech. Kamthorn (2007)

investigated the persuasive devices used by four Nobel Peace Prize winners

including MT to focus on finding evocative and logical appeals and to explain the

persuasive style of each winner. The study concluded that Mother Teresa highly

relied on “motive words, parallelism, and repetition” in her speech (p.53) and,

contrastively, used a “small degree of logical appeal devices” (p.53). Therefore,

Kamthorn (2007) concluded that Mother Teresa’s “style is persuasion through

emotion” (p.53).

These studies could, admittedly, add to the body of knowledge on the discourse of

MT, as do others on the persuasive discourse of other political leaders using a range

of theoretical approaches: pragmatics (Alhudhaif, 2005), rhetorical analysis

(Alexander, 1983, Alkhirbash, 2010; Halmari, 2005; Warren, 1967; and

Loudenslager, 2012), ideological discourse analysis (Ghazali, 2006), religious

rhetoric/rhetorical criticism (Juarez, 2007), and critical assessment (Kuseski,

1988).While these studies benefit the body of research on persuasion as a whole in

terms of their methods and findings, the review of the literature shows that no

research has been conducted on MT’s persuasive discourse as sociopolitical activism

(see Sidanius et al, 1996; Simounet, 2008), probably best investigated via a socio-

critical framework that employs thematization of social issues, generic move

structures and textual patterns (see Hoey, 1983 on Problem-Response pattern in

discourse) , as well as discursive strategies (see e.g. Wodak & Meyer, 2009) by MT

as the dominant social actor. Put differently, the investigation would necessarily be

framed in terms of a broad CDA approach not only to describe, interpret, and explain

the persuasive rhetoric of MT at the social, discursive, and textual levels (Fairclough,

2001, 2003; van Dijk, 1998; Wodak & Meyer, 2009) as she endeavors to speak to her

audiences on behalf of the subaltern and the disenfranchised to delegitimize

dominant discourses, but also to critically examine the underlying power relations

and ideologies, “to show up connections which may be hidden from people–such as

the connections between language, power and ideology” (Fairclough, 1989, p. 5).

Further, given the multidisciplinary, interdiscursive nature of persuasive discourse,

the views of researchers such as Miller (1984), Simons (1990), and Maranhâo (1990)

need to be taken on board. This is because any genre (e.g. a public speech, an

advertisement or an editorial) of persuasive discourse is a form of social action

(Bhatia, 2004; Miller, 1984; Swales, 1990) that transcends disciplinary boundaries

and/or discourse practices in particular fields and therefore, is amenable to critical

analysis from a multidisciplinary perspective (Fairclough, 1995a, 2001; & 1985) and

which also takes into account the attendant discursive processes of intertextuality,

interdiscursivity and recontextualization (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997). The present

study constitutes an attempt in that direction to address the gap in the literature and to

extend existing findings on the persuasive discourse of MT.

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1.3 Research Questions

The following research questions attempt to address the problems noted above:

1. What are the textual patterns and generic move structures of MT’s selected

speeches in relation to their ceremonial rationales?

2. What topics, issues and themes highlight aspects of persuasion in the selected

speeches of MT?

3. What discursive strategies, argumentation schemes and related discourse

processes characterize persuasive discourse in the selected speeches of MT?

4. How do linguistic means realize the discursive strategies and structures of

persuasion in the speeches of MT selected for analysis?

5. What are the hidden ideological assumptions that underlie MT’s persuasive

discourse in her selected speeches?

1.4 Purpose and Scope of Study

The overarching concern of the present study is to investigate selected speeches of

MT to discover how the social act of persuasion was discursively constructed in the

genre. More specifically, the study attempts to identify textual patterns of persuasive

discourse in selected speeches of MT; to determine social moves and the attendant

communicative purposes; to examine the specific contents, issues, themes and topics

of the selected speeches; and to investigate the discursive strategies she used in the

ceremonial speeches as persuasive socialaction, the linguistic means which embodied

the persuasive functions of her discourse, and the underlying ideological assumptions

invested in her language of persuasiveness.

To identify the textual patterns of persuasive discourse of MT in the selected

speeches, the study employs the widely-used Hoey’s (2001) Situation-Problem-

Response-Evaluation (SPRE) pattern. In fact, “the Problem-Solution pattern is

frequently employed as a device for enhancing a text’s persuasive power”

(Georgakopoulou & Goutsos, 1997, p.146).Further, Polyzou (2008, p.18) argues

that“the notions of ‘communicative purpose’ and social activity are indeed primary

for social research, as they point us toward the ideological functions of genre”.

Hence, after applying Situation-Problem-Response-Evaluation (SPRE) model and

some aspects of genre scholarship, particularly the principle of the New Rhetoric

Genre School and the tradition of English for Specific Purposes, this study endeavors

to discover the rationale, communicative purposes and move structures of the

speeches of MT which have been selected for analysis. More specifically, the present

study is an applied genre analysis to examine the structure of MT’s speeches in

relation to acts of persuasion. As such, it does not aim at establishing a prototype of a

genre.

In applying CDA, the study endevours to investigate the links between the use of

language and the socio-political contects in which it takes place (Paltridge, 2006).

Fairclough’s three-dimensional, socio-critical approach helped the researcher in

mapping the three layers of analysis in MT’s discourse: the micro (text), the meso

(discursive strategies) and the macro (socio-cultural context) levels of description,

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interpretation, and explanation (Fairclough, 1995a, 2001; & 1985). As van Dijk

(1998, p.9) notes, “the links between micro, meso and macro accounts of discourse

[play a role in] the enactment and legitimization of power” (see also Wodak&Meyer,

2009), in our case, the persuasive power of MT’s discourse In addition, as power is

exercised through the ideological workings of language, this study seeks to unveil the

ideological assumptions of MT invested in her discourse through the categories

proposed by Van Dijk’s(2006) ideological discourse analysis framework. It needs to

be mentioned that in this study, van Dijk’s (2006) proposed categories serve as a

guideline to identify ideological assumptions of MT.

The study chiefly relied on the discourse-historical approach (Reisigl & Wodak,

2001) to identify the topics, issues and themes and to investigate the discursive

strategies and argumentative schemes employed in the selected speeches of MT to

persuade the audience. The study also mainly employed SFL principles advocated by

Halliday (1985; 1978) to conduct a linguistic analysis. The process types,

participants and circumstances involved in MT’s speeches were examined. In

addition, an analysis of a video of MT’s interview with Irish TV (1974) served to

authenticate and verify the findings of the study and to illuminate background

knowledge on MT’s social life, belief system and philosophy of life.

Three speeches of MT constituted the samples of the study. The speeches included

the Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech (1979) (henceforth, referred to as ‘NPP’),

A Class Day address (1982) (henceforth, referred to as ‘CD’) and her address at the

National Prayer Breakfast (1994) (henceforth, referred to as ‘NPB’). The NPP is one

of the five Nobel Prizes created by the Swedish industrialist, inventor, and

armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with prizes in the fields of Chemistry,

Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature. Since 1901, it has been annually

awarded (with some exceptions) to those who have “done the most or the best work

for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and

for the holding and promotion of peace congresses” (Nobel, 1895). CD is a day

during the commencement season on which the members of the graduating class in

U.S. colleges and schools celebrate the completion of their course with special

ceremonies. The NPB is an annual event held in Washington, D.C., on the first

Thursday of February. The event is in fact a series of meetings, luncheons, and

dinners the origin of which goes back to 1953. This event is mainly planned to be a

meeting for the political, social, and business first-class to congregate and establish

relationships (Gillman, 2013).

1.5 Theoretical Perspectives

As the phenomenon of persuasion enjoys a multifaceted nature, exploring it in the

discourse inevitably necessitates a multi-dimensional approach to reach deeper

interpretations and insights. Hence, the present study rested upon an integrated

theoretical perspective which included some aspects of genre scholarship as well as

critical linguistics,besides a focus on the discourse-historical approach (Wodak,

2009) and van Dijk’s (2006) categories of ideological discourse analysis. Moreover,

some aspects of the analytical tools of systemic functional linguistics served the

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theoretical framework for textual analysis. Hoey’s (2001) Problem-Solution pattern

also helped in identifying the textual patterns. These theories will be briefly

introduced in the following section. The detailed explanation of these theories is

provided in Chapter 2: Review of Literature.

1.5.1 Genre Research Traditions and Guidelines

As Hyland (2002) puts it, genre approaches have considerably impacted the way we

understand discourse in the last decade. In general, genres are viewed to be “abstract,

socially recognized ways of using language”(Hyland, 2003, p.21). Genre scholarship

has been significantly developed in three research traditions: (a) English for Specific

Purposes (ESP), (b) North American New Rhetoric studies, and (c) Australian

Systemic Functional Linguistics (Hyon, 1996).

English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

The genre tradition of ESP “draws heavily on Systemic Functional understandings of

text structure” (Hyland, 2002, p.115). In this school, “communicative purpose and

the formal properties of texts” are highlighted (Hyland, 2002). Scholars and

practitioners in this field have considered genres as “oral and written text types

defined by their formal properties as well as by their communicative purposes within

social contexts” (Hyon, 1996, p.695). Indeed, in ESP genre studies, the configuration

of texts is usually described as the working of “a series of moves, each of which may

contain one or more steps (e.g Swales, 1990, 2004)” (Paltridge & Starfield, 2011,

p.107). Genre here comprises a class of structured communicative events employed

by specific discourse communities whose members share broad communicative

purposes (Swales, 1990). According to Hyland (2002, p.115) “these purposes are the

rationale of a genre and help to shape the ways it is structured and the choices of

content and style it makes available.”

New Rhetoric Genre Studies

The New Rhetoric group of genre scholarship mainly consists of “North Americans

working within a rhetorical tradition and influenced by their work in universities and

first language composition” (Hyland, 2002, p.114). This tradition of genre draws on

the seminal paper by Miller (1984) and is represented in the work of Bazerman

(1988), Freedman and Medway (1994a), and Berkenkotter and Huckin (1995). In this

school, genre is regarded as “a socially standard strategy, embodied in a typical form

of discourse that has evolved for responding to a recurring type of rhetorical

situation” (Coe & Freedman, 1998, p.137). According to Hyland (2002, p.114), in

this group of genre studies, “methodologies tend to be ethnographic, rather than text

analytic, with the aim of uncovering something of the attitudes, values and beliefs of

the communities of text users that genres imply and construct”. Indeed, Hyland

(2002, p.114) believes that this area of genre studies “with its emphasis on the

socially constructed nature of genre and on unpacking the complex relations between

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texts and contexts, provides important insights and support for ideological views of

genre”.

To identify top-level generic structure of the three selected speeches of MT in the

present study, three guidelines of genre structures were taken from the literature. The

following section will briefly discuss the generic move structure guidelines for

analyzing MT’s NPP acceptance speech (1979), CD address (1982) at Harvard

University and NPB address (1994). Gamble and Gamble (1998) and Osborn and

Osborn (1991) state that the speakers of the speech of acceptance of an award take

the following action: they thank, recognize and give credit to those who bestow, and

those who help, reflect on values represented by the award, explain what the award

means to them and accept the award graciously. Fluharty and Ross (1996) also state

that the speaker of an acceptance speech normally: (1) expresses appreciation for the

gift or honor and shares his pleasure with those present; (2) relates himself (or the

group he represents) in some way to the giver, and praises him meaningfully without

overdoing it; (3) gives credit for his achievement to the help of others, to his

profession, or the group to which he belongs; and (4) tells what the award means to

him and how it will urge him on to greater efforts. On the other hand, Fortanet

(2005), who surveyed the structural pattern of Honoris Causa doctorate acceptance

speeches, found the following moves for acceptance speeches:

A Acknowledgements (the speaker expresses gratitude)

B Discourse organization (the speaker indicates to the audience how the

rest of the speech is organized)

C Content

C1 Interpretation (the speaker gives personal opinions, ideas or

arguments)

C2 Audience approach (the speaker tries to approach the audience by

sympathizing with them and looking for points they have in common)

C3 Facts(the speaker tries to support the arguments and ideas)

C4 Illustrations(the speaker triesto illustrate facts, such as examples,

anecdotes, quotations and visuals)

D Asides (includes information not relevant to the topic of the speech

(Source: Adapted from Fortanet, 2005, pp.40-41)

The present study adopts Fortanet’s (2005) generic structure as a base and combines

it with the moves suggested from Gamble and Gamble (1998), Osborn and Osborn

(1991), and Fluharty and Ross (1996). Therefore, it provides its own genre structure

quideline for the analysis of genre structure of MT’s NPP acceptance speech. As for

the action presented by the speaker of the commencement address (Class day) on

graduation, Gamble and Gamble (1998) and Osborn and Osborn (1991) believe that

the speakers usually praise and congratulate the graduating class, acknowledge how

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both graduates and members of the audience contributed to the success being

recognized and challenge the graduates to focus on the future.

In addition, Fluharty and Ross (1996) state that the speaker of the commencement

address presents the future roles of the graduates, seeks to stimulate and influence

their thinking and action and offers the graduates a hopeful but realistic approach to

one/or more of the major challenges. On the other hand, Gualt (2008, p.37) found

four prominent themes in literature for the genre of commencement addresses. These

themes are: (1) acknowledging the graduates and their achievements, (2) creating

identification between the speaker and the graduates, (3) presenting the world and its

challenges, and (4) instilling a sense of hope for the graduates’ future. The present

study combines the actions presented by Osborn and Osborn (1991),Fluharty and

Ross (1996), and the themes found by Gualt (2008) to reach a genre structure

guideline for the analysis of MT’s CD address (1982).

Finally, to analyze MT’s keynote address in NPB, the present study adopts Monroe’s

Motivated Sequence developed in 1953 by Alan Monroe. Monroe’s Motivated

Sequence is an organizational pattern which can help the speakers to address an

audience’s motives (Griffin, 2011). The sequence contains five distinct steps:

1) Attention(get the attention and interest of the audience)

2) Need(identify the need for a change, define the problem)

3) Satisfaction(define specific solutions)

4) Visualization(allow the audience to picture the benefits that will result from

the audience’s need being satisfied)

5) Action(call to action).

(Source: Ehninger, Monroe, & Gronbeck’s (1978, pp.142-63);Lucas (1995, pp.353-

361).

Australian Genre Theory

This orientation of genre theory is based on the work of Systemic Functional

Linguistics such as Halliday, Hasan, and Martin (see e.g. Halliday 1985a, 1994,

Halliday & Hasan 1989, and Martin 1989). This school of genre studies is often

known as ‘the Sydney School’ of genre studies (Hyon, 1996). This school “has

stressed the importance of the social purposes of genres and of describing the

schematic (rhetorical) structures that have evolved to serve these purposes” (Hyland,

2002, p.115). In this area, genre is seen as a staged, goal-oriented social process

(Martin, 1992). Scholars in this area attempt to construe the “distinctive stages, or

moves of genres together with the patterns of lexical, grammatical and cohesive

choices” (Hyland, 2002, p.115) which “construct the function of the stages of the

genres” (Rothery, 1996, p.93).

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1.5.2 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

CDA was developed in the late 1980s as a programmatic development in European

discourse studies spurred by Norman Fairclough; Ruth Wodak; Tuen van Dijk;

Fowler et.al; and Kress and Hodge. CDA aims at analyzing “opaque as well as

transparent structural relationships of dominance, discrimination, power and control

as manifested in language” (Wodak, 1995, p.204). According to Fairclough and

Wodak (1997):

CDA sees discourse-language use in speech and writing - as a form of

‘social practice’. Describing discourse as social practice implies a

dialectical relationship between a particular discursive event and the

situation(s), institution(s) and social structure(s), which frame it: The

discursive event is shaped by them, but it also shapes them. That is,

discourse is socially constitutive as well as socially conditioned- it

constitutes situations, objects of knowledge, and the social identities of and

the relationships between people and groups of people (p.258).

Fairclough (1995a) views CDA as a ‘three-dimensional’ framework where “the aim

is to map three separate forms of analysis onto one another: analysis of (spoken or

written) language texts, analysis of discourse practice (processes of text production,

distribution and consumption) and analysis of discursive events as instances of socio-

cultural practice” (p.2). This 3-dimensional framework is presented below in Figure

1.

Figure 1.1 Dimensions of Discourse and Discourse Analysis (Fairclough, 1995b,

p.98)

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In comparison with the three aspects of discourse (shown in Figure 1), Fairclough

(1995, p.98) identifies three dimensions of analysis in CDA:

• Description is the stage which is concerned with formal properties of the text.

• Interpretation is concerned with the relationship between text and interaction

by seeing the text as the product of the process of production and as a

resource in the process of interpretation.

• Explanation is concerned with the relationship between interaction and social

context, with the social determination of the process of production and

interpretation, and their social effects.

Moreover, Fairclough (2001, p.2) in his approach places “emphasis upon ‘common-

sense’ assumptions, which are implicit in the conventions according to which people

interact linguistically, and of which people are generally not consciously aware”.

These assumptions are called ideologies by Fairclough. Therefore, CDA is highly

concerned with revealing the hidden ideological assumptions. However, there are

various theories and models for analyzing ideology in discourse. Van Dijk (2006,

pp.735-39) in Politics, Ideology and Discourse advocated some categories for

ideological discourse analysis, which are briefly mentioned here and explained in

more detail in Chapter 2 (pp.53-54) and Appendix D (p.208). The categories include

Actor Description, Authority, Burden, Categorization, Comparison, Consensus,

Counterfactuals, Disclaimers, Euphemism, Evidentiality, Example/illustration,

Generalization, Hyperbole, Implication, Irony, Lexicalization, Metaphor, National

Self-Glorification, Negative Other-Presentation, Norm Expression, Number Game,

Polarization, Positive Self-Presentation, Populism, Presupposition, Vagueness, and

Victimization.

Fairclough based his theory on Systemic Functional Linguistics advocated by

Halliday (1978 & 1975). CDA is an approach the interpretive and explanatory nature

of which distinguishes it from other approaches. Rogers (2004, p.2) points out that

CDA “includes not only a description and interpretation of discourse in context, but

also offers an explanation of why and how discourses work”. Moreover, Titscher et.

al. (2000, p.147) state that “CDA conceptualizes languages as a form of social

practice and attempts to make human beings aware of the reciprocal influences of

language and social structure of which they are normally unaware (Fairclough, 1985;

van Dijk, 1993b; and Wodak, 1989)”.

They further highlight the distinguishing feature of CDA and state that “CDA – using

the concepts of intertextuality and interdiscursitivity – analyses relationships with

other texts, which is not developed in other methods” (Titscher & Jenner, 2000,

p.166). As Reisigl and Wodak (2009, p.90) point out, “intertextuality means that

texts are linked to other texts; both in the past and in the present”. They further argue

that “interdiscursitivity signifies that discourses are linked to each other in various

ways”. Moreover, they state that “texts can be assigned to genres” (p.90). The

following figure illustrates the interdiscursive and intertextual relationships between

discourses, discourse topics, genres, and texts:

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Figure 1.2 Interdiscursive and Intertetxtual Relationships between Discourses,

Discourse Topics, Genres and Texts (Reisigl &Wodak, 2009, p.92)

The above diagram shows the intersection of the topics to which a text refers and

also “the specific intertextual relationship of the thematic reference of one text to

another” (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009, p.92). In general, it illustrates how

texts/genres/discourses may be interrelated to serve the recontextualization of

specific topics/themes. Recontextualization refers to the “process of transferring

given elements to new contexts” (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009, p.90). The present study

takes Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework as an overall approach and mostly

focuses on one of the directions of CDA, namely, the Discourse-Historical

Approach, which is explained in the following section.

1.5.3 Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA)

Since the interrelations between discourse and society is complex and cannot be

adequately analyzed without combining linguistic and sociological approaches from

the point of view of critical discourse, therefore, Weiss and Wodak (2003, p.7) note

that “mediation between the social and the linguistic”, is required. Hence, DHA as a

theoretical foundation provides a vehicle which reconciles and bridges sociological

and linguistic categories. The remarkable feature of the discourse-historical approach

is its attempt to go beyond the linguistic dimension to integrate historical, political,

sociological and psychological dimensions in the analysis of a specific discursive

event.

Thus, DHA informs the present study to explore discursive strategies adopted by MT

to affect the beliefs, values, feelings, attitude, intention, motivation and viewpoints of

the audience and to move them to action. Indeed, DHA in critical discourse studies,

attempts to “integrate systematically all available background information in the

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analysis and interpretation of the many layers of a written or spoken text”

(Fairclough and Wodak, 1997, p.266). The approach bases its model on

sociolinguistics and socio-psychological perspectives on discourse. There are three

dimensions of analysis central to this approach: the analysis of the thematic/topical

content of the data, the discursive strategies employed, and the linguistic realizations

of these themes and strategies. Reisigl and Wodak (2001, p.44) place emphasis on “a

more or less intentional plan of practices adopted [by a speaker/writer] to achieve a

particular social, political, psychological or linguistic aim” labeled “strategies”.

Reisigl and Wodak (2001, pp.44-56) identify five of these strategies for the analysis

of racist discourse: “referential, predication, argumentation, perspectivation, and

intensification or mitigation”.

Referential (or nomination) strategies are strategies by means of which social actors,

objects/phenomena/events and processes/action are discursively constructed,

classified or represented by the speaker. At the linguistic level, nomination strategies

can be realized through devices such as proper names, collectives, abstract and

concrete objects. In predicational strategies, speakers qualify social actors, objects,

phenomena, events/processes and action (more or less positively or negatively). An

example of a predicational strategy that Reisigl and Wodak (2001, p.55) cite is from

an Austrian newspaper which stated “Foreigners are socio-parasites, who exploit the

welfare system”. Through argumentation strategies, the speakers try to persuade the

addressees of the truth and the normative rightness of claims. At the linguistic level,

argumentation strategies are realized mainly through topoi and fallacies. One

example of argumentation strategy is the use of topos or fallacy of irrationality such

as “I don’t believe the whole idea to combat climate change by emission limits is

rational” (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009, p.108).

Through perspectivation strategies, the speakers’ or writers’ positions and their

involvement or distance will be expressed. At the linguistic level, perspectivization

strategies are realized through devices such as “direct, indirect or free indirect

speech, quotation marks, discourse markers/particles, and metaphors” (Reisigl &

Wodak, 2009, p.94). In intensification or mitigation strategies, speakers strengthen or

weaken the epistemic status of their propositions. Mitigation strategies can be

identified by means of devices such as “topos or fallacy of backgrounding and

fallacy of uncertainty (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009, p.113). At the linguistic level,

intensifying strategies can involve using intensity markers or gradable adverbs which

emphasize or amplify a proposition (e. g very, really, absolutely).

DHA approach “considers intertextual and interdiscursive relationships between

utterances, texts, genres and discourses, as well as extra-linguistics social/

sociological variables, the history of an organization or institution, and situational

frames’’ (Wodak, 2009, p.90). Therefore, this approach also served the present study

by providing the ground for the researcher to investigate how the speaker draws upon

other texts and text types and how the text is constituted from diverse discourses and

genres to influence the audience.

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1.5.4 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)

SFL is a functional theory in linguistics which views text as social interaction. It is

called systemic because it views language as systems of meaning potential in human

interaction that are realized by various structures. In systemic functional linguistics

(SFL), four strata make up the system: context, meaning, sound and lexicogrammar.

The three SFL strata of context, meaning and lexico-grammar are shown in Figure

1.3.

Figure 1.3 Context, Semantics and Lexico-Grammar (Eggins, 2004, p.112)

Halliday (e.g. 1985b/1989, 1994) has argued that language is structured to make

three main kinds of meanings simultaneously. They are the ideational, interpersonal,

and textual meanings. These meanings are also referred to as language meta-

functions. According to Halliday (1971, p.332), through ideational function “the

speaker or writer embodies in language his experience of the phenomena of the real

world; and this includes his experience of the internal world of his own

consciousness: his reaction, cognitions, and perceptions, and also his linguistic acts

of speaking and understanding”. Through the interpersonal meta-function “users of

language establish, negotiate and assume their position in social relationships”

(Halliday, 1994, p.68). Further, “the textual strand of meaning, is concerned with the

potential the clause offers for its constituents to be organized differently, to achieve

different purposes” (Eggins, 2004, p.298).

Halliday’s model divides context, specifically the social context, into two types:

Context of Culture, and Context of Situation. The Context of Culture consists of two

levels: Ideology and Genre. Ideology refers to the whole set of beliefs, ideas and

values that constructs a person’s or a society’s world-view. Genre refers to the

culturally-appropriate, step-by-step structure for carrying out any particular goal-

oriented activity. Context of Situation is represented by Halliday as “a composition

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of three dimensions field, tenor and mode” (Halliday & Hasan, 1989, pp.45-46). The

Context of Situation is defined in terms of Register. The Lexico-grammar level

concerns the syntactic organization of words into utterances. This stratum of SFL

consists of three sub-systems: transitivity, mood and modality and theme/rheme .The

present study mainly focuses on the lexico-grammar level of SFL and mostly on the

transitivity system.

Transitivity: Transitivity is made up of three components: processes, participants,

and circumstance. The processes are divided into six types: material processes,

mental processes, relational processes, behavioral processes, verbal processes, and

existential processes. Every process type engages the associated participants (such as

Actor, Goal, Phenomenon, Receiver, etc.). Circumstances can occur with all process

types. There are different types of circumstances, which can be found in clauses

(such as extent, location, manner, cause, accompaniment, matter and role). In SFL,

ideational meanings are realized through the system of transitivity. The present study

benefits from SFL as a rich resource for identifying the linguistic means and devices,

which MT draws on to achieve persuasion. More specifically, exploring the six

process types, their related frequencies, participants and circumstances could aid the

researcher of the present study to access the ways in which MT sees the world and

the ways she views different objects and events.

1.5.5 Hoey’s SPRE Model

Hoey (2011, p.11) sees text “a site for interaction”. According to him, “text can be

defined as the visible evidence of a reasonably self-contained purposeful interaction

between one or more writers and one or more readers” (Hoey, 2001, p.11). Hoey

(2001, pp.145-169) distinguishes various types of popular patterns of text

organization such as “Goal achievement, Opportunity-Taking, Desire Arousal-

Fulfillment or Gap in Knowledge-Filling”. However, one of the most common is the

problem-solution pattern characterized by the following elements (Hoey, 2001,

p.123):

(1) an optional previous Situation (S), which provides a context for the pattern,

(2) the Problem (P) or “aspect of a situation requiring a response” (p.124),

(3) the Response to the problem (R), and

(4) Evaluation (E).

All these features can be seen in Hoey’s (2001) fabricated example:

(1) I was once a teacher of English Language. (2) One day some students came to me

unable to write their names. (3) I taught them text analysis. (4) Now they all write

novels. (p.123)

To summarize, the coherence among the theories selected for this study and the

rational for using these theories and their corresponding sub-theories/analytical

guidelines is explained here and illustrated schematically in Figure 1.4 (p.20). The

present study attempts to explore persuasive discourse from two aspects:

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form/structure and function. As for the part related to the surface of the

discourse/form, the study uses Hoey’s (2001) Problem-Solution pattern to identify

the formal construction of MT’s persuasive discourse. This specific pattern is chosen

based on the fact that “the Problem-Solution pattern is frequently employed as a

device for enhancing a text’s persuasive power” (Georgakopoulou and Goutsos,

1997, p.146).

Further, Genre theory is chosen as it focuses on the social construction of discourse

(Biber, Connor & Upton, 2007). Therefore, from different traditions of genre, the

study mainly focuses on New Rhetoric Genre Studies (NRGS) which views ‘genre as

social action’ (Miller, 1984). More specifically, this approach views genre as “a

typified rhetorical action” (Miller, 1984, p.159) with a particular ‘communicative

purpose’ (Swales, 1990) in response to a recurrent rhetorical situation. The

communicative purpose of the genre shapes the rational of the genre which has the

function of shaping the schematic structure of the discourse (Swales, 1990). As

shown in the following schematic structure, the three selected speeches of MT

belong to three different rhetorical situations and have different communicative

purposes and rationales which require different generic move structure guidelines to

analyze.

On the other hand, the study heavily draws on CDA. The link between CDA and the

genre approach chosen for this study lies in viewing discourse and genre as social

action. Fairclough’s (1995) three-dimensional framework is chosen because it helps

the analysis of discourse at different levels. For the level of text analysis, the study

employs SFL theory (Halliday, 1985) because it is concerned with the structure of

language to undertake its basic social functions (Fairclough, 1995). For the level of

discourse practice analysis, the study uses DHA (Wodak et al., 1990) to create the

link between linguistic subsystems and social structures (Wodak, 1997). Finally, for

the analysis of socio-cultural practice of discourse, the study refers to van Dijk’s

(2006) categories for ideological discourse analysis.

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Figure 1.4 Schematic Illustration of the Synchrony among the Theories,

Approaches and the Related Guidelines of Analysis Selected for the Study

1.6 Conceptual Framework

The following schematic conceptual framework was devised based on the theories

discussed in section 1.5 on theoretical perspectives.

Fortnet (2005)

Gamble & Gamble (1998)

Osborn & Osborn (1991)

Fluharty and Ross (1996)

Expressig

note of

thanks

Congratulatig

& advising

the graduates

Monro’sMotivated Sequene

(1978)

Adressig

social

problems

&

common

good

Gault (2008) Gamble & Gamble (1998) Osborn &

Osborn (1991) Fluharty

and Ross (1996)

Generic Move

Structure Guideline

Rationale Rationale Rationale Generic

Move Structure

Guideline

Generic Move

StructureGuideline

NPP acceptance speech CD address NPB address

3 2 1

Fairclough

DHL

Discourse

Practice

SFL/Transivity Text

Society

Van Dijk

(2006)

Ideology

Genre

NRG

CDA

Rhetorical Situation

Hoey’s (2001)

SPRE model

Social action/function Form

Persuasive Discourse

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Figure 1.5 Conceptual Framework

The above diagram consists of three boxes in linear order. These boxes are linked to

each other with double-headed arrows. As previously mentioned, Fairclough’s (1995,

p.98) three stages of discourse analysis: “Description, Interpretation, and

Explanation” guide the present study. In fact, the three boxes of the above diagram

are compatible with the three stages of discourse analysis. More specifically, the first

box from the top which includes “topics, issues, themes, and ideologies” represents

the explanation phase of social analysis. The second box from the top which shows

“genre as social action, discursive strategies, and argumentation schemes” represents

the interpretation stage or discourse practice stage of analysis. Finally, the last box,

which contains “textual pattern” and “linguistic means of realization”, represents the

description stage of mainly textual analysis.

In essence, the present study relies on DHA to identify topics and issues which bring

about persuasion in MT’s selected speeches. Topics and themes are semantic

macrostructures that, “at the global level of discourse, …influence what people see

as the most important information of text or talk, and thus correspond to the top level

of their mental representations” (van Dijk, 2001, p.358). Moreover, to discover MT’s

hidden ideological assumptions, the study refers to the categories advocated by van

Dijk (2006) for doing ideological discourse analysis. Van Dijk (2001, p.12) defines

ideologies as “a special form of social cognition shared by a social groups”. In

addition, to determine generic move structures in MT’s selected speeches, the present

study adopted aspects of New Rhetoric studies’ notion of genre, in particular, genre

as social action, and aspects of move-step analysis of genre in ESP (Swales, 1990).

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To classify discursive strategies, the present study also focused on the DHA’s five

categories that include nomination (referential), predication, argumentation,

perspectivization and intensification/mitigation (Wodak, 2001).

The third box from the top also includes argumentation schemes, which were

identified in the present study guided by DHA. In addition, at this stage of analysis

(i.e. interpretation), discourse processes of intertextuality, interdiscursitivity and

recontextualization which characterized persuasive discourse in the selected speeches

of MT were also described. “Intertextuality means that texts are linked to other texts,

both in the past and in the present. The process of transferring given elements to new

contexts is labeled recontextualization” (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009, p.90). Furthermore,

to identify textual patterns of the discourse, Hoey’s (2001) SPRE model was used.

Finally, to discover the linguistic means which realized the discursive strategies and

structures of persuasion in the selected speeches of MT for analysis, the present

study mainly relied on the system of transitivity in English as explained by SFL (the

lowest box in the above diagram).

As seen in Figure 3, the three boxes are linked to each other with double-headed

arrows. The arrows illustrate the synchrony or interdependence among the three

stages of analysis, as well as the interactive nature of the analyst’s movements

through description, interpretation, and explanation of the content of the boxes, “of

being ‘top-down’…as well as ‘bottom-up’” (Fairclough, 2001, p.121). To put it

differently, linguistic devices help communicative purposes, move structure,

discursive strategies, argumentative schemes, and finally topics get realized.

Persuasive discourse is eventually established and emerges drawing upon the

synchrony among the three stages of discourse: (1) topics, issues, themes; (2)

rationale, communicative purposes and move structures, discursive strategies, and

argumentation schemes; and (3) linguistic means.

1.7 Significance of Study

The findings of the analysis of the social act of persuasion in a religious discourse of

one of the most remarkable transformational/spiritual leaders of the world ; who also

acts as “a hierarchy-attenuating agent” (Sidanius et al, 1996, p.145) from a multi-

dimensional approach expects to contribute significantly to disciplines such as

discourse analysis, genre analysis, language studies, religious studies,

communication, leadership discourse, philosophy, sociology, politics, anthropology,

theology, management, rhetoric, English for religious purposes, and ESL/EFL

learning and teaching. The findings can add knowledge to the body of literature on

discourse of religion and spirituality as a vehicle of persuasion and a powerful

instrument used by religious/transformational leaders to control the actions and

minds of people (van Dijk, 1997). This is because, according to Denning (2007),

transformational leaders “change the world by generating enduring enthusiasm for a

common cause. They present innovative solutions to solve significant problems.

They catalyze shifts in people’s values and ideologies. They demonstrate willingness

to sacrifice personal interests when necessary. They help others get through critical

moments of crisis. They inspire people to want to change, so the positive energy

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sustains the change overtime” (p.22). Hence, the findings attained from the study will

provide profound insights and understanding of the way leaders employ public

speech as a primary vehicle in achieving their goals.

In addition, the multi-dimensional theoretical and methodological approach of this

study will afford a more helpful approach to understanding persuasion in discourse.

Identifying generic moves and steps from the perspective of social use and

construction of language in response to particular rhetorical situations can help genre

analysts by adding to the body of knowledge related to generic move structures of

the genres of Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech, Commencement address, and

National Prayer Breakfast address. In addition, investigating persuasion from the

viewpoint of social practice and analyzing it at three levels of text, discourse

practice, and socio-cultural practice can “make human beings aware of reciprocal

influences of language and social structure of which they are normally unaware”

(Titscher et al., 2000, p.146) and make visible the probably covert connection of

language, power, and ideology (Fairclough, 2001).The findings obtained from the

unveiling of ideological assumptions invested in the language, can also perhaps serve

the scholars in the fields of language and ideology, and language and identity.

Furthermore, describing topics, themes, discursive strategies, argumentative

schemes, and linguistic devices which characterize persuasion can more effectively

benefit politicians, religious/spiritual leaders, rhetoricians, and lawyers to achieve

their persuasive goals through the medium of language. In addition, analyzing the

way the speaker embodies in his language his experience of the real word, his

reactions, cognition, perceptions, and linguistic acts based on the use of processes,

participants, and circumstances (Halliday, 1971), can help scholars in the field of

Systemic Functional Linguistics. Finally, the findings from textual pattern analysis

based on Hoey’s (2001) Situation-Problem-Response-Evaluation pattern could

provide a better understanding of the formal construction of persuasive discourse. It

can also serve the field of EFL/ESL learning and teaching pedagogically.

1.8 Limitations of Study

Despite the attempts made by the researcher of the present study to provide a

comprehensive and thorough investigation of the phenomenon of persuasion in the

discourse of MT, encountering some limitations in conducting this study was

inevitable. One of the limitations is that the study confined its analysis to the spoken

discourse of MT, particularly to the public speeches given by MT on particular

formal and ceremonial occasions. Therefore, the study is confined to exploring three

selected speeches of MT vis-à-vis the NPP acceptance speech (1979), the CD address

at Harvard University (1982), and her address at the NPB (1994).

Due to time limitation, it was beyond the scope of the study to investigate both the

spoken and written (e.g., letters, diaries, etc.) genres of MT’s discourse. However,

expanding the analysis to exploring both the spoken and written genres of the

discourse of MT could deepen and broaden the scope of understanding persuasion in

her discourse. Moreover, this study has not sought to investigate the paralinguistic

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features (such as the body language, gestures, facial expressions, tone and pitch of

voice) of the discourse of MT. It is suggested that in future studies adding this

dimension of discourse to the analysis will provide more transparent insight into the

phenomenon of persuasion.

Another limitation that needs to be acknowledged in this study pertains to obtaining

background information on MT to support the findings. Due to the far distance

between the researcher and MT’s center, conducting face-to-face interviews with

MT’s center was impractical. Moreover, due to some set considerations and

regulations made by MT’s center, the request to have telephone or e-mail interviews

with the center was also rejected. Therefore, using videos of MT’s exclusive

interview with Irish TV (1974) was recommended by MT’s center as an authentic

and valid option to benefit the study. Hence, gaining background information about

MT in this study is confined to analyzing the recommended videos which are

available on the YouTube website. This study is qualitative in nature. However, the

quantitative approach (descriptive) was used for counting frequencies of various

units of analysis to consolidate and validate the qualitative analysis.

1.9 Definition of Key Terms

In the following section, some key words used in the present study are explained and

defined:

1.9.1 Persuasion

According to Bettinghaus and Cody (1973, p.10), persuasion is “a conscious attempt

by one individual to change the attitudes, beliefs or the behavior of another

individual or group of individuals through the transmission of some message”. As

this study views persuasion as a social act and focuses on unfolding the attempts

made by MT to affect and to influence the audience, the definition of persuasion in

this study necessitates us to specify the type of attempt made by the speaker, the

scope of the elements, which are assumed to be affected in the audience and the

nature of the tools of persuasion employed by the speaker to persuade the audience.

Therefore, the researcher has phrased the working definition of persuasion for the

purpose of this study in this way: persuasion may be understood as a conscious or

unconscious attempt by one individual to affect the beliefs, values, feelings, attitudes,

intention, motivation and viewpoints of one individual or a group of individuals and

to move them to action by using overt or covert oral means of persuasion.

1.9.2 Genre

A genre, in its most general term, may be defined as “a socially ratified way of using

language in connection with a particular type of social activity” (Fairclough, 1995a,

p.14). However, different scholars have defined genre from different orientations,

which leads to numerous definitions of the notion of genre. Simmons (2005, p.302)

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believes that genres are “social constructions that have developed in response to a

social need”. Miller (1984) views genres as “typified rhetorical action based in

recurrent situations” (p.159). For her, a genre represents a conventional category of

discourse based in large-scale typification of rhetorical action; as action, it requires

meaning from situation and from the social context in which that situation arose…A

genre is a rhetorical means for mediating private intentions and social exigence; it

motivates by connecting the private with the public, the singular with the recurrent

(p.162).

On the other hand, Martin (1984, p.25) describes genre as “a staged, goal-oriented,

purposeful activity in which speakers engage as members of our culture”. Indeed, for

Martin (1985, p.250), “genres are how things get done, when language is used to

accomplish them”. For Swales (1990, p.58) “a genre comprises a class of

communicative events, the members of which share some set of communicative

purposes”, and Bhatia (1993, p.13) views genre as “a recognizable communicative

event characterized by a set of communicative purpose(s) identified and mutually

understood by the members of the professional or academic community in which it

regularly occurs”. However, the present study views genre as a rhetorical, purposeful

action/means developed in response to a social need, which requires meaning from

situation and from the social context in which that situation arose.

1.9.3 Topics/Themes

According to Wodak and Meyer (2009, p.29), “DHA unfolds a four-step strategy of

analysis: after (1) having established the specific contents or topics of a specific

discourse; (2) the discursive strategies are investigated; then (3), the linguistic means

(as types) and the specific, context-dependent linguistic realizations (as tokens) of

the discriminatory stereotypes are examined ”. The contents or topics of a discourse

represent what a discourse ‘is about’; they embody the most important information of

a discourse. “Topics in discourse usually cannot be directly observed, but are usually

inferred from or assigned to discourse by language users” (van Dijk 2001, p.102).

Reisigl and Wodak (2009, p.110) note that “identifying the main discourse topics is

based on generalizing the established list of themes”.

1.9.4 Discursive Strategies

Reisigl and Wodak (2001, p.44) argue that language users adopt “a more or less

intentional plan of practices to achieve a particular social, political, psychological or

linguistic aims”. In DHA, these goal-oriented practices are called discursive

strategies, which need to be paid attention to in the course of discourse analysis.

Projektteam (1989, p.3) defines discursive strategies as “a set of processes, which

operate consciously/unconsciously at different levels of communication”. A number

of discursive strategies and various typologies for them have been proposed (see

Chilton 2004; Chilton & Schäffner 1997; Hart 2010; Reisigl & Wodak 2001; Wodak

2001). In racist discourse, these include reference, predication, argumentation,

perspectivation, and intensification or mitigation (Reisigl & Wodak 2001, pp.44-56).

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Referential (or nomination) strategies are strategies by means of which speakers

classify social actors (see Van Leeuwen, 1996). In predicational strategies, speakers

assign to social actors evaluative – positive or negative – attributes. In

argumentation strategies, predications function as topoi to justify discrimination

and/or exclusion. Within argumentation theory, ‘topoi’ are “parts of argumentation,

which belong to the obligatory, either explicit or inferable premises. They are

content-related warrants or ‘conclusion rules’, which connect the argument or

arguments with the conclusion, the claim” (Reisigle &Wodak 2001, pp.73-74). In

perspectivation strategies, speakers express their own point of view by appraising the

propositions they are communicating. In intensification or mitigation strategies,

speakers strengthen or weaken the epistemic status of propositions.

1.9.5 Linguistic Means

Linguistic means in this study refer to the linguistic devices that are drawn upon by

the speaker in order to exert influence and to persuade the audience. The linguistic

means in this study are mainly explored from the SFL point of view in terms of

transitivity (Eggins, 2004; Lock, 1996).

1.9.6 Intertextuality

According to Foucault (1972, p.98), “there can be no statement that in one way or

another does not actualize others”. For Kristeva (1986, p.39), intertextuality refers to

“the insertion of history (society) into a text and of this text into history”. She states

that “any text is constructed as a mosaic of quotations; any text is the absorption and

transformation of another” (Kristeva, 1986, p.37). For Fairclough (2003, p.39),

intertextuality refers to “relations between one text and other texts, which are

external to it yet in some way brought into it including ‘thoughts’ from somewhere

else-‘allusions or evocations”. Intertextuality may operate in various forms.

Fairclough (1992, p.85) differentiates between ‘manifest intertextuality’ and

‘constitutive intertextuality’ when he states: “In manifest intertextuality, other texts

are explicitly presented in the text under analysis; they are ‘manifestly ’marked or

cued by features on the surface of the text, such as quotation marks” (Fairclough,

1992, p.104). However “the constitutive intertextuality refers to the complex relation

of genres or discourse types’ convention. It is the configuration of discourse

conventions when the text is produced” (Fairclough, 1992, p.105). Moreover, for

Fairclough (1992, p.124), interdiscursitivity is “constitutive intertextuality,” which

refers to a “question of which genres, discourses and styles it draws upon, and how it

works them into particular articulations” (Fairclough, 2001, p.124). However,

interdiscursitivity has been simply defined by Wodak (2001, p.37) as “the

intersection between discourse A and discourse B” through “topics on other

discourses” (Reisigl &Wodak, 2009, p.90).

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1.9.7 Recontextualization

The notion of recontextualization has been defined as “the dynamic transfer-and-

transformation of something from one discourse/text-in-context…to another” (Linell,

1998, p.154). In addition, Berstein’s (1990, 1996) definition of a recontextualization

as a representation of social events was adopted by Fairclough (1989, 2000, 2003)

and Chouliaraki and Fairclough (1999). In fact, in representing a social event, one is

incorporating it within the context of another social event, which means that “if an

element is taken out of a specific context”, it is being de-contextualized, and “if the

respective element is then inserted into a new context”, the process of

recontextualization occurs (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009, p.90). In fact “particular social

fields, particular networks of social practices, and particular genres” (Fairclough,

2003, p.139) have associated with them specific ‘recontextualizing principles’

(Bernstein, 1990). These principles influence concrete or abstract representation of

social events and whether or how some elements of these events are “excluded, some

included and given greater or lesser prominence” (Fairclough, 2003, p.139). The

following principles of recontextualization were developed by Fairclough (2003,

pp.139-40).

Presence (e.g. which elements of events, or events in a chain of events, are

present/absent, prominent/backgrounded?),

Abstraction (e.g.d what is the degree of abstraction/generalization from

concrete events?),

Arrangement (e.g. How are events ordered?),

Additions (e.g., What is added in representing particular events –

explanations/legitimations (reasons, causes, purposes), evaluations?).

1.9.8 Ideology

For Reisigl and Wodak (2009, p.88), ideology is seen as “an (often) one-sided

perspective or worldview composed of related mental representations, convictions,

opinions, attitudes and evaluations, which is shared by members of a specific social

group”. Moreover, Fairclough (2001, p.2) views ideologies as “common-sense

assumptions, which are implicit in the conventions according to which people

interact linguistically, and of which people are generally not consciously aware”.

Van Dijk (1998, pp.8-9) also defines ideology as “the basis of the social

representations shared by members of a group” so that there is “a mental framework

of beliefs about society and the cognitive and social functions of such a framework

for groups”. Ideology as a system of beliefs can be expressed in “symbols, rituals,

discourse and other social and cultural practices” (van Dijk 1998, p.26).

1.10 Organization of Thesis

The main text of this thesis is organized into six chapters. Chapter one provides the

introduction to the study. It presents the background to the subject of the study

coupled with the need to carry out research in the field of this study. It also briefly

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explicates the theoretical framework as well as the purpose and scope of the study.

Finally, definitions of the key terms used in the present study are provided.

Chapter Two reviews the related literature pertinent to the subject of the study. It

begins with introductory information on MT together with a brief summary of the

main tenets of Catholic Church Social Teachings. It then outlines the genre of the

selected speeches as Ceremonial speeches or Special Occasion speeches. Later,

properties of religious discourse and language of persuasion is discussed. Next, the

theories employed in the study are explained in detail in addition to the support and

rationale for using them in this study. A critical review of the related studies that

exist in the literature pertaining to each theory follows before a summary of the

chapter.

Chapter Three attends to the methodology of the study. First, data sources and data

collection procedures are explained. Next, the chapter presents the data analysis

framework together with the various tools of analysis and the rationale for using

them. Further, Chapter Four reports the findings and provides discussion pertinent to

textual patterns analysis, generic move structures, topics, themes, and transitivity

analysis of MT’s three selected speeches. Then, Chapter Five offers the results and

explanation related to the analysis of discursive strategies of MT’s selected speeches

along with a brief discussion of the discursive processes of intertextuality,

interdiscursitivity, and recontextualization. It also demonstrates the ways by which

the answers to research questions were achieved. Finally, the sixth chapter draws the

main conclusions of the study. This chapter mainly summarizes the thesis and

includes the implications of the findings before making suggestions for further

research.

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