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ANG LAY MOOI JUHAIDA BT MOHD RAMLI

Definisi PerkembanganPaul Eggan dan Don Kauchak - Perkembangan adalah perubahan yang berurutan dan kekal dalam diri seseorang hasil daripada pembelajaran, pengalaman dan kematangan Crow dan Crow - Perkembangan merupakan perubahan secara kualitatif serta cenderung ke arah yang lebih baik dari segi pemikiran, rohani, moral dan sosial Kartono - Psikologi perkembangan (psikologi anak) adalah suatu ilmu yang mempelajari tingkah laku manusia yang dimulai dengan period masa bayi, anak pemain, anak sekolah, masa remaja sampai period adolesense menjelang dewasa.

Definisi Perkembangany Perkembangan ialah aspek perubahan yang dialami

individu yang bersifat kualitatif, tidak dapat diukur tetapi jelas kelihatan berubah melalui peredaran masa y Perkembangan berlaku daripada peringkat permulaan percambahan sel sehingga akhir hayat organism

Teori-teori Perkembangan1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Teori psikoanalitik Teori kognitif Teori perkembangan psikososial Teori ethologi Teori ekologi Teori perkembangan behaviorisme dan sosial kognitif

Teori psikoanalitik Sigmund FreudTiga alam kesedaran:i)

Alam sedar--pemikiran, perasaan dan ingatan.

ii) Alam pra-sedar--pengalaman, ingatan persepsi dan perasaan. iii) Alam tidak sedar--bahagian terbesar dan pendorong asas kepada tingkah laku. Mengandungi semua naluri serta keinginan manusia.

Teori kognitif PiagetPeringkat deria motor (0-2 tahun) y guna deria motor untuk berinteraksi. y tidak mempunyai konsep kewujudan objek. Peringkat praoperasi (2-7 tahun) y guna simbol untuk mewakili aspek persekitarannya. y pertuturan bersifat egosentrik. y belum dapat konsep kebalikan, pengekalan, dan transformasi. y pemikiran realisme, animisme dan artifisialisme

Peringkat operasi konkrit (7-11 tahun) y berfikir secara logik dan konkrit y boleh selesai masalah secara cuba-jaya Peringkat operasi formal (12 tahun ke atas) y berfikir secara abstrak konsep hipotetikal dan akibat jangka panjang sesuatu aksi.

Teori perkembangan psikososial EriksonBerdasarkan lima prinsip,iaitu : y manusia mempunyai keperluan asas yang sama. y perkembangan individu bergantung kepada tindak balas terhadap keperluan-keperluan asas. y perkembangan manusia mengikut tahap-tahap yang tertentu. y setiap tahap mempunyai konflik dan konflik ini mesti diatasi sebelum individu dapat berfungsi dengan jayanya pada tahap berikutnya. y kegagalan mengatasi konflik pada sesuatu tahap akan menjejaskan perkembangan tahap berikutnya.

Teori ethologi Lorenzy mengkaji tingkah laku manusia dan binatang

dalam keadaan semula jadi.

y evolusi dan faktor biologi berperanan penting

dalam perkembangan manusia dan pengalaman awal individu adalah penting.

y Kesimpulannya: kita tidak akan memahami

perkembangan kanak-kanak sekiranya kita tidak memerhati tingkah laku dalam persekitaran semula jadi mereka.

Teori ekologiy menekankan pengaruh persekitaran ke atas perkembangan organisma. y dikemukakan oleh Bronfenbrenner(1979) yang melihat persekitaran

ekologikal manusia berinteraksi.

y berdasakan hubungannya dengan konteks di mana individu itu y lima sistem persekitaran ekologikal ialah:

(a) Sistem Mikro (b) Sistem Meso (c) Sistem Ekso

(d) Sistem Makro (e) Sistem Krono

Teori perkembangan behaviorisme dan sosial kognitify teori behaviorisme menekankan tingkah laku yang dapat dilihat dan diukur. y perubahan berlaku kerana pengalaman y benda yang wujud boleh dilihat dan diperhatikan y pemikiran tidak dapat dilihat tetapi pemerhatian boleh dibuat terhadap perlakuan yang dizahirkan. y tiga versi utama pendekatan behaviorisme ialah: 1. Teori Pelaziman Klasik Pavlov 2. Teori Operan Skinner 3. Teori Sosial Kognitif Bandura

Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perkembangan manusia

Faktor Endogen (dalam individu)y dibawa oleh individu sejak dalam kandungan hingga

kelahirany faktor keturunan atau pembawaan y contoh: baka, faktor Rh darah, kesan X-Ray, dadah dan

alkohol, umur Ibu

Faktor Eksogeny faktor yg datang dari luar diri individu y contoh: rakan sebaya, sekolah, tempat tinggal, media

elektronik, persekitaran dunia

Ujian Perkembangany merupakan satu alat yang digunakan untuk mengukur

proses perkembangan manusia daripada peringkat bayi, kanak-kanak, remaja, dewasa sampai ke peringkat detik kematian

Tujuan:y membolehkan kita memahami mengapa seseorang bertingkah laku

sedemikian

y membantu individu memahami diri mereka sendiri y membantu pendidik merancang objektif dan matlamat pembelajaran

yang sesuai

y merancang peneguhan yang sesuai dalam usaha mengawal tingkah

laku dan memotivasikan seseorang individu

y meramal tingkah laku, kegemaran dan apa yang tidak disenangi

seseorang individu pada peringkat umur tertentu.

Types of development tests:y y y y y y y y y y y

infant development scales sensory-motor tests speech and hearing tests neuropsychological tests that measure neurological functioning preschool psychoeducational batteries early screeners developmental surveys or profiles early learning profiles kindergarten or school readiness tests tests of play behavior social skills and social acceptance tests

Examples of development testsy CLINICAL NEWBORN BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT SCALE (CLNBAS) was

developed in 2004 for use by clinicians.

y ARNOLD L. GESELL TESTS One of the earliest development tests was designed

by Arnold L. Gesell, who founded the Clinic of Child Development at Yale University in 1911

y NANCY BAYLEY SCALES OF INFANT DEVELOPMENT Developmental

psychologist Nancy Bayley authored the Bayley Scales of Infant Development in the mid-twentieth century

y Denver Developmental Screening Test (DDST) is a widely-used test of motor,

language, speech, and interpersonal skills for children from birth to six years of age test for assessing visual-spatial skills in children aged one year and six months to six years.

y Merrill-Palmer Scale of Mental Tests (MPSMT) is widely used as a nonverbal

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERY

Rationale of Test BatteryChildren who manifest learning and behavioral difficulties show developmental lags in one or more of the following six areas of psychological functioning: sensory-motor and movement skills Language Perception (visual, auditory and tactilekinesthetic) Higher cognitive processes Social adjustment Emotional development

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERYIn recent years, standardized differential ability tests have been developed for the assessment of language abilities (Kirk, McCarthy, and Kirk, 1968); auditory perception(Wepman, 1958); visual perception (Frostig, 1966); and cognitive abilities (Wechsler, 1949) However no satisfactory procedure has existed for assessing sensory-motor and movement skills abilities It became apparent to Dr. Marianne Frostig and others at the Center of Educational Therapy that a differential abilities sensory-motor and movement skills assessment procedure and a remediation program were needed. Developing an age-scaled Movement Skills Test Battery that would be useful as an evaluative instrument to assess strengths and weaknesses in the sensory motor development of elementary school age.


Importance of Sensory- Motor functionsWarner (1957) and Piaget (1966), in particular, have stressed the importance of sensory-motor activity as basic to the child s intellectual and perceptual development. Ajuriaguerra, a neurologist, stresses the importance of sensory-motor functions to language processes(Roberts, 1966) Movement education based upon an adequate assessment procedure can be beneficial to the child s feelings of self-worth and his development of social skills (Frostig and Maslow, 1970).


The Test B tterSUBTESTS Bead Stringing Fist/edge/palm Block Transfer Bean bag Throw Sitting/bending /reaching SUBTESTS Shuttle run Changing bod position Sit-ups Walking board One foot balance: Eyes open Eyes closed Chair push-ups

Standing broad jump


Factor Validity5 factors are reported here for all ages This number satisfied the usual criteria of Eigen value of about 1.00 and of potential meaningfulness, and also permitted easy comparison of the seven age groups. A B C D E Hand-Eye Coordination (Test 1,2,3) Balance (Test 10 & 11a,b) Strength (Test 6,7,8,9,12) Flexibility (Test 5) Visually Guided Movement (Test 4)


Administration and ScoringGeneral Procedures

Should be administered in the same order as presented on the Profile of Abilities Form

Administered individually to each subject

The tests require the use of a stop watch

Record the raw scores on the Profile of Abilities and the scaled scores added later

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERYTest 1 Bead Stringing Time limit: 30 seconds Score : Number of beads on lace at the end of 30 seconds. If completes task before time limit, record his time in seconds in the Notes column on the profile sheet, then convert it to a score in accordance with the table below before conversion to scale scores.Time 28-29 27 26 25 24 Raw Score 19 20 21 22 23 Time 23 22 21 20 Raw Score 24 25 26 27

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERYTest 2 Fist/Edge/Palm Time limit: 20 seconds per hand Score : Number of correct cycles for both hands combined

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERYTest 3 Block Transfer Time limit: 30 seconds Score : Number of blocks transferred . If completes task before time limit, record his time in the Notes column and find his raw score in the table below

Time 28-29 27 26 25 24

Raw Score 19 20 21 22 23

Time 23 22 21 20

Raw Score 24 25 26 27

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERYTest 4 Bean Bag Target Throw Score : Three points for each hit in the 5 square Two points for each hit in the 11 square One point for each hit in the 18 square

18 (1) 11 (2) 5 (3)

10 Feet 15 Throws

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERYTest 5 Sitting/Bending/Reaching Score : Farthest point (best of three trials) reached by fingertips measured to the nearest centimeter. The 30cm is the heel. Score above 30 if fingers reached beyond his heel and a score less than 30 if not able to reach the heel.

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERYTest 6 Standing broad jump Score : The score is the distance of the best jump measured to the nearest cm from the restraining line to the nearest heel ( Allow three trials. Record the distance for trial to the nearest cm in the Notes column)

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERYTest 7 Shuttle Run Score : Total number of seconds needed to complete task.

2 feet apart

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERYTest 8 Changing Body position Time Limit : 20 seconds Score : Number of times changes of body position. Each complete cycle counts two points, i.e., standing to lying counts one and lying to standing counts one.

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERYTest 9 Sit-Ups Time Limit: 30 seconds Score : Number of complete sit-ups(count when elbow touch the knees executed within time limit.


Test 10 Walking board Task A wide surface Task B narrow surface Score : The score on each task is the number of steps that is able to walk heel-to-toe with hands on hips and maintain balance. The total score is the sum of the two task scores. Discontinue a trial hands remove from hips or loses balance. Maximum Scores: A- 24 points (12 per trial) B- 24 points (12 per trial)

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERYTest 11a& 11b One Foot Balance 11a eyes open 11b eyes closed Time Limit : 30 seconds for 11a & 20 seconds for 11b Score : Total number of seconds maintaining the balance up to the limit for each part. Maximum Scores: 11a- 30 points 11b- 20 points

FROSTIG MOVEMENT SKILLS TEST BATTERYTest 12 Chair Push-Ups Time Limit 20 seconds Score : Number of push-ups performed in 20 seconds


Recording and ProfilingThe Profile of Abilities summary sheet groups the subtests that consistently had relatively high loadings on a particular factor. For example, the factor interpreted as hand-eye coordination consistently saturated subtests 1,2 &3. To obtain the Summary Scores for the coordination , strength and other ability factors, sum the Scale Scores for that ability and divide by the number of subtests comprising that factor to obtain the mean Scale Score. The Composite Mean Scale Score is obtained by summing the Scale Scores for the 13 subtests and dividing this total by 13.

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