serangga gongok

8/12/2019 serangga Gongok

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Gonggok atau juga dikenali sebagai ulat geluntur, sepah bulan atau mentibangmerupakan

sejenisartropoddengan badan berbentuk silinder yang panjang. Badan gonggok

mempunyai rangka luar (exoskeleton) dan terbahagi kepada antara 20 hingga 100 segmen

yang bersambungsambung. !etiap segmen mempunyai dua pasang kaki(ke"uali segmen

pertama selepas kepala yang tiada kaki langsung, dan beberapa segmen selepasnya yang

mempunyai hanya sepasang kaki). #erdapat kirakira 12,000 jenis spesies gonggok dalamkirakira 1$0 %amili.&1'

Gonggok berjalan.

Gonggok menggulungkan diri

apabila diganggu

#emporal range $2*+0a

-re

/

!

-#

3-g

4

5ate !ilurianto 6e"ent

6usty millipede (#rigoniulus

"orallinus)

!"ienti%i" "lassi%i"ation

3ingdom

7nimalia

-hylum 7rthropoda
http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artropodhttp://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artropodhttp://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakihttp://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonggok#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precambrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordovicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triassichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleogenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neogenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigoniulus_corallinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigoniulus_corallinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropodhttp://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakihttp://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonggok#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precambrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordovicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triassichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleogenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neogenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigoniulus_corallinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigoniulus_corallinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropodhttp://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artropod


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!ubphylu

m

yriapoda

lass iplopoda

e Blain8illein

Ger8ais, 1*$$

!ub"lasses

-eni"illata

hilognatha

7rthropleuridea(extin"t)

i8ersity

19 orders, ". 12,000 spe"ies

illipedes ("lassiplopoda) are myriapodousarthropodsthat ha8e t:o pairs o%

legson most body segments. ;a"h doublelegged segment is a result o% t:o single

segments %used together as one (the name


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$.1 Habitat

$.2 iet

$. -redators and parasites

$.$ e%en"e me"hanisms

F illipedes in relation to people 9 lassi%i"ation

E !ee also

* 6e%eren"es

I ;xternal links

;8olution&edit'

#his "lass o% arthropod is thought to be among the %irst animals to ha8e "olonised land

during the !iluriangeologi" period. #hese early %orms probably ate mossesand

primiti8e 8as"ular plants. #he oldest kno:n land "reature,-neumodesmus ne:mani,

:as a 1 "m (0.I in) long millipede, and li8ed $2* million years ago.&'Dn the Jpper

arboni%erous($0 to 2*0million years ago),7rthropleurabe"ame the largest

kno:n land in8ertebrate o% all time, rea"hing lengths o% up to 2.9 m (* %t 9 in).

illipedes, "entipedes, and other terrestrial arthropods attained 8ery large siKes in

"omparison to modern spe"ies in the oxygenri"h en8ironments o% the e8onianand

arboni%erousperiods, and some "ould gro: larger than one metre. 7s oxygen le8els

lo:ered through time, arthropods be"ame smaller in siKe.&$'

hara"teristi"s&edit'

#he 4orth 7meri"an millipede4ar"eus ameri"anus+ head :ith

eyes, antennae, and enlarged

"ollum

illipede anterior anatomy

illipedes range %rom 2 mm

(0.0EI in) to around F "m (1$

in) in length,&F'and "an ha8e as

%e: as ele8en to o8er one hundred segments. #hey are generally bla"k or bro:n in "olour,

although there are a %e: brightly "oloured spe"ies.

#he millipedeLs most ob8ious %eature is its large number o% legs. Ha8ing many short legs

makes millipedes rather slo:, but the many legs pushing in unison pro8ides po:er%ul

strength %or burro:ing.

Head&edit'

#he head o% a millipede is typi"ally rounded abo8e and %lattened belo: and bears a pair
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Diethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Predators_and_parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Defence_mechanismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Millipedes_in_relation_to_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://tools.wmflabs.org/timescale/?Ma=340%E2%80%93280http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_years_agohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MyrEncylopedia-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MyrEncylopedia-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Diethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Predators_and_parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Defence_mechanismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Millipedes_in_relation_to_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://tools.wmflabs.org/timescale/?Ma=340%E2%80%93280http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_years_agohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MyrEncylopedia-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=3


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o% largemandiblesin %ront o% a platelike stru"ture "alled a gnatho"hilarium(


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illipedes breathe through t:o pairs o% spira"leslo"ated 8entrally on ea"h segment.&11'

;a"h opens into an internal pou"h, and "onne"ts to a system o% tra"heae. #he heart runs

the entire length o% the body, :ith an aortastret"hing into the head. #he ex"retory

organs are t:o pairs o%malpighian tubules, lo"ated near the midpart o% the gut. #he

digesti8e tra"t is a simple tube :ith t:o pairs o% sali8ary glandsto help digest the %ood.

&*'

6eprodu"tion and gro:th&edit'

;pibolus pul"hripesmating

illipedes sho: a di8ersity o% mating styles and stru"tures. Dn the basal

order-olyxenida, males deposit spermatophoresthat are subseOuently pi"ked up by

%emales.&11'Dn all other millipede groups, males possess one or t:o pairs o% modi%ied

legs "alled gonopods :hi"h are used to trans%er sperm to the %emale during "opulation.

#he lo"ation o% the gonopods di%%ers bet:een groups in males o% the-entaKoniathey are

lo"ated at the rear o% the body and kno:n as telopods, :hile in Helminthomorpha + the

8ast majority o% spe"ies + they are lo"ated on the Eth body segment.&9'7 %e: spe"ies are

parthenogeneti", ha8ing %e:, i% any, males.&12'&1'

Gonopod morphology o% /xidus

gra"ilis(-aradoxosomatidae). Palse

"olor!;image, s"ale bar 0.2 mm

Gro:th stages o%4emasoma(4emasomatidae), :hi"h rea"hes reprodu"ti8e maturity in

stage Q. #he mature gonopods de8elop %rom the legs o% segment E.Gonopod morphology is the predominant means o% determining spe"ies among

millipedes the "omplex stru"tures di%%er mu"h bet:een spe"ies but 8ery little :ithin a

spe"ies.&1$'

#he genital openings are lo"ated on the third segment, and are a""ompanied in the male

by one or t:openes:hi"h deposit the sperm pa"kets onto the gonopods. Dn the %emale,

the genital pores open into paired small sa"s "alled "yphopods or 8ul8ae, :hi"h are

"o8ered by a small hoodlike "o8er, and are used to store the sperm a%ter "opulation.&*'

illipedespermis a%lagellate (la"ks a %lagellum), a uniOue trait among myriapods.&9'

Pemales lay bet:een ten and three hundred eggs at a time, depending on spe"ies,

%ertilising them :ith the stored sperm as they do so. any spe"ies simply deposit theeggs on moist soil or organi" detritus, but some "onstru"t nests lined :ith dried%ae"es,

and may prote"t the eggs :ithin silk "o"oons.&*'Dn most spe"ies the %emale abandon the

eggs a%ter laying but some spe"ies in the orders -latydesmidaand!temmiulidapro8ide

parental "are%or eggs and young.&11'

#he young hat"h a%ter a %e: :eeks, and typi"ally ha8e only three pairs o% legs, %ollo:ed

by up to %our legless segments. 7s they gro:, they "ontinually moult, adding %urther
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiraclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrate_tracheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aortahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malpighian_tubulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malpighian_tubulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivary_glandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epibolus_pulchripes&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatophoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenogenesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Blower85-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxidus_gracilis&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxidus_gracilis&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradoxosomatidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nemasoma&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nemasomatidae&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-PolyGonopods-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-PolyGonopods-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penis#Invertebrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faeceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stemmiulida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental_investmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecdysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiraclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrate_tracheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aortahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malpighian_tubulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivary_glandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epibolus_pulchripes&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatophoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenogenesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Blower85-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxidus_gracilis&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxidus_gracilis&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxidus_gracilis&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradoxosomatidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nemasoma&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nemasomatidae&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-PolyGonopods-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penis#Invertebrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faeceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stemmiulida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental_investmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecdysis


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segments and legs as they do so. !ome spe"ies moult :ithin spe"ially prepared "hambers

o% soil or silk,&1F':hi"h they may also use to :ait out dry :eather, and most spe"ies eat

the shed exoskeleton a%ter moulting. illipedes li8e %rom one to ten years, depending on

spe"ies.&*'

;"ology&edit'

Habitat&edit'

Dn temperate Kones, millipedes are most abundant in moist de"iduous %orests, but they

also o""ur in "oni%erous %orests, deserts, "a8es, and alpine e"osystems.&11'!ome spe"ies

"an sur8i8e %resh:ater %loods and li8e submerged under:ater %or up to 11 months.&19'

&1E'7 %e: spe"ies o""ur near the seashore and "an sur8i8e in some:hat salty "onditions.

&12'&1*'

iet&edit'

ost millipedes are detriti8oresand %eed on de"omposing 8egetation, %ae"es, or organi"

matter mixed :ith soil. illipedes in the order -olyxenidagraKe algae %rom bark, and

-latydesmida%eed on %ungi.&9'7 %e: spe"ies are omni8orousor o""asionally"arni8orous, %eeding on inse"ts, "entipedes, earth:orms, or snails&*' &1I' !ome spe"ies

ha8e pier"ing mouth parts that allo: them to %eed on plant jui"es.&11'

-redators and parasites&edit'

illipedes are preyed upon by a :ide range o% animals, in"luding 8arious reptiles,

amphibians, birds, mammals, and inse"ts.&9'ammalian predators su"h as "oatisand

meerkatsroll "aptured millipedes on the ground to deplete de%ensi8e se"retions and rub

them o%% the body be%ore "onsuming,&20':hile "ertainpoison dart %rogsare belie8ed to

in"orporate the toxi" "ompounds o% millipedes into their o:n de%enses.&21'!e8eral

in8ertebrates ha8e spe"ialiKed beha8iors or stru"tures to %eed on millipedes, in"luding

lar8al glo::orm beetles,&22'-robolomyrmexants,&2'"hlamydephorid slugs,&2$'and the preda"eous dung beetleelto"hilum 8algum.&2F'

4ar"eus ameri"anus"urled in

de%ensi8e position

-arasiteso% millipedes in"lude nematodes,phaeomyiid %lies, and a"antho"ephalans.

&9'

e%en"e me"hanisms&edit'

ue to their la"k o% speed and their inability to bite or sting, millipedesL primary de%en"eme"hanism is to "url into a tight "oil + prote"ting their deli"ate legs inside an armoured

body exterior. any spe"ies also emit 8ariouspoisonousliOuid se"retions through

mi"ros"opi"oKopores(also "alled odori%erous or repugantorial glands), along the sides

o% their bodies as a se"ondary de%en"e. #hese se"retions may in"ludealkaloids,

benKoOuinones,phenols, terpenoids, andRor hydrogen "yanide, among many others.

&29'&2E' !ome o% these substan"es are "austi"and "anburnthe exoskeletono%ants

and other inse"tpredators, and the skin and eyes o% larger predators. -rimates su"h as
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff_cocoon-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff_cocoon-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Adis_1986-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Burrows_et_al_1994-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Blower85-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Littoral_Myriapods-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthwormshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Baker2004-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Weldon_et_al_2006-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Weldon_et_al_2006-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison_dart_frogshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Saporito_et_al_2003-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phengodidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Eisner_et_al_1998-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Eisner_et_al_1998-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolomyrmexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolomyrmexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Ito1998-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydephoridaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Herbert2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Herbert2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltochilum_valgumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Larsen_et_al_2009-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Larsen_et_al_2009-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeomyiidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephalanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozoporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozoporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoquinoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff_cocoon-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Adis_1986-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Burrows_et_al_1994-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Blower85-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Littoral_Myriapods-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthwormshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Baker2004-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Weldon_et_al_2006-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison_dart_frogshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Saporito_et_al_2003-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phengodidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Eisner_et_al_1998-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolomyrmexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Ito1998-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydephoridaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Herbert2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltochilum_valgumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Larsen_et_al_2009-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeomyiidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephalanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozoporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoquinoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect


7/22

"apu"hin monkeysand lemursha8e been obser8ed intentionally irritating millipedes in

order to rub the "hemi"als on themsel8es to repel mosOuitoes.&2*'&2I'&0'!ome o% these

de%ensi8e "ompounds also sho: anti%ungal a"ti8ity.&1'#he bristly millipedes (order

-olyxenida) la"k both an armoured exoskeleton and odi%erous glands, and instead are

"o8ered in numerous bristles that in at least one spe"ies, -olyxenus %as"i"ulatus, deta"h

and entangle ants.&2'

illipedes in relation to people&edit'

illipedes do not bite, and their de%ensi8e se"retions are mostly harmless to humans +

usually "ausing only minor dis"oloration on the skin + but the se"retions o% some tropi"al

spe"ies may "ause pain, it"hing, lo"al erythema, edema,blisters, e"Kema, and

o""asionally "ra"ked skin.&'&$'&F'&9' ;ye exposures to these se"retions "auses

general eye irritation and potentially more se8ere e%%e"ts su"h as "onjun"ti8itisand

keratitis.&E'Pirst aid"onsists o% %lushing the area thoroughly :ith :aterS %urther

treatment is aimed at relie8ing the lo"al e%%e"ts.

7 s:arm o% millipedes

!ome millipedes are "onsidered household pests, in"ludingTenobolus "arni%ex:hi"h

in%ests that"hed roo%s in Dndia.&*'/ther spe"ies exhibit periodi"al s:arming beha8iour,

:hi"h "an result in home in8asions,&I'"rop damage,&$0'train delays, or e8en train

"rashes and derailments.&$1'&$2'

!ome o% the larger millipedes in the orders!pirobolida,!pirostreptida,

!phaerotheriidaare popular as pets.&$'!ome spe"ies "ommonly sold or kept in"lude

spe"ies o%7r"hispirostreptus, 7phistogoniulus,4ar"eus, and /rthoporus.&$$'

illipedes also appear in %olkloreand traditional medi"inearound the :orld. any"ultures as"ribe millipede a"ti8ity :ith "oming rains.&$F'Dn the Uoruba "ulture

o%4igeria, millipedes are used in pregnan"y and business rituals, and "rushed millipedes

are used to treat %e8er, :hitlo:, and "on8ulsionin "hildren.&$9'Dn Vambia, smashed

millipede pulp is used to treat :ounds, and in the Ba%ia peopleo% ameroonmillipede

jui"e is used to treat eara"hes.&$F'Dn "ertain Himalayan Bhotiyatribes, dry millipede

smoke is used to treat hemorrhoids.&$E'4ati8e people in alyasiause millipede

se"retions in poisontipped arro:s.&$F'#he only reported usage o% millipedes as %ood by

humans "omes %rom the Bobo peopleo%Burkina Paso, :ho "onsume boiled, dried

millipedes in tomato sau"e.&$*'

lassi%i"ation&edit'Por more details on this topi", see 5ist o% millipede %amilies.

7pproximate relati8e

di8ersity o%

extantmillipede orders,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capuchin_monkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-valederrama-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Birkinshaw1999-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Roncadori_et_al_1985-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_fasciculatushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blisterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eczemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MJA-Mason-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctivitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenobolus_carnifex&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenobolus_carnifex&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Alagesan2005-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Alagesan2005-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff2006invasion-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Peckham2013-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Stoev_et_al_2010-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Stoev_et_al_2010-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archispirostreptushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aphistogoniulus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitlowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Lawal.26Banjo2007-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Lawal.26Banjo2007-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bafia_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhotiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhoidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malyasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoffetal2014-48http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_millipede_familieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extant_taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capuchin_monkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-valederrama-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Birkinshaw1999-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Roncadori_et_al_1985-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_fasciculatushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blisterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eczemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MJA-Mason-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctivitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenobolus_carnifex&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Alagesan2005-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff2006invasion-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Peckham2013-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Stoev_et_al_2010-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archispirostreptushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aphistogoniulus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitlowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Lawal.26Banjo2007-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bafia_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhotiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhoidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malyasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoffetal2014-48http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_millipede_familieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extant_taxon


8/22

ranging %rom "a. ,F00 spe"ies o% -olydesmidato 2 spe"ies o%!iphoniulida.&2'

7pproximately 12,000 spe"ies o% millipede ha8e been des"ribed, but the true number o%

spe"ies on earth has been estimated at up to *0,000.&9'illipedes are "onsidered a mega

di8erse yet understudied group, :ith in"onsistent taxonomi" e%%ort o8er time.&$I'

-olyxenus lagurus, a spe"ies o%

the order -olyxenida

Glomeris marginata, apill

millipedeo% the order

Glomerida

/"toglena sierra, a spe"ieso% the order-olyKoniida

7nadenobolus monili"ornis, a

spe"ies o% the order!pirobolida

Harpaphe

haydeniana, a

spe"ies o% the order-olydesmida

#he li8ing members

o% the iplopoda are

di8ided into sixteen

orders in t:o

sub"lasses.&2'#he

basal

sub"lass-eni"illata"ontains small spe"ies :hose exoskeleton is not "al"i%ied, and :hi"h

are "o8ered in setaeor bristles. 7ll other millipedes belong to the sub"lasshilognatha,

"onsisting o% t:o in%ra"lasses the in%ra"lass-entaKonia"ontaining the shortbodiedpill

millipedes, and the in%ra"lass Helminthomorpha (:ormlike millipedes) "ontaining the

great majority o% the spe"ies.&F0'&F1'

#he higherle8el "lassi%i"ation o% millipedes is presented belo:, based on !hear, 2011,&2'

and !hear W ;dge"ombe, 2010&F2'(extin"t groups). 6e"ent "ladisti" and mole"ular

studies ha8e "hallenged traditional "lassi%i"ation s"hemes, and in parti"ular the position

o% the orders !iphoniulida and -olyKoniida is not yet :ell established.&9'#he pla"ement

and positions o% extin"t groups (X) kno:n only %rom %ossils is tentati8e and not %ully
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphoniulidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Brewer_et_al_2012-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_lagurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeris_marginatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Octoglena_sierra&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyzoniidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadenobolus_monilicornishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_(evolution)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphoniulidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Brewer_et_al_2012-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_lagurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeris_marginatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Octoglena_sierra&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyzoniidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadenobolus_monilicornishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_(evolution)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6


9/22

resol8ed.&9' &F2'

lass iplopoda de Blain8ille in Ger8ais, 1*$$

!ub"lass -eni"illata5atrielle, 1*1

/rder -olyxenidaQerhoe%%, 1I$

!ub"lass X7rthropleuridea(pla"ed in -eni"illata by some authors)&F2' /rder X7rthropleuridaYaterlot, 1I$

/rder X;oarthropleurida!hear W !elden, 1IIF

/rder Xi"rode"empli"ida

!ub"lass hilognatha 5atrielle, 1*02

/rder XVosterogrammidaYilson, 200F (hilognatha in"ertae sedis)&F2'

Dn%ra"lass-entaKoniaBrandt, 1*

/rder X7mynilyspedidaHo%%man, 1I9I

!uperorder 5ima"omorpha-o"o"k, 1*I$

/rder Glomeridesmidaook, 1*IF

!uperorder /nis"omorpha-o"o"k, 1**E

/rder GlomeridaBrandt, 1*

/rder !phaerotheriidaBrandt, 1*

Dn%ra"lass Helminthomorpha -o"o"k, 1**E

!uperorder X7r"hipolypoda!"udder, 1**2

/rder X7r"hidesmidaYilson W 7nderson 200$

/rder Xo:iedesmidaYilson W 7nderson 200$

/rder X;uphoberiidaHo%%man, 1I9I

/rder X-alaeosomatidaHannibal W 3rKeminski, 200F

/rder X-leurojulida!"hneider W Yerneburg, 1II* (possiblysister to olobognatha)&9'

!ubter"lassolobognathaBrandt, 1*$

/rder -latydesmidaook, 1*IF

/rder -olyKoniidaook, 1*IF

/rder !iphono"ryptidaook, 1*IF

/rder !iphonophorida4e:port, 1*$$

!ubter"lass ;ugnatha 7ttems, 1*I*

!uperorder uli%ormia 7ttems, 1I29

/rder ulidaBrandt, 1* /rder !pirobolidaook, 1*IF

/rder !pirostreptidaBrandt, 1*

!uper%amily XTyloiuloideaook, 1*IF

(!ometimes aligned :ith !pirobolida)&F'

!uperorder 4ematophora Qerhoe%%, 1I1

/rder allipodida-o"o"k, 1*I$
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eoarthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosterogrammidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incertae_sedishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amynilyspedidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limacomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oniscomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pleurojulida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colobognathahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colobognathahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyzoniidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siphonocryptida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphonophoridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xyloiuloideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Hoffman1963-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callipodidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eoarthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosterogrammidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incertae_sedishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amynilyspedidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limacomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oniscomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pleurojulida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colobognathahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyzoniidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siphonocryptida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphonophoridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xyloiuloideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Hoffman1963-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callipodida


10/22

/rder hordeumatida-o"o"k 1*I$

/rder !temmiulidaook, 1*IF

/rder !iphoniulidaook, 1*IF

!uperorder ero"haeta ook, 1*IF

/rder -olydesmida-o"o"k, 1**E!ee also&edit'

7rthropods

portal

5ea% litter

!oil biology

6e%eren"es&edit'

1 ump upZ


11/22

4aturalist$F () 1+19.

12 Zump up toabBlo:er, . Gordon (1I*F).illipedes 3eys and 4otes %or the

Ddenti%i"ation o% the !pe"ies. 5ondon -ublished %or the 5innean !o"iety o% 5ondon

and the ;stuarine and Bra"kishYater !"ien"es 7sso"iation by ;.. Brill.D!B4

I00$0E9I*0.

1 ump upZ#amaris G. -inheiro, arin\K D. arOues W 5eandro . Battirola

(200I).


12/22

/

!

-

#

3

-g4

5ate !ilurianto 6e"ent

6usty millipede (#rigoniulus

"orallinus)

!"ienti%i" "lassi%i"ation

3ingdom

7nimalia

-hylum 7rthropoda

!ubphylu

m

yriapoda

lass iplopoda

e Blain8illein

Ger8ais, 1*$$

!ub"lasses

-eni"illata

hilognatha

7rthropleuridea(extin"t)

i8ersity

19 orders, ". 12,000 spe"ies

illipedes ("lassiplopoda) are myriapodousarthropodsthat ha8e t:o pairs o%

legson most body segments. ;a"h doublelegged segment is a result o% t:o single

segments %used together as one (the name


13/22

gigas).

ost millipedes are slo:mo8ingdetriti8ores, eating de"aying lea8esand other

deadplantmatter. Ho:e8er, they "an also be minor garden pests, espe"ially in

greenhouses:here they "an "ause se8ere damage to emergent seedlings.

illipedes "an be easily distinguished %rom the some:hat similar and related"entipedes(lass hilopoda) :hi"h mo8e rapidly, are "arni8orous, and ha8e a single pair o% legs

%or ea"h body segment. #he s"ienti%i" study o% millipedes is kno:n asdiplopodology, and

a s"ientist :ho studies them is "alled a diplopodologist.

ontents

&hide'

1 ;8olution

2 hara"teristi"s

2.1 Head

2.2 Body

2. Dnternal organs

6eprodu"tion and gro:th

$ ;"ology

$.1 Habitat

$.2 iet

$. -redators and parasites

$.$ e%en"e me"hanisms

F illipedes in relation to people

9 lassi%i"ation

E !ee also

* 6e%eren"es

I ;xternal links

;8olution&edit'

#his "lass o% arthropod is thought to be among the %irst animals to ha8e "olonised land

during the !iluriangeologi" period. #hese early %orms probably ate mossesand

primiti8e 8as"ular plants. #he oldest kno:n land "reature,-neumodesmus ne:mani,

:as a 1 "m (0.I in) long millipede, and li8ed $2* million years ago.&'Dn the Jpper

arboni%erous($0 to 2*0million years ago),7rthropleurabe"ame the largest

kno:n land in8ertebrate o% all time, rea"hing lengths o% up to 2.9 m (* %t 9 in).illipedes, "entipedes, and other terrestrial arthropods attained 8ery large siKes in

"omparison to modern spe"ies in the oxygenri"h en8ironments o% the e8onianand

arboni%erousperiods, and some "ould gro: larger than one metre. 7s oxygen le8els

lo:ered through time, arthropods be"ame smaller in siKe.&$'

hara"teristi"s&edit'
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archispirostreptus_gigashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leafhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhousehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilopodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Characteristicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Internal_organshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Reproduction_and_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Diethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Predators_and_parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Defence_mechanismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Millipedes_in_relation_to_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://tools.wmflabs.org/timescale/?Ma=340%E2%80%93280http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_years_agohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archispirostreptus_gigashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leafhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhousehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilopodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Characteristicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Internal_organshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Reproduction_and_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Diethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Predators_and_parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Defence_mechanismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Millipedes_in_relation_to_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://tools.wmflabs.org/timescale/?Ma=340%E2%80%93280http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_years_agohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=2


14/22

#he 4orth 7meri"an millipede4ar"eus ameri"anus+ head :ith eyes, antennae, and

enlarged "ollum

illipede anterior anatomy

illipedes range %rom 2 mm

(0.0EI in) to around F "m (1$

in) in length,&F'and "an ha8e as

%e: as ele8en to o8er one hundred segments. #hey are generally bla"k or bro:n in "olour,

although there are a %e: brightly "oloured spe"ies.

#he millipedeLs most ob8ious %eature is its large number o% legs. Ha8ing many short legs

makes millipedes rather slo:, but the many legs pushing in unison pro8ides po:er%ul

strength %or burro:ing.

Head&edit'

#he head o% a millipede is typi"ally rounded abo8e and %lattened belo: and bears a pair

o% largemandiblesin %ront o% a platelike stru"ture "alled a gnatho"hilarium(


15/22

loss and must spend most o% their time in moist or humid en8ironments.&I'

#he %irst segment behind the head is legless and kno:n as a "ollum. #he se"ond to %ourth

body rings bear a single pair o% legs ea"h and are kno:n as


16/22

Gonopod morphology is the predominant means o% determining spe"ies among

millipedes the "omplex stru"tures di%%er mu"h bet:een spe"ies but 8ery little :ithin a

spe"ies.&1$'

#he genital openings are lo"ated on the third segment, and are a""ompanied in the male

by one or t:openes:hi"h deposit the sperm pa"kets onto the gonopods. Dn the %emale,

the genital pores open into paired small sa"s "alled "yphopods or 8ul8ae, :hi"h are

"o8ered by a small hoodlike "o8er, and are used to store the sperm a%ter "opulation.&*'

illipedespermis a%lagellate (la"ks a %lagellum), a uniOue trait among myriapods.&9'

Pemales lay bet:een ten and three hundred eggs at a time, depending on spe"ies,

%ertilising them :ith the stored sperm as they do so. any spe"ies simply deposit the

eggs on moist soil or organi" detritus, but some "onstru"t nests lined :ith dried%ae"es,

and may prote"t the eggs :ithin silk "o"oons.&*'Dn most spe"ies the %emale abandon the

eggs a%ter laying but some spe"ies in the orders -latydesmidaand!temmiulidapro8ide

parental "are%or eggs and young.&11'

#he young hat"h a%ter a %e: :eeks, and typi"ally ha8e only three pairs o% legs, %ollo:ed

by up to %our legless segments. 7s they gro:, they "ontinually moult, adding %urther

segments and legs as they do so. !ome spe"ies moult :ithin spe"ially prepared "hambers

o% soil or silk,&1F':hi"h they may also use to :ait out dry :eather, and most spe"ies eat

the shed exoskeleton a%ter moulting. illipedes li8e %rom one to ten years, depending on

spe"ies.&*'

;"ology&edit'

Habitat&edit'

Dn temperate Kones, millipedes are most abundant in moist de"iduous %orests, but they

also o""ur in "oni%erous %orests, deserts, "a8es, and alpine e"osystems.&11'!ome spe"ies

"an sur8i8e %resh:ater %loods and li8e submerged under:ater %or up to 11 months.&19'&1E'7 %e: spe"ies o""ur near the seashore and "an sur8i8e in some:hat salty "onditions.

&12'&1*'

iet&edit'

ost millipedes are detriti8oresand %eed on de"omposing 8egetation, %ae"es, or organi"

matter mixed :ith soil. illipedes in the order -olyxenidagraKe algae %rom bark, and

-latydesmida%eed on %ungi.&9'7 %e: spe"ies are omni8orousor o""asionally

"arni8orous, %eeding on inse"ts, "entipedes, earth:orms, or snails&*' &1I' !ome spe"ies

ha8e pier"ing mouth parts that allo: them to %eed on plant jui"es.&11'

-redators and parasites&edit'

illipedes are preyed upon by a :ide range o% animals, in"luding 8arious reptiles,

amphibians, birds, mammals, and inse"ts.&9'ammalian predators su"h as "oatisand

meerkatsroll "aptured millipedes on the ground to deplete de%ensi8e se"retions and rub

them o%% the body be%ore "onsuming,&20':hile "ertainpoison dart %rogsare belie8ed to

in"orporate the toxi" "ompounds o% millipedes into their o:n de%enses.&21'!e8eral

in8ertebrates ha8e spe"ialiKed beha8iors or stru"tures to %eed on millipedes, in"luding

lar8al glo::orm beetles,&22'-robolomyrmexants,&2'"hlamydephorid slugs,&2$'
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-PolyGonopods-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-PolyGonopods-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penis#Invertebrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faeceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stemmiulida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental_investmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecdysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff_cocoon-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff_cocoon-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Adis_1986-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Burrows_et_al_1994-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Blower85-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Littoral_Myriapods-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthwormshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Baker2004-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Weldon_et_al_2006-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Weldon_et_al_2006-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison_dart_frogshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Saporito_et_al_2003-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phengodidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Eisner_et_al_1998-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Eisner_et_al_1998-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolomyrmexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolomyrmexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Ito1998-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydephoridaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Herbert2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Herbert2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-PolyGonopods-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penis#Invertebrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faeceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stemmiulida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental_investmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecdysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff_cocoon-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Adis_1986-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Burrows_et_al_1994-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Blower85-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Littoral_Myriapods-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthwormshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Baker2004-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Weldon_et_al_2006-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison_dart_frogshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Saporito_et_al_2003-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phengodidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Eisner_et_al_1998-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolomyrmexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Ito1998-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydephoridaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Herbert2005-24


17/22

and the preda"eous dung beetleelto"hilum 8algum.&2F'

4ar"eus ameri"anus"urled in

de%ensi8e position

-arasiteso% millipedes in"lude nematodes,phaeomyiid %lies, and a"antho"ephalans.

&9'

e%en"e me"hanisms&edit'

ue to their la"k o% speed and their inability to bite or sting, millipedesL primary de%en"e

me"hanism is to "url into a tight "oil + prote"ting their deli"ate legs inside an armoured

body exterior. any spe"ies also emit 8ariouspoisonousliOuid se"retions through

mi"ros"opi"oKopores(also "alled odori%erous or repugantorial glands), along the sides

o% their bodies as a se"ondary de%en"e. #hese se"retions may in"ludealkaloids,

benKoOuinones,phenols, terpenoids, andRor hydrogen "yanide, among many others.

&29'&2E' !ome o% these substan"es are "austi"and "anburnthe exoskeletono%antsand other inse"tpredators, and the skin and eyes o% larger predators. -rimates su"h as

"apu"hin monkeysand lemursha8e been obser8ed intentionally irritating millipedes in

order to rub the "hemi"als on themsel8es to repel mosOuitoes.&2*'&2I'&0'!ome o% these

de%ensi8e "ompounds also sho: anti%ungal a"ti8ity.&1'#he bristly millipedes (order

-olyxenida) la"k both an armoured exoskeleton and odi%erous glands, and instead are

"o8ered in numerous bristles that in at least one spe"ies, -olyxenus %as"i"ulatus, deta"h

and entangle ants.&2'

illipedes in relation to people&edit'

illipedes do not bite, and their de%ensi8e se"retions are mostly harmless to humans +

usually "ausing only minor dis"oloration on the skin + but the se"retions o% some tropi"alspe"ies may "ause pain, it"hing, lo"al erythema, edema,blisters, e"Kema, and

o""asionally "ra"ked skin.&'&$'&F'&9' ;ye exposures to these se"retions "auses

general eye irritation and potentially more se8ere e%%e"ts su"h as "onjun"ti8itisand

keratitis.&E'Pirst aid"onsists o% %lushing the area thoroughly :ith :aterS %urther

treatment is aimed at relie8ing the lo"al e%%e"ts.

7 s:arm o% millipedes

!ome millipedes are "onsidered household pests, in"ludingTenobolus "arni%ex:hi"h

in%ests that"hed roo%s in Dndia.&*'/ther spe"ies exhibit periodi"al s:arming beha8iour,:hi"h "an result in home in8asions,&I'"rop damage,&$0'train delays, or e8en train

"rashes and derailments.&$1'&$2'

!ome o% the larger millipedes in the orders!pirobolida,!pirostreptida,

!phaerotheriidaare popular as pets.&$'!ome spe"ies "ommonly sold or kept in"lude

spe"ies o%7r"hispirostreptus, 7phistogoniulus,4ar"eus, and /rthoporus.&$$'

illipedes also appear in %olkloreand traditional medi"inearound the :orld. any
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltochilum_valgumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Larsen_et_al_2009-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Larsen_et_al_2009-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeomyiidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephalanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozoporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozoporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoquinoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capuchin_monkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-valederrama-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Birkinshaw1999-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Roncadori_et_al_1985-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_fasciculatushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blisterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eczemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MJA-Mason-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctivitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenobolus_carnifex&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenobolus_carnifex&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Alagesan2005-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Alagesan2005-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff2006invasion-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Peckham2013-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Stoev_et_al_2010-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Stoev_et_al_2010-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archispirostreptushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aphistogoniulus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltochilum_valgumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Larsen_et_al_2009-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeomyiidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephalanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozoporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoquinoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capuchin_monkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-valederrama-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Birkinshaw1999-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Roncadori_et_al_1985-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_fasciculatushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blisterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eczemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MJA-Mason-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctivitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenobolus_carnifex&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Alagesan2005-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff2006invasion-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Peckham2013-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Stoev_et_al_2010-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archispirostreptushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aphistogoniulus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_medicine


18/22

"ultures as"ribe millipede a"ti8ity :ith "oming rains.&$F'Dn the Uoruba "ulture

o%4igeria, millipedes are used in pregnan"y and business rituals, and "rushed millipedes

are used to treat %e8er, :hitlo:, and "on8ulsionin "hildren.&$9'Dn Vambia, smashed

millipede pulp is used to treat :ounds, and in the Ba%ia peopleo% ameroonmillipede

jui"e is used to treat eara"hes.&$F'Dn "ertain Himalayan Bhotiyatribes, dry millipede

smoke is used to treat hemorrhoids.&$E'4ati8e people in alyasiause millipedese"retions in poisontipped arro:s.&$F'#he only reported usage o% millipedes as %ood by

humans "omes %rom the Bobo peopleo%Burkina Paso, :ho "onsume boiled, dried

millipedes in tomato sau"e.&$*'

lassi%i"ation&edit'

Por more details on this topi", see 5ist o% millipede %amilies.

7pproximate relati8e

di8ersity o%extantmillipede orders,

ranging %rom "a. ,F00

spe"ies o%-olydesmidato

2 spe"ies o%!iphoniulida.

&2'

7pproximately 12,000 spe"ies o% millipede ha8e been des"ribed, but the true number o%

spe"ies on earth has been estimated at up to *0,000.&9'illipedes are "onsidered a mega

di8erse yet understudied group, :ith in"onsistent taxonomi" e%%ort o8er time.&$I'

-olyxenus lagurus, a spe"ies o%

the order -olyxenida

Glomeris marginata, apill

millipedeo% the order

Glomerida

/"toglena sierra, a spe"ies

o% the order-olyKoniida

7nadenobolus monili"ornis, a

spe"ies o% the order!pirobolida
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitlowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Lawal.26Banjo2007-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Lawal.26Banjo2007-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bafia_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhotiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhoidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malyasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoffetal2014-48http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_millipede_familieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extant_taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphoniulidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Brewer_et_al_2012-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_lagurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeris_marginatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Octoglena_sierra&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyzoniidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadenobolus_monilicornishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitlowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Lawal.26Banjo2007-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bafia_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhotiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhoidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malyasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoffetal2014-48http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_millipede_familieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extant_taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphoniulidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Brewer_et_al_2012-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_lagurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeris_marginatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Octoglena_sierra&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyzoniidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadenobolus_monilicornishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolida


19/22

Harpaphe

haydeniana, a

spe"ies o% the order

-olydesmida

#he li8ing members

o% the iplopoda are

di8ided into sixteen

orders in t:o

sub"lasses.&2'#he

basal

sub"lass-eni"illata"ontains small spe"ies :hose exoskeleton is not "al"i%ied, and :hi"h

are "o8ered in setaeor bristles. 7ll other millipedes belong to the sub"lasshilognatha,

"onsisting o% t:o in%ra"lasses the in%ra"lass-entaKonia"ontaining the shortbodiedpill

millipedes, and the in%ra"lass Helminthomorpha (:ormlike millipedes) "ontaining thegreat majority o% the spe"ies.&F0'&F1'

#he higherle8el "lassi%i"ation o% millipedes is presented belo:, based on !hear, 2011,&2'

and !hear W ;dge"ombe, 2010&F2'(extin"t groups). 6e"ent "ladisti" and mole"ular

studies ha8e "hallenged traditional "lassi%i"ation s"hemes, and in parti"ular the position

o% the orders !iphoniulida and -olyKoniida is not yet :ell established.&9'#he pla"ement

and positions o% extin"t groups (X) kno:n only %rom %ossils is tentati8e and not %ully

resol8ed.&9' &F2'

lass iplopoda de Blain8ille in Ger8ais, 1*$$

!ub"lass -eni"illata5atrielle, 1*1

/rder -olyxenidaQerhoe%%, 1I$

!ub"lass X7rthropleuridea(pla"ed in -eni"illata by some authors)&F2'

/rder X7rthropleuridaYaterlot, 1I$

/rder X;oarthropleurida!hear W !elden, 1IIF

/rder Xi"rode"empli"ida

!ub"lass hilognatha 5atrielle, 1*02

/rder XVosterogrammidaYilson, 200F (hilognatha in"ertae sedis)&F2'

Dn%ra"lass-entaKoniaBrandt, 1*

/rder X7mynilyspedidaHo%%man, 1I9I

!uperorder 5ima"omorpha-o"o"k, 1*I$ /rder Glomeridesmidaook, 1*IF

!uperorder /nis"omorpha-o"o"k, 1**E

/rder GlomeridaBrandt, 1*

/rder !phaerotheriidaBrandt, 1*

Dn%ra"lass Helminthomorpha -o"o"k, 1**E

!uperorder X7r"hipolypoda!"udder, 1**2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_(evolution)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eoarthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosterogrammidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incertae_sedishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amynilyspedidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limacomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oniscomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_(evolution)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eoarthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosterogrammidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incertae_sedishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amynilyspedidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limacomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oniscomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypoda


20/22

/rder X7r"hidesmidaYilson W 7nderson 200$

/rder Xo:iedesmidaYilson W 7nderson 200$

/rder X;uphoberiidaHo%%man, 1I9I

/rder X-alaeosomatidaHannibal W 3rKeminski, 200F

/rder X-leurojulida!"hneider W Yerneburg, 1II* (possiblysister to olobognatha)&9'

!ubter"lassolobognathaBrandt, 1*$

/rder -latydesmidaook, 1*IF

/rder -olyKoniidaook, 1*IF

/rder !iphono"ryptidaook, 1*IF

/rder !iphonophorida4e:port, 1*$$

!ubter"lass ;ugnatha 7ttems, 1*I*

!uperorder uli%ormia 7ttems, 1I29

/rder ulidaBrandt, 1*

/rder !pirobolidaook, 1*IF

/rder !pirostreptidaBrandt, 1*

!uper%amily XTyloiuloideaook, 1*IF

(!ometimes aligned :ith !pirobolida)&F'

!uperorder 4ematophora Qerhoe%%, 1I1

/rder allipodida-o"o"k, 1*I$

/rder hordeumatida-o"o"k 1*I$

/rder !temmiulidaook, 1*IF

/rder !iphoniulidaook, 1*IF

!uperorder ero"haeta ook, 1*IF

/rder -olydesmida-o"o"k, 1**E

!ee also&edit'

7rthropodsportal

5ea% litter

!oil biology

6e%eren"es&edit'

1 ump upZ


21/22

dinosaurs in ;urope


22/22

1* ump upZBarber, 7.. (;d) (201).

serangga gongok

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