Download - serangga Gongok
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Gonggok atau juga dikenali sebagai ulat geluntur, sepah bulan atau mentibangmerupakan
sejenisartropoddengan badan berbentuk silinder yang panjang. Badan gonggok
mempunyai rangka luar (exoskeleton) dan terbahagi kepada antara 20 hingga 100 segmen
yang bersambungsambung. !etiap segmen mempunyai dua pasang kaki(ke"uali segmen
pertama selepas kepala yang tiada kaki langsung, dan beberapa segmen selepasnya yang
mempunyai hanya sepasang kaki). #erdapat kirakira 12,000 jenis spesies gonggok dalamkirakira 1$0 %amili.&1'
Gonggok berjalan.
Gonggok menggulungkan diri
apabila diganggu
#emporal range $2*+0a
-re
/
!
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3-g
4
5ate !ilurianto 6e"ent
6usty millipede (#rigoniulus
"orallinus)
!"ienti%i" "lassi%i"ation
3ingdom
7nimalia
-hylum 7rthropoda
http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artropodhttp://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artropodhttp://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakihttp://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonggok#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precambrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordovicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triassichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleogenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neogenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigoniulus_corallinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigoniulus_corallinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropodhttp://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakihttp://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonggok#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precambrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordovicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triassichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleogenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neogenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigoniulus_corallinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigoniulus_corallinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropodhttp://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artropod -
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!ubphylu
m
yriapoda
lass iplopoda
e Blain8illein
Ger8ais, 1*$$
!ub"lasses
-eni"illata
hilognatha
7rthropleuridea(extin"t)
i8ersity
19 orders, ". 12,000 spe"ies
illipedes ("lassiplopoda) are myriapodousarthropodsthat ha8e t:o pairs o%
legson most body segments. ;a"h doublelegged segment is a result o% t:o single
segments %used together as one (the name
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$.1 Habitat
$.2 iet
$. -redators and parasites
$.$ e%en"e me"hanisms
F illipedes in relation to people 9 lassi%i"ation
E !ee also
* 6e%eren"es
I ;xternal links
;8olution&edit'
#his "lass o% arthropod is thought to be among the %irst animals to ha8e "olonised land
during the !iluriangeologi" period. #hese early %orms probably ate mossesand
primiti8e 8as"ular plants. #he oldest kno:n land "reature,-neumodesmus ne:mani,
:as a 1 "m (0.I in) long millipede, and li8ed $2* million years ago.&'Dn the Jpper
arboni%erous($0 to 2*0million years ago),7rthropleurabe"ame the largest
kno:n land in8ertebrate o% all time, rea"hing lengths o% up to 2.9 m (* %t 9 in).
illipedes, "entipedes, and other terrestrial arthropods attained 8ery large siKes in
"omparison to modern spe"ies in the oxygenri"h en8ironments o% the e8onianand
arboni%erousperiods, and some "ould gro: larger than one metre. 7s oxygen le8els
lo:ered through time, arthropods be"ame smaller in siKe.&$'
hara"teristi"s&edit'
#he 4orth 7meri"an millipede4ar"eus ameri"anus+ head :ith
eyes, antennae, and enlarged
"ollum
illipede anterior anatomy
illipedes range %rom 2 mm
(0.0EI in) to around F "m (1$
in) in length,&F'and "an ha8e as
%e: as ele8en to o8er one hundred segments. #hey are generally bla"k or bro:n in "olour,
although there are a %e: brightly "oloured spe"ies.
#he millipedeLs most ob8ious %eature is its large number o% legs. Ha8ing many short legs
makes millipedes rather slo:, but the many legs pushing in unison pro8ides po:er%ul
strength %or burro:ing.
Head&edit'
#he head o% a millipede is typi"ally rounded abo8e and %lattened belo: and bears a pair
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Diethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Predators_and_parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Defence_mechanismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Millipedes_in_relation_to_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://tools.wmflabs.org/timescale/?Ma=340%E2%80%93280http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_years_agohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MyrEncylopedia-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MyrEncylopedia-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Diethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Predators_and_parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Defence_mechanismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Millipedes_in_relation_to_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://tools.wmflabs.org/timescale/?Ma=340%E2%80%93280http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_years_agohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MyrEncylopedia-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=3 -
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o% largemandiblesin %ront o% a platelike stru"ture "alled a gnatho"hilarium(
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illipedes breathe through t:o pairs o% spira"leslo"ated 8entrally on ea"h segment.&11'
;a"h opens into an internal pou"h, and "onne"ts to a system o% tra"heae. #he heart runs
the entire length o% the body, :ith an aortastret"hing into the head. #he ex"retory
organs are t:o pairs o%malpighian tubules, lo"ated near the midpart o% the gut. #he
digesti8e tra"t is a simple tube :ith t:o pairs o% sali8ary glandsto help digest the %ood.
&*'
6eprodu"tion and gro:th&edit'
;pibolus pul"hripesmating
illipedes sho: a di8ersity o% mating styles and stru"tures. Dn the basal
order-olyxenida, males deposit spermatophoresthat are subseOuently pi"ked up by
%emales.&11'Dn all other millipede groups, males possess one or t:o pairs o% modi%ied
legs "alled gonopods :hi"h are used to trans%er sperm to the %emale during "opulation.
#he lo"ation o% the gonopods di%%ers bet:een groups in males o% the-entaKoniathey are
lo"ated at the rear o% the body and kno:n as telopods, :hile in Helminthomorpha + the
8ast majority o% spe"ies + they are lo"ated on the Eth body segment.&9'7 %e: spe"ies are
parthenogeneti", ha8ing %e:, i% any, males.&12'&1'
Gonopod morphology o% /xidus
gra"ilis(-aradoxosomatidae). Palse
"olor!;image, s"ale bar 0.2 mm
Gro:th stages o%4emasoma(4emasomatidae), :hi"h rea"hes reprodu"ti8e maturity in
stage Q. #he mature gonopods de8elop %rom the legs o% segment E.Gonopod morphology is the predominant means o% determining spe"ies among
millipedes the "omplex stru"tures di%%er mu"h bet:een spe"ies but 8ery little :ithin a
spe"ies.&1$'
#he genital openings are lo"ated on the third segment, and are a""ompanied in the male
by one or t:openes:hi"h deposit the sperm pa"kets onto the gonopods. Dn the %emale,
the genital pores open into paired small sa"s "alled "yphopods or 8ul8ae, :hi"h are
"o8ered by a small hoodlike "o8er, and are used to store the sperm a%ter "opulation.&*'
illipedespermis a%lagellate (la"ks a %lagellum), a uniOue trait among myriapods.&9'
Pemales lay bet:een ten and three hundred eggs at a time, depending on spe"ies,
%ertilising them :ith the stored sperm as they do so. any spe"ies simply deposit theeggs on moist soil or organi" detritus, but some "onstru"t nests lined :ith dried%ae"es,
and may prote"t the eggs :ithin silk "o"oons.&*'Dn most spe"ies the %emale abandon the
eggs a%ter laying but some spe"ies in the orders -latydesmidaand!temmiulidapro8ide
parental "are%or eggs and young.&11'
#he young hat"h a%ter a %e: :eeks, and typi"ally ha8e only three pairs o% legs, %ollo:ed
by up to %our legless segments. 7s they gro:, they "ontinually moult, adding %urther
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiraclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrate_tracheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aortahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malpighian_tubulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malpighian_tubulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivary_glandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epibolus_pulchripes&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatophoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenogenesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Blower85-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxidus_gracilis&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxidus_gracilis&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradoxosomatidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nemasoma&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nemasomatidae&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-PolyGonopods-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-PolyGonopods-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penis#Invertebrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faeceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stemmiulida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental_investmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecdysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiraclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrate_tracheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aortahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malpighian_tubulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivary_glandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epibolus_pulchripes&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatophoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenogenesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Blower85-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxidus_gracilis&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxidus_gracilis&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxidus_gracilis&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradoxosomatidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nemasoma&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nemasomatidae&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-PolyGonopods-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penis#Invertebrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faeceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stemmiulida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental_investmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecdysis -
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segments and legs as they do so. !ome spe"ies moult :ithin spe"ially prepared "hambers
o% soil or silk,&1F':hi"h they may also use to :ait out dry :eather, and most spe"ies eat
the shed exoskeleton a%ter moulting. illipedes li8e %rom one to ten years, depending on
spe"ies.&*'
;"ology&edit'
Habitat&edit'
Dn temperate Kones, millipedes are most abundant in moist de"iduous %orests, but they
also o""ur in "oni%erous %orests, deserts, "a8es, and alpine e"osystems.&11'!ome spe"ies
"an sur8i8e %resh:ater %loods and li8e submerged under:ater %or up to 11 months.&19'
&1E'7 %e: spe"ies o""ur near the seashore and "an sur8i8e in some:hat salty "onditions.
&12'&1*'
iet&edit'
ost millipedes are detriti8oresand %eed on de"omposing 8egetation, %ae"es, or organi"
matter mixed :ith soil. illipedes in the order -olyxenidagraKe algae %rom bark, and
-latydesmida%eed on %ungi.&9'7 %e: spe"ies are omni8orousor o""asionally"arni8orous, %eeding on inse"ts, "entipedes, earth:orms, or snails&*' &1I' !ome spe"ies
ha8e pier"ing mouth parts that allo: them to %eed on plant jui"es.&11'
-redators and parasites&edit'
illipedes are preyed upon by a :ide range o% animals, in"luding 8arious reptiles,
amphibians, birds, mammals, and inse"ts.&9'ammalian predators su"h as "oatisand
meerkatsroll "aptured millipedes on the ground to deplete de%ensi8e se"retions and rub
them o%% the body be%ore "onsuming,&20':hile "ertainpoison dart %rogsare belie8ed to
in"orporate the toxi" "ompounds o% millipedes into their o:n de%enses.&21'!e8eral
in8ertebrates ha8e spe"ialiKed beha8iors or stru"tures to %eed on millipedes, in"luding
lar8al glo::orm beetles,&22'-robolomyrmexants,&2'"hlamydephorid slugs,&2$'and the preda"eous dung beetleelto"hilum 8algum.&2F'
4ar"eus ameri"anus"urled in
de%ensi8e position
-arasiteso% millipedes in"lude nematodes,phaeomyiid %lies, and a"antho"ephalans.
&9'
e%en"e me"hanisms&edit'
ue to their la"k o% speed and their inability to bite or sting, millipedesL primary de%en"eme"hanism is to "url into a tight "oil + prote"ting their deli"ate legs inside an armoured
body exterior. any spe"ies also emit 8ariouspoisonousliOuid se"retions through
mi"ros"opi"oKopores(also "alled odori%erous or repugantorial glands), along the sides
o% their bodies as a se"ondary de%en"e. #hese se"retions may in"ludealkaloids,
benKoOuinones,phenols, terpenoids, andRor hydrogen "yanide, among many others.
&29'&2E' !ome o% these substan"es are "austi"and "anburnthe exoskeletono%ants
and other inse"tpredators, and the skin and eyes o% larger predators. -rimates su"h as
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff_cocoon-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff_cocoon-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Adis_1986-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Burrows_et_al_1994-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Blower85-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Littoral_Myriapods-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthwormshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Baker2004-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Weldon_et_al_2006-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Weldon_et_al_2006-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison_dart_frogshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Saporito_et_al_2003-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phengodidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Eisner_et_al_1998-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Eisner_et_al_1998-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolomyrmexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolomyrmexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Ito1998-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydephoridaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Herbert2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Herbert2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltochilum_valgumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Larsen_et_al_2009-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Larsen_et_al_2009-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeomyiidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephalanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozoporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozoporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoquinoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff_cocoon-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Adis_1986-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Burrows_et_al_1994-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Blower85-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Littoral_Myriapods-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthwormshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Baker2004-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Weldon_et_al_2006-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison_dart_frogshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Saporito_et_al_2003-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phengodidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Eisner_et_al_1998-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolomyrmexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Ito1998-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydephoridaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Herbert2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltochilum_valgumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Larsen_et_al_2009-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeomyiidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephalanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozoporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoquinoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect 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"apu"hin monkeysand lemursha8e been obser8ed intentionally irritating millipedes in
order to rub the "hemi"als on themsel8es to repel mosOuitoes.&2*'&2I'&0'!ome o% these
de%ensi8e "ompounds also sho: anti%ungal a"ti8ity.&1'#he bristly millipedes (order
-olyxenida) la"k both an armoured exoskeleton and odi%erous glands, and instead are
"o8ered in numerous bristles that in at least one spe"ies, -olyxenus %as"i"ulatus, deta"h
and entangle ants.&2'
illipedes in relation to people&edit'
illipedes do not bite, and their de%ensi8e se"retions are mostly harmless to humans +
usually "ausing only minor dis"oloration on the skin + but the se"retions o% some tropi"al
spe"ies may "ause pain, it"hing, lo"al erythema, edema,blisters, e"Kema, and
o""asionally "ra"ked skin.&'&$'&F'&9' ;ye exposures to these se"retions "auses
general eye irritation and potentially more se8ere e%%e"ts su"h as "onjun"ti8itisand
keratitis.&E'Pirst aid"onsists o% %lushing the area thoroughly :ith :aterS %urther
treatment is aimed at relie8ing the lo"al e%%e"ts.
7 s:arm o% millipedes
!ome millipedes are "onsidered household pests, in"ludingTenobolus "arni%ex:hi"h
in%ests that"hed roo%s in Dndia.&*'/ther spe"ies exhibit periodi"al s:arming beha8iour,
:hi"h "an result in home in8asions,&I'"rop damage,&$0'train delays, or e8en train
"rashes and derailments.&$1'&$2'
!ome o% the larger millipedes in the orders!pirobolida,!pirostreptida,
!phaerotheriidaare popular as pets.&$'!ome spe"ies "ommonly sold or kept in"lude
spe"ies o%7r"hispirostreptus, 7phistogoniulus,4ar"eus, and /rthoporus.&$$'
illipedes also appear in %olkloreand traditional medi"inearound the :orld. any"ultures as"ribe millipede a"ti8ity :ith "oming rains.&$F'Dn the Uoruba "ulture
o%4igeria, millipedes are used in pregnan"y and business rituals, and "rushed millipedes
are used to treat %e8er, :hitlo:, and "on8ulsionin "hildren.&$9'Dn Vambia, smashed
millipede pulp is used to treat :ounds, and in the Ba%ia peopleo% ameroonmillipede
jui"e is used to treat eara"hes.&$F'Dn "ertain Himalayan Bhotiyatribes, dry millipede
smoke is used to treat hemorrhoids.&$E'4ati8e people in alyasiause millipede
se"retions in poisontipped arro:s.&$F'#he only reported usage o% millipedes as %ood by
humans "omes %rom the Bobo peopleo%Burkina Paso, :ho "onsume boiled, dried
millipedes in tomato sau"e.&$*'
lassi%i"ation&edit'Por more details on this topi", see 5ist o% millipede %amilies.
7pproximate relati8e
di8ersity o%
extantmillipede orders,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capuchin_monkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-valederrama-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Birkinshaw1999-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Roncadori_et_al_1985-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_fasciculatushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blisterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eczemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MJA-Mason-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctivitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenobolus_carnifex&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenobolus_carnifex&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Alagesan2005-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Alagesan2005-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff2006invasion-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Peckham2013-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Stoev_et_al_2010-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Stoev_et_al_2010-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archispirostreptushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aphistogoniulus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitlowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Lawal.26Banjo2007-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Lawal.26Banjo2007-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bafia_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhotiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhoidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malyasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoffetal2014-48http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_millipede_familieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extant_taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capuchin_monkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-valederrama-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Birkinshaw1999-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Roncadori_et_al_1985-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_fasciculatushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blisterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eczemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MJA-Mason-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctivitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenobolus_carnifex&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Alagesan2005-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff2006invasion-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Peckham2013-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Stoev_et_al_2010-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archispirostreptushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aphistogoniulus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitlowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Lawal.26Banjo2007-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bafia_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhotiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhoidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malyasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoffetal2014-48http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_millipede_familieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extant_taxon 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ranging %rom "a. ,F00 spe"ies o% -olydesmidato 2 spe"ies o%!iphoniulida.&2'
7pproximately 12,000 spe"ies o% millipede ha8e been des"ribed, but the true number o%
spe"ies on earth has been estimated at up to *0,000.&9'illipedes are "onsidered a mega
di8erse yet understudied group, :ith in"onsistent taxonomi" e%%ort o8er time.&$I'
-olyxenus lagurus, a spe"ies o%
the order -olyxenida
Glomeris marginata, apill
millipedeo% the order
Glomerida
/"toglena sierra, a spe"ieso% the order-olyKoniida
7nadenobolus monili"ornis, a
spe"ies o% the order!pirobolida
Harpaphe
haydeniana, a
spe"ies o% the order-olydesmida
#he li8ing members
o% the iplopoda are
di8ided into sixteen
orders in t:o
sub"lasses.&2'#he
basal
sub"lass-eni"illata"ontains small spe"ies :hose exoskeleton is not "al"i%ied, and :hi"h
are "o8ered in setaeor bristles. 7ll other millipedes belong to the sub"lasshilognatha,
"onsisting o% t:o in%ra"lasses the in%ra"lass-entaKonia"ontaining the shortbodiedpill
millipedes, and the in%ra"lass Helminthomorpha (:ormlike millipedes) "ontaining the
great majority o% the spe"ies.&F0'&F1'
#he higherle8el "lassi%i"ation o% millipedes is presented belo:, based on !hear, 2011,&2'
and !hear W ;dge"ombe, 2010&F2'(extin"t groups). 6e"ent "ladisti" and mole"ular
studies ha8e "hallenged traditional "lassi%i"ation s"hemes, and in parti"ular the position
o% the orders !iphoniulida and -olyKoniida is not yet :ell established.&9'#he pla"ement
and positions o% extin"t groups (X) kno:n only %rom %ossils is tentati8e and not %ully
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphoniulidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Brewer_et_al_2012-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_lagurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeris_marginatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Octoglena_sierra&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyzoniidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadenobolus_monilicornishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_(evolution)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphoniulidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Brewer_et_al_2012-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_lagurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeris_marginatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Octoglena_sierra&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyzoniidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadenobolus_monilicornishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_(evolution)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6 -
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resol8ed.&9' &F2'
lass iplopoda de Blain8ille in Ger8ais, 1*$$
!ub"lass -eni"illata5atrielle, 1*1
/rder -olyxenidaQerhoe%%, 1I$
!ub"lass X7rthropleuridea(pla"ed in -eni"illata by some authors)&F2' /rder X7rthropleuridaYaterlot, 1I$
/rder X;oarthropleurida!hear W !elden, 1IIF
/rder Xi"rode"empli"ida
!ub"lass hilognatha 5atrielle, 1*02
/rder XVosterogrammidaYilson, 200F (hilognatha in"ertae sedis)&F2'
Dn%ra"lass-entaKoniaBrandt, 1*
/rder X7mynilyspedidaHo%%man, 1I9I
!uperorder 5ima"omorpha-o"o"k, 1*I$
/rder Glomeridesmidaook, 1*IF
!uperorder /nis"omorpha-o"o"k, 1**E
/rder GlomeridaBrandt, 1*
/rder !phaerotheriidaBrandt, 1*
Dn%ra"lass Helminthomorpha -o"o"k, 1**E
!uperorder X7r"hipolypoda!"udder, 1**2
/rder X7r"hidesmidaYilson W 7nderson 200$
/rder Xo:iedesmidaYilson W 7nderson 200$
/rder X;uphoberiidaHo%%man, 1I9I
/rder X-alaeosomatidaHannibal W 3rKeminski, 200F
/rder X-leurojulida!"hneider W Yerneburg, 1II* (possiblysister to olobognatha)&9'
!ubter"lassolobognathaBrandt, 1*$
/rder -latydesmidaook, 1*IF
/rder -olyKoniidaook, 1*IF
/rder !iphono"ryptidaook, 1*IF
/rder !iphonophorida4e:port, 1*$$
!ubter"lass ;ugnatha 7ttems, 1*I*
!uperorder uli%ormia 7ttems, 1I29
/rder ulidaBrandt, 1* /rder !pirobolidaook, 1*IF
/rder !pirostreptidaBrandt, 1*
!uper%amily XTyloiuloideaook, 1*IF
(!ometimes aligned :ith !pirobolida)&F'
!uperorder 4ematophora Qerhoe%%, 1I1
/rder allipodida-o"o"k, 1*I$
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eoarthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosterogrammidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incertae_sedishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amynilyspedidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limacomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oniscomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pleurojulida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colobognathahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colobognathahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyzoniidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siphonocryptida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphonophoridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xyloiuloideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Hoffman1963-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callipodidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eoarthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosterogrammidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incertae_sedishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amynilyspedidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limacomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oniscomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pleurojulida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colobognathahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyzoniidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siphonocryptida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphonophoridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xyloiuloideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Hoffman1963-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callipodida -
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/rder hordeumatida-o"o"k 1*I$
/rder !temmiulidaook, 1*IF
/rder !iphoniulidaook, 1*IF
!uperorder ero"haeta ook, 1*IF
/rder -olydesmida-o"o"k, 1**E!ee also&edit'
7rthropods
portal
5ea% litter
!oil biology
6e%eren"es&edit'
1 ump upZ
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4aturalist$F () 1+19.
12 Zump up toabBlo:er, . Gordon (1I*F).illipedes 3eys and 4otes %or the
Ddenti%i"ation o% the !pe"ies. 5ondon -ublished %or the 5innean !o"iety o% 5ondon
and the ;stuarine and Bra"kishYater !"ien"es 7sso"iation by ;.. Brill.D!B4
I00$0E9I*0.
1 ump upZ#amaris G. -inheiro, arin\K D. arOues W 5eandro . Battirola
(200I).
-
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/
!
-
#
3
-g4
5ate !ilurianto 6e"ent
6usty millipede (#rigoniulus
"orallinus)
!"ienti%i" "lassi%i"ation
3ingdom
7nimalia
-hylum 7rthropoda
!ubphylu
m
yriapoda
lass iplopoda
e Blain8illein
Ger8ais, 1*$$
!ub"lasses
-eni"illata
hilognatha
7rthropleuridea(extin"t)
i8ersity
19 orders, ". 12,000 spe"ies
illipedes ("lassiplopoda) are myriapodousarthropodsthat ha8e t:o pairs o%
legson most body segments. ;a"h doublelegged segment is a result o% t:o single
segments %used together as one (the name
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gigas).
ost millipedes are slo:mo8ingdetriti8ores, eating de"aying lea8esand other
deadplantmatter. Ho:e8er, they "an also be minor garden pests, espe"ially in
greenhouses:here they "an "ause se8ere damage to emergent seedlings.
illipedes "an be easily distinguished %rom the some:hat similar and related"entipedes(lass hilopoda) :hi"h mo8e rapidly, are "arni8orous, and ha8e a single pair o% legs
%or ea"h body segment. #he s"ienti%i" study o% millipedes is kno:n asdiplopodology, and
a s"ientist :ho studies them is "alled a diplopodologist.
ontents
&hide'
1 ;8olution
2 hara"teristi"s
2.1 Head
2.2 Body
2. Dnternal organs
6eprodu"tion and gro:th
$ ;"ology
$.1 Habitat
$.2 iet
$. -redators and parasites
$.$ e%en"e me"hanisms
F illipedes in relation to people
9 lassi%i"ation
E !ee also
* 6e%eren"es
I ;xternal links
;8olution&edit'
#his "lass o% arthropod is thought to be among the %irst animals to ha8e "olonised land
during the !iluriangeologi" period. #hese early %orms probably ate mossesand
primiti8e 8as"ular plants. #he oldest kno:n land "reature,-neumodesmus ne:mani,
:as a 1 "m (0.I in) long millipede, and li8ed $2* million years ago.&'Dn the Jpper
arboni%erous($0 to 2*0million years ago),7rthropleurabe"ame the largest
kno:n land in8ertebrate o% all time, rea"hing lengths o% up to 2.9 m (* %t 9 in).illipedes, "entipedes, and other terrestrial arthropods attained 8ery large siKes in
"omparison to modern spe"ies in the oxygenri"h en8ironments o% the e8onianand
arboni%erousperiods, and some "ould gro: larger than one metre. 7s oxygen le8els
lo:ered through time, arthropods be"ame smaller in siKe.&$'
hara"teristi"s&edit'
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archispirostreptus_gigashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leafhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhousehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilopodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Characteristicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Internal_organshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Reproduction_and_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Diethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Predators_and_parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Defence_mechanismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Millipedes_in_relation_to_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://tools.wmflabs.org/timescale/?Ma=340%E2%80%93280http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_years_agohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archispirostreptus_gigashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leafhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhousehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilopodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Characteristicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Internal_organshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Reproduction_and_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Diethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Predators_and_parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Defence_mechanismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Millipedes_in_relation_to_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumodesmus_newmanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://tools.wmflabs.org/timescale/?Ma=340%E2%80%93280http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_years_agohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=2 -
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#he 4orth 7meri"an millipede4ar"eus ameri"anus+ head :ith eyes, antennae, and
enlarged "ollum
illipede anterior anatomy
illipedes range %rom 2 mm
(0.0EI in) to around F "m (1$
in) in length,&F'and "an ha8e as
%e: as ele8en to o8er one hundred segments. #hey are generally bla"k or bro:n in "olour,
although there are a %e: brightly "oloured spe"ies.
#he millipedeLs most ob8ious %eature is its large number o% legs. Ha8ing many short legs
makes millipedes rather slo:, but the many legs pushing in unison pro8ides po:er%ul
strength %or burro:ing.
Head&edit'
#he head o% a millipede is typi"ally rounded abo8e and %lattened belo: and bears a pair
o% largemandiblesin %ront o% a platelike stru"ture "alled a gnatho"hilarium(
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loss and must spend most o% their time in moist or humid en8ironments.&I'
#he %irst segment behind the head is legless and kno:n as a "ollum. #he se"ond to %ourth
body rings bear a single pair o% legs ea"h and are kno:n as
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Gonopod morphology is the predominant means o% determining spe"ies among
millipedes the "omplex stru"tures di%%er mu"h bet:een spe"ies but 8ery little :ithin a
spe"ies.&1$'
#he genital openings are lo"ated on the third segment, and are a""ompanied in the male
by one or t:openes:hi"h deposit the sperm pa"kets onto the gonopods. Dn the %emale,
the genital pores open into paired small sa"s "alled "yphopods or 8ul8ae, :hi"h are
"o8ered by a small hoodlike "o8er, and are used to store the sperm a%ter "opulation.&*'
illipedespermis a%lagellate (la"ks a %lagellum), a uniOue trait among myriapods.&9'
Pemales lay bet:een ten and three hundred eggs at a time, depending on spe"ies,
%ertilising them :ith the stored sperm as they do so. any spe"ies simply deposit the
eggs on moist soil or organi" detritus, but some "onstru"t nests lined :ith dried%ae"es,
and may prote"t the eggs :ithin silk "o"oons.&*'Dn most spe"ies the %emale abandon the
eggs a%ter laying but some spe"ies in the orders -latydesmidaand!temmiulidapro8ide
parental "are%or eggs and young.&11'
#he young hat"h a%ter a %e: :eeks, and typi"ally ha8e only three pairs o% legs, %ollo:ed
by up to %our legless segments. 7s they gro:, they "ontinually moult, adding %urther
segments and legs as they do so. !ome spe"ies moult :ithin spe"ially prepared "hambers
o% soil or silk,&1F':hi"h they may also use to :ait out dry :eather, and most spe"ies eat
the shed exoskeleton a%ter moulting. illipedes li8e %rom one to ten years, depending on
spe"ies.&*'
;"ology&edit'
Habitat&edit'
Dn temperate Kones, millipedes are most abundant in moist de"iduous %orests, but they
also o""ur in "oni%erous %orests, deserts, "a8es, and alpine e"osystems.&11'!ome spe"ies
"an sur8i8e %resh:ater %loods and li8e submerged under:ater %or up to 11 months.&19'&1E'7 %e: spe"ies o""ur near the seashore and "an sur8i8e in some:hat salty "onditions.
&12'&1*'
iet&edit'
ost millipedes are detriti8oresand %eed on de"omposing 8egetation, %ae"es, or organi"
matter mixed :ith soil. illipedes in the order -olyxenidagraKe algae %rom bark, and
-latydesmida%eed on %ungi.&9'7 %e: spe"ies are omni8orousor o""asionally
"arni8orous, %eeding on inse"ts, "entipedes, earth:orms, or snails&*' &1I' !ome spe"ies
ha8e pier"ing mouth parts that allo: them to %eed on plant jui"es.&11'
-redators and parasites&edit'
illipedes are preyed upon by a :ide range o% animals, in"luding 8arious reptiles,
amphibians, birds, mammals, and inse"ts.&9'ammalian predators su"h as "oatisand
meerkatsroll "aptured millipedes on the ground to deplete de%ensi8e se"retions and rub
them o%% the body be%ore "onsuming,&20':hile "ertainpoison dart %rogsare belie8ed to
in"orporate the toxi" "ompounds o% millipedes into their o:n de%enses.&21'!e8eral
in8ertebrates ha8e spe"ialiKed beha8iors or stru"tures to %eed on millipedes, in"luding
lar8al glo::orm beetles,&22'-robolomyrmexants,&2'"hlamydephorid slugs,&2$'
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-PolyGonopods-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-PolyGonopods-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penis#Invertebrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faeceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stemmiulida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental_investmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecdysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff_cocoon-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff_cocoon-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Adis_1986-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Burrows_et_al_1994-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Blower85-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Littoral_Myriapods-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthwormshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Baker2004-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Weldon_et_al_2006-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Weldon_et_al_2006-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison_dart_frogshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Saporito_et_al_2003-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phengodidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Eisner_et_al_1998-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Eisner_et_al_1998-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolomyrmexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolomyrmexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Ito1998-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydephoridaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Herbert2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Herbert2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-PolyGonopods-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penis#Invertebrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faeceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stemmiulida&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental_investmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecdysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff_cocoon-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Adis_1986-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Burrows_et_al_1994-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Blower85-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Littoral_Myriapods-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthwormshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-IZ-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Baker2004-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shelley_1999-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Weldon_et_al_2006-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison_dart_frogshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Saporito_et_al_2003-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phengodidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Eisner_et_al_1998-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolomyrmexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Ito1998-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydephoridaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Herbert2005-24 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and the preda"eous dung beetleelto"hilum 8algum.&2F'
4ar"eus ameri"anus"urled in
de%ensi8e position
-arasiteso% millipedes in"lude nematodes,phaeomyiid %lies, and a"antho"ephalans.
&9'
e%en"e me"hanisms&edit'
ue to their la"k o% speed and their inability to bite or sting, millipedesL primary de%en"e
me"hanism is to "url into a tight "oil + prote"ting their deli"ate legs inside an armoured
body exterior. any spe"ies also emit 8ariouspoisonousliOuid se"retions through
mi"ros"opi"oKopores(also "alled odori%erous or repugantorial glands), along the sides
o% their bodies as a se"ondary de%en"e. #hese se"retions may in"ludealkaloids,
benKoOuinones,phenols, terpenoids, andRor hydrogen "yanide, among many others.
&29'&2E' !ome o% these substan"es are "austi"and "anburnthe exoskeletono%antsand other inse"tpredators, and the skin and eyes o% larger predators. -rimates su"h as
"apu"hin monkeysand lemursha8e been obser8ed intentionally irritating millipedes in
order to rub the "hemi"als on themsel8es to repel mosOuitoes.&2*'&2I'&0'!ome o% these
de%ensi8e "ompounds also sho: anti%ungal a"ti8ity.&1'#he bristly millipedes (order
-olyxenida) la"k both an armoured exoskeleton and odi%erous glands, and instead are
"o8ered in numerous bristles that in at least one spe"ies, -olyxenus %as"i"ulatus, deta"h
and entangle ants.&2'
illipedes in relation to people&edit'
illipedes do not bite, and their de%ensi8e se"retions are mostly harmless to humans +
usually "ausing only minor dis"oloration on the skin + but the se"retions o% some tropi"alspe"ies may "ause pain, it"hing, lo"al erythema, edema,blisters, e"Kema, and
o""asionally "ra"ked skin.&'&$'&F'&9' ;ye exposures to these se"retions "auses
general eye irritation and potentially more se8ere e%%e"ts su"h as "onjun"ti8itisand
keratitis.&E'Pirst aid"onsists o% %lushing the area thoroughly :ith :aterS %urther
treatment is aimed at relie8ing the lo"al e%%e"ts.
7 s:arm o% millipedes
!ome millipedes are "onsidered household pests, in"ludingTenobolus "arni%ex:hi"h
in%ests that"hed roo%s in Dndia.&*'/ther spe"ies exhibit periodi"al s:arming beha8iour,:hi"h "an result in home in8asions,&I'"rop damage,&$0'train delays, or e8en train
"rashes and derailments.&$1'&$2'
!ome o% the larger millipedes in the orders!pirobolida,!pirostreptida,
!phaerotheriidaare popular as pets.&$'!ome spe"ies "ommonly sold or kept in"lude
spe"ies o%7r"hispirostreptus, 7phistogoniulus,4ar"eus, and /rthoporus.&$$'
illipedes also appear in %olkloreand traditional medi"inearound the :orld. any
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltochilum_valgumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Larsen_et_al_2009-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Larsen_et_al_2009-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeomyiidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephalanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozoporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozoporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoquinoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capuchin_monkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-valederrama-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Birkinshaw1999-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Roncadori_et_al_1985-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_fasciculatushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blisterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eczemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MJA-Mason-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctivitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenobolus_carnifex&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenobolus_carnifex&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Alagesan2005-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Alagesan2005-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff2006invasion-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Peckham2013-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Stoev_et_al_2010-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Stoev_et_al_2010-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archispirostreptushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aphistogoniulus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltochilum_valgumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Larsen_et_al_2009-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeomyiidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephalanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozoporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoquinoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capuchin_monkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-valederrama-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Birkinshaw1999-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Roncadori_et_al_1985-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_fasciculatushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blisterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eczemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-MJA-Mason-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctivitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenobolus_carnifex&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Alagesan2005-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoff2006invasion-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Peckham2013-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirostreptidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Stoev_et_al_2010-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archispirostreptushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aphistogoniulus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narceushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_medicine 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"ultures as"ribe millipede a"ti8ity :ith "oming rains.&$F'Dn the Uoruba "ulture
o%4igeria, millipedes are used in pregnan"y and business rituals, and "rushed millipedes
are used to treat %e8er, :hitlo:, and "on8ulsionin "hildren.&$9'Dn Vambia, smashed
millipede pulp is used to treat :ounds, and in the Ba%ia peopleo% ameroonmillipede
jui"e is used to treat eara"hes.&$F'Dn "ertain Himalayan Bhotiyatribes, dry millipede
smoke is used to treat hemorrhoids.&$E'4ati8e people in alyasiause millipedese"retions in poisontipped arro:s.&$F'#he only reported usage o% millipedes as %ood by
humans "omes %rom the Bobo peopleo%Burkina Paso, :ho "onsume boiled, dried
millipedes in tomato sau"e.&$*'
lassi%i"ation&edit'
Por more details on this topi", see 5ist o% millipede %amilies.
7pproximate relati8e
di8ersity o%extantmillipede orders,
ranging %rom "a. ,F00
spe"ies o%-olydesmidato
2 spe"ies o%!iphoniulida.
&2'
7pproximately 12,000 spe"ies o% millipede ha8e been des"ribed, but the true number o%
spe"ies on earth has been estimated at up to *0,000.&9'illipedes are "onsidered a mega
di8erse yet understudied group, :ith in"onsistent taxonomi" e%%ort o8er time.&$I'
-olyxenus lagurus, a spe"ies o%
the order -olyxenida
Glomeris marginata, apill
millipedeo% the order
Glomerida
/"toglena sierra, a spe"ies
o% the order-olyKoniida
7nadenobolus monili"ornis, a
spe"ies o% the order!pirobolida
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitlowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Lawal.26Banjo2007-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Lawal.26Banjo2007-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bafia_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhotiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhoidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malyasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoffetal2014-48http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_millipede_familieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extant_taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphoniulidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Brewer_et_al_2012-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_lagurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeris_marginatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Octoglena_sierra&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyzoniidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadenobolus_monilicornishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitlowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Lawal.26Banjo2007-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bafia_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhotiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhoidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malyasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-CostaNeto2007-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Enghoffetal2014-48http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millipede&action=edit§ion=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_millipede_familieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extant_taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphoniulidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Brewer_et_al_2012-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenus_lagurushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeris_marginatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Octoglena_sierra&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyzoniidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadenobolus_monilicornishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirobolida -
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Harpaphe
haydeniana, a
spe"ies o% the order
-olydesmida
#he li8ing members
o% the iplopoda are
di8ided into sixteen
orders in t:o
sub"lasses.&2'#he
basal
sub"lass-eni"illata"ontains small spe"ies :hose exoskeleton is not "al"i%ied, and :hi"h
are "o8ered in setaeor bristles. 7ll other millipedes belong to the sub"lasshilognatha,
"onsisting o% t:o in%ra"lasses the in%ra"lass-entaKonia"ontaining the shortbodiedpill
millipedes, and the in%ra"lass Helminthomorpha (:ormlike millipedes) "ontaining thegreat majority o% the spe"ies.&F0'&F1'
#he higherle8el "lassi%i"ation o% millipedes is presented belo:, based on !hear, 2011,&2'
and !hear W ;dge"ombe, 2010&F2'(extin"t groups). 6e"ent "ladisti" and mole"ular
studies ha8e "hallenged traditional "lassi%i"ation s"hemes, and in parti"ular the position
o% the orders !iphoniulida and -olyKoniida is not yet :ell established.&9'#he pla"ement
and positions o% extin"t groups (X) kno:n only %rom %ossils is tentati8e and not %ully
resol8ed.&9' &F2'
lass iplopoda de Blain8ille in Ger8ais, 1*$$
!ub"lass -eni"illata5atrielle, 1*1
/rder -olyxenidaQerhoe%%, 1I$
!ub"lass X7rthropleuridea(pla"ed in -eni"illata by some authors)&F2'
/rder X7rthropleuridaYaterlot, 1I$
/rder X;oarthropleurida!hear W !elden, 1IIF
/rder Xi"rode"empli"ida
!ub"lass hilognatha 5atrielle, 1*02
/rder XVosterogrammidaYilson, 200F (hilognatha in"ertae sedis)&F2'
Dn%ra"lass-entaKoniaBrandt, 1*
/rder X7mynilyspedidaHo%%man, 1I9I
!uperorder 5ima"omorpha-o"o"k, 1*I$ /rder Glomeridesmidaook, 1*IF
!uperorder /nis"omorpha-o"o"k, 1**E
/rder GlomeridaBrandt, 1*
/rder !phaerotheriidaBrandt, 1*
Dn%ra"lass Helminthomorpha -o"o"k, 1**E
!uperorder X7r"hipolypoda!"udder, 1**2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_(evolution)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eoarthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosterogrammidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incertae_sedishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amynilyspedidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limacomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oniscomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpaphe_haydenianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_(evolution)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_millipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear_2011_class.-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-SierwaldBond2007-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxenidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eoarthropleuridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleurideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosterogrammidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incertae_sedishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede#cite_note-Shear.Edgecombe2010-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amynilyspedidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limacomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridesmidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oniscomorphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaerotheriidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipolypoda -
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/rder X7r"hidesmidaYilson W 7nderson 200$
/rder Xo:iedesmidaYilson W 7nderson 200$
/rder X;uphoberiidaHo%%man, 1I9I
/rder X-alaeosomatidaHannibal W 3rKeminski, 200F
/rder X-leurojulida!"hneider W Yerneburg, 1II* (possiblysister to olobognatha)&9'
!ubter"lassolobognathaBrandt, 1*$
/rder -latydesmidaook, 1*IF
/rder -olyKoniidaook, 1*IF
/rder !iphono"ryptidaook, 1*IF
/rder !iphonophorida4e:port, 1*$$
!ubter"lass ;ugnatha 7ttems, 1*I*
!uperorder uli%ormia 7ttems, 1I29
/rder ulidaBrandt, 1*
/rder !pirobolidaook, 1*IF
/rder !pirostreptidaBrandt, 1*
!uper%amily XTyloiuloideaook, 1*IF
(!ometimes aligned :ith !pirobolida)&F'
!uperorder 4ematophora Qerhoe%%, 1I1
/rder allipodida-o"o"k, 1*I$
/rder hordeumatida-o"o"k 1*I$
/rder !temmiulidaook, 1*IF
/rder !iphoniulidaook, 1*IF
!uperorder ero"haeta ook, 1*IF
/rder -olydesmida-o"o"k, 1**E
!ee also&edit'
7rthropodsportal
5ea% litter
!oil biology
6e%eren"es&edit'
1 ump upZ
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dinosaurs in ;urope
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1* ump upZBarber, 7.. (;d) (201).