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TRANSCRIPT
7-1
FINAL EXAM
NAMA KURSUS : GELAGAT ORGANISASIKOD KURSUS : MGM 3113JAM KREDIT : 3 JAM (3+0)
FORMAT: 20 soalan OBJEKTIF; 5 soalan SUBJEKTIF (10 markah/satu)
TOPIK: Kumpulan; Komunikasi; Kuasa; Konflik; Kepimpinan; Budaya Organisasi dan Perubahan Organisasi
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Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Team Dynamics
Chapter SevenChapter Seven
7-3
What are Teams?
Groups of two or more people
Exist to fulfill a purpose
Interdependent -- interact and influence each other
Mutually accountable for achieving common goals
Perceive themselves as a social entity
7-4
Groups versus Teams
All teams are groups
Some groups are just people assembled together
Teams have task interdependence whereas some groups do not (e.g., group of employees enjoying lunch together)
7-5
Many Types of Teams
• Departmental teams
• Production/service/ leadership teams
• Self-directed teams
• Advisory teams
• Skunkworks
• Task force (project) teams
• Virtual teams
• Communities of practice
7-6
Why Informal Groups Exist
1. Innate drive to bond
2. Social identityWe define ourselves by group memberships
3. Goal accomplishment
4. Emotional support
7-7
Team Effectiveness Model
•Task characteristics
•Team size
•Team composition
Team Design
• Achieveorganizationalgoals
• Satisfy memberneeds
• Maintain teamsurvival
TeamEffectiveness
•Team development•Team norms•Team cohesiveness•Team trust
Team Processes
Organizational
and Team
Environment
7-8
Team’s Task and Size
Task characteristicsBetter when tasks are clear, easy to implementShare common inputs, processes, or outcomesTask interdependence
Team sizeSmaller teams are betterBut large enough to accomplish task
7-9
Levels of Task Interdependence
SequentialSequential
PooledPooled
ReciprocalReciprocal
ResourceResource
AA BB CC
AA BB CC
AA
BB CC
High
Low
7-10
Team Development
Team development involves:Interpersonal knowledge and trustUnderstand and agree on rolesDiscover appropriate behaviorsLearn to coordinate with each otherDevelop team mental models
7-11
Existing teams might regress back to an earlier stage of development
FormingForming
StormingStorming
NormingNorming
Performing
AdjourningAdjourning
Stages of Team Development
7-12
Team Norms
Informal rules and shared expectations team establishes to regulate member behaviors
Norms develop through:Initial team experiences
Critical events in team’s history
Experience/values members bring to the team
7-13
Team Cohesion
The degree of attraction people feel toward the team and their motivation to remain members
Calculative -- members believe the team will fulfill goals and needs
Emotional -- team is part of person’s social identity
7-14
TeamTeamsizesize
MemberMemberinteractioninteraction
• Smaller teams more cohesive
• Regular interaction increases cohesion• Calls for tasks with high interdependence
MemberMembersimilaritysimilarity
• Similarity-attraction effect• Some forms of diversity have less effect
Influences on Team Cohesion
7-15
TeamTeamsuccesssuccess
External External challengeschallenges
• Successful teams fulfill member needs• Success increases social identity with team
• Challenges increase cohesion when not overwhelming
Somewhat Somewhat difficult entrydifficult entry
• Team eliteness increases cohesion• But lower cohesion with severe initiation
Influences on Team Cohesion (con’t)
7-16
Constructive Conflict
Occurs when team members debate their different perceptions about an issue in a way that keeps the conflict focused on the task rather than people.
Problem: constructive conflict easily slides into personal attacks
Courtesy of Johnson Space Center/NASA
7-17
Communication Defined
The process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people
Transmitting the sender’s intended meaning (not just symbols) is the essence of good communication
7-18
Importance of Communication
Coordinating work activities
Organizational learning
Decision making
Employee well-beingFulfills the drive to bondSelf-concept through social identity
7-19
Receiver
EncodeEncodefeedbackfeedback
FormFormfeedbackfeedback
Sender
FormFormmessagemessage
EncodeEncodemessagemessage
TransmitMessage
TransmitFeedback
Noise
Communication Process Model
DecodeDecodemessagemessage
ReceiveReceiveencodedencodedmessagemessage
DecodeDecodefeedbackfeedback
ReceiveReceivefeedbackfeedback
7-20
Courtesy of Admiral Insurance
Problems with Email
Communicates emotions poorly
Reduces politeness and respectSending messages before emotions subside (flaming)
Inefficient for ambiguous, complex, novel situations
Increases information overload
7-21
Nonverbal Communication
Actions, facial gestures, voice intonation, silence, etc.
Transmits most info in face-to-face meetings
Influences meaning of verbal and written symbols
Less rule bound than verbal communication
Important part of emotional labor
Automatic and unconscious
7-22
OversimplifiedZone
OverloadedZone
Nonroutine/Ambiguous
Rich
MediaRichness
Situation
Hierarchy of Media Richness
Lean
Routine/clear
7-23
Communication Barriers
PerceptionsSelective attentionDifficulty empathizing with receiver
Filtering
LanguageJargonAmbiguity
Information Overload
7-24
Cross-Cultural Communication
Verbal differencesLanguage
Nonverbal differencesVoice intonationInterpreting nonverbal meaningImportance of verbal versus nonverbalSilence and conversational overlaps
©Mark M. Lawrence/Corbis
7-25
Men Women
Gives advice quickly and directly
Gives advice indirectly and reluctantly
Report talk Rapport talk
Conversations are negotiations of status
Conversations are bonding events
Less sensitive to nonverbal cues
More sensitive to nonverbal cues
Gender Communication Differences
7-26
ActiveActiveListeningListening
SensingSensing•• Postpone evaluationPostpone evaluation•• Avoid interruptionsAvoid interruptions•• Maintain interestMaintain interest
EvaluationEvaluation•• EmpathizeEmpathize•• Organize informationOrganize information
RespondingResponding•• Show interestShow interest•• Clarify the messageClarify the message
Active Listening Process & Strategies
7-27
The Meaning of Power
Power is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others.
Potential, not practice
People have power they don’t use -- may not know they possess
Power requires one person’s perception of dependence on another personCraig Abraham/Fairfax Photos
7-28
Power and Dependence
Resource desired by person B
Resource desired by person B
Person B’s countervailing
power over Person A
Person APerson A Person A’s control of resource valued
by person B
Person BPerson B
Person A’s power over Person B
7-29
Model of Power in Organizations
Contingenciesof Power
Contingenciesof Power
Powerover others
Powerover others
Sourcesof PowerSourcesof Power
LegitimateRewardCoerciveExpert
Referent
LegitimateRewardCoerciveExpert
Referent
7-30
Contingencies of Power
Contingenciesof Power
Contingenciesof Power
SubstitutabilityCentralityDiscretionVisibility
SubstitutabilityCentralityDiscretionVisibility
Powerover others
Powerover others
Sourcesof PowerSourcesof Power
7-31
Increasing Nonsubstitutability
Increase control over the resourceMedicine -- exclusive right to perform medical proceduresLabor unions -- control over skilled laborSpecialists -- exclusive knowledge how to operate or repair equipment
Differentiate resource from othersServices provided by consulting firms
7-32
Centrality
Degree and nature of interdependence between powerholder and others
Centrality is a function of:How many others are affected by youHow quickly others are affected by you
7-33
Discretion and Visibility
DiscretionThe freedom to exercise judgmentRules limit discretion, limit powerAlso a perception managers with internal locus of control act like they have discretion
VisibilitySymbols communicate your power source(s)
— Educational diplomas— Clothing etc (stethoscope around neck)
Salience— Location where others are more aware of your presence
7-34
Influencing Others
Influence is any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behavior
Applies one or more power bases
Process through which people achieve organizational objectives
Operates up, down, and across the organizational hierarchy
7-35
AssertivenessAssertiveness • Actively applying legitimate and coercive power (“vocal authority”)
• Reminding, confronting, checking, threatening
Silent Silent AuthorityAuthority
• Following requests without overt influence• Based on legitimate power, role modeling• Common in high power distance cultures
more
Types of Influence
7-36
Coalition Coalition FormationFormation
• Group forms to gain more power than individuals alone
1. Pools resources/power 2. Legitimizes the issue3. Power through social identity
more
Types of Influence (con’t)
Information Information ControlControl
• Manipulating others’ access to information • Withholding, filtering, re-arranging
information
7-37
Ingratiation/ Ingratiation/ Impress. Mgt.Impress. Mgt.
• Ingratiation• Impression Management
Upward Upward AppealAppeal
• Appealing to higher authority• Includes appealing to firm’s goals• Alliance or perceived alliance with higher
status person
more
Types of Influence (con’t)
7-38
PersuasionPersuasion • Logic, facts, emotional appeals• Depends on persuader, message content,
message medium, audience
Types of Influence (con’t)
ExchangeExchange • Promising or reminding of past benefits in exchange for compliance
• Includes negotiation and networking
7-39
Consequences of Influence Tactics
ResistanceResistance ComplianceCompliance CommitmentCommitment
PersuasionIngratiation &
impression mgtExchange
Soft Influence Tactics
Hard Influence Tactics
Silent authorityUpward appeal
Coalition formationInformation control
Assertiveness
7-40
Organizational Politics
Behaviors that others perceive as self-serving tactics for personal gain at the expense of other people and possibly the organization.
7-41
ConditionsConditionsSupportingSupporting
Organizational Organizational PoliticsPolitics
ScarceScarceResourcesResources
Complex andComplex andAmbiguousAmbiguousDecisionsDecisions
Tolerance of Tolerance of PoliticsPolitics
OrganizationalOrganizationalChangeChange
Conditions for Organizational Politics
7-42
Conflict Defined
The process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party
7-43
Is Conflict Good or Bad?: Emerging View
Two types of conflict
Constructive (task) conflictConflict is aimed at issue, not partiesProduces benefits of conflictUpper limit to any conflict, including constructive
Relationship (socioemotional) conflictAims conflict a the person (e.g. their competence), not the task or issueIntroduces perceptual biasesDistorts information processing
7-44
DifferentiationDifferentiation
Task Task InterdependenceInterdependence
• Different values/beliefs• Explains cross-cultural and
generational conflict
• Conflict increases with interdependence
• Higher risk that parties interfere with each other
IncompatibleIncompatibleGoalsGoals
• One party’s goals perceived to interfere with other’s goals
more
Structural Sources of Conflict
7-45
Ambiguous Ambiguous RulesRules
Communication Communication ProblemsProblems
• Creates uncertainty, threatens goals• Without rules, people rely on politics
• Increases stereotyping • Reduces motivation to communicate• Escalates conflict when arrogant
Scarce Scarce ResourcesResources
• Motivates competition for the resource
Sources of Conflict (con’t)
7-46
Ass
ertiv
enes
s
Cooperativeness
Forcing Problem-solving
Compromising
Avoiding Yielding
High
Low High
Interpersonal Conflict Handling Styles
7-47
Leadership Defined
Leadership is the ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness of the organizations of which they are members
7-48
LeadershipLeadershipPerspectivesPerspectives
Competency Competency PerspectivePerspective
Contingency Contingency PerspectivePerspective
Implicit Implicit Leadership Leadership PerspectivePerspective
Transformational Transformational PerspectivePerspective
Perspectives of Leadership
Behavior Behavior PerspectivePerspective
7-49
IntegrityIntegrity
DriveDrive
• Truthfulness• Translates words into deeds
• Inner motivation to pursue goals• Need for achievement, quest to learn
Leadership Leadership MotivationMotivation
• High need for socialized power to accomplish team’s or firm’s goals
Emotional Emotional IntelligenceIntelligence
• Perceiving, assimilating, understanding, and regulating emotions
Seven Leadership Competencies
more
7-50
IntelligenceIntelligence • Above average cognitive ability• Can analyze problems/opportunities
Knowledge ofKnowledge ofthe Businessthe Business
• Familiar with business environment• Aids intuitive decision making
SelfSelf--ConfidenceConfidence • Strong belief in one’s ability to lead others
Seven Leadership Competencies (con’t)
7-51
Leader Behavior Perspective
People-oriented behaviorsShowing mutual trust and respect Concern for employee needsLooks out for employee well-being
Task-oriented behaviorsAssign specific tasksEnsure employees follow rulesSet “stretch goals” to achieve performance capacity
7-52
Path-Goal Leadership Styles
DirectiveTask-oriented behaviors
SupportivePeople-oriented behaviors
ParticipativeEncouraging employee involvement
Achievement-orientedUsing goal setting and positive self-fulfilling prophecy
7-53
Path-Goal Leadership Model
EmployeeContingencies
EmployeeEmployeeContingenciesContingencies
EnvironmentalContingenciesEnvironmentalEnvironmentalContingenciesContingencies
LeaderBehaviors
LeaderLeaderBehaviorsBehaviors
• Directive• Supportive• Participative
• Achievement-oriented
• Directive• Supportive• Participative
• Achievement-oriented
Leader Effectiveness
Leader Leader EffectivenessEffectiveness
• Employee motivation
• Employee satisfaction
• Acceptance of leader
• Employee motivation
• Employee satisfaction
• Acceptance of leader
7-54
Directive Supportive Participative AchievementEmployeeContingencies
Path-Goal Contingencies
Skill/Experience low low high high
Locus of Control external external internal internal
Task Structure nonroutine routine nonroutine ?
Team Dynamics –ve norms low cohesion +ve norms ?
EnvironmentalContingencies Directive Supportive Participative Achievement
7-55
Leadership Substitutes
Contingencies that limit a leader’s influence or make a particular leadership style unnecessary.
Examples:
Training and experience replace task-oriented leadership
Cohesive team replaces supportive leadership
Self-leadership replaces achievement-oriented leadership
Research evidence: substitutes help, but don’t completely substitute for real leadership
7-56
Transformational v. Transactional Leaders
Transformational leadersLeading -- changing the organization to fit environmentChange agents
Transactional leadersManaging -- linking job performance to rewardsEnsure employees have necessary resourcesApply contingency leadership
7-57
Transformational v. Charismatic Leaders
Is charismatic leadership essential for transformational leadership?
Some experts say yes, but emerging view is that:
Charisma is distinct from transformational leadershipA personal trait that might help transform, or might just help the leaderCharismatic leadership might have opposite effect -- creates dependence, not empowerment
7-58
Transformational Leadership Elements
1. Create a strategic visionVision
— Depiction of company’s (or work units) attractive future— motivates and bonds employees
May originate from others, but leader becomes a champion of the vision
2. Communicate the visionFrame message around a grand purposeCreate a shared mental model of the futureUse symbols, metaphors, symbols
7-59
Transformational Leadership Elements (con’t)
3. Model the visionWalk the talkSymbolize and demonstrate the vision through their own behaviorBuilds employee trust in the leader
4. Build commitment to the visionIncreased through communicating and modeling the visionIncreased through employee involvement in shaping the shared vision
7-60
Organizational Culture Defined
The basic pattern of shared values and assumptions governing the way employees within an organization think about and act on problems and opportunities.
7-61
Elements of Organizational Culture
Visible
• Unconscious, taken-for-granted perceptions or beliefs
• Mental models of ideals
Shared assumptionsShared assumptions
• Conscious beliefs• Evaluate what is good or bad, right or
wrong
Shared valuesShared values
ArtifactsArtifactsArtifacts• Stories/legends• Rituals/ceremonies• Organizational language• Physical structures/décor
• Stories/legends• Rituals/ceremonies• Organizational language• Physical structures/décor
Invisible(below the surface)
7-62
Strengthening Organizational Culture
7-63
Organizational Socialization Defined
The process by which individuals learn the values, expected behaviors, and social knowledge necessary to assume their roles in the organization.
7-64
Stages of Socialization
Role Management
Role Role ManagementManagement
• Insider
• Changing roles and behavior
• Resolving conflicts
• Insider
• Changing roles and behavior
• Resolving conflicts
EncounterStage
EncounterEncounterStageStage
• Newcomer
• Testingexpectations
• Newcomer
• Testingexpectations
Pre-EmploymentStage
PrePre--EmploymentEmploymentStageStage
• Outsider
• Gathering information
• Forming psychological contract
• Outsider
• Gathering information
• Forming psychological contract
7-65
FBI Overcomes Resistance to Change
FBI staff resisted changing from a reactive law enforcement agency to a proactive domestic intelligence agency.
Change is now occurring at the FBI through extensive communication, training, and realignment of systems and structures.
7-66
Lewin’s Force Field Analysis Model
A systems perspective of change developed by social psychologist Kurt Lewin
Unfreezing and refreezingOccur by altering driving and restraining forcesGenerate urgency to changeAddress sources of resistanceNew systems/structures refreeze desired conditions
DrivingForces
RestrainingForces
7-67
DesiredConditions
CurrentConditions
BeforeChange
AfterChange
Force Field Analysis Model
DuringChange
DrivingForces
RestrainingForces Driving
Forces
RestrainingForces
DrivingForces
RestrainingForces
7-68
Sources of Resistance to Change
Direct costsLosing something of value due to change
FBI’s new intelligence mandate would reduce status in law enforcement
Saving faceAccepting change acknowledges own imperfection, past wrongdoing
New FBI mandate acknowledges value of CIA work (source of past turf wars)
7-69
Sources of Resistance to Change (con’t)
Fear of the unknownRisk of personal loss
Concern about being unable to adjust
Breaking routinesOrganizational unlearning is part of change process
But past practices/habits are valued by employees due to comfort, low cognitive effort
7-70
Sources of Resistance to Change (con’t)
Incongruent organizational systems
Systems/structures reinforce status quoFBI career, reward, power, communication systems supported law enforcement, not intelligence
Incongruent team dynamicsNorms contrary to desired change
7-71
CommunicationCommunication Highest priority and first strategy for change
Improves urgency to change
Reduces uncertainty (fear of unknown)
Problems -- time consuming and costly
Minimizing Resistance to Change
7-72
CommunicationCommunication
Provides new knowledge and skills
Includes coaching and action learning
Helps break old routines and adopt new roles
Problems -- potentially time consuming and costly
Minimizing Resistance to Change
LearningLearning
7-73
CommunicationCommunication
Increases ownership of change
Helps saving face and reducing fear of unknown
Includes task forces, future search events
Problems -- time-consuming, potential conflict
Minimizing Resistance to Change
LearningLearning
Employee Employee InvolvementInvolvement
7-74
CommunicationCommunication When communication, training, and involvement do not resolve stress
Potential benefitsMore motivation to changeLess fear of unknownFewer direct costs
Problems -- time-consuming, expensive, doesn’t help everyone
Minimizing Resistance to Change
LearningLearning
Employee Employee InvolvementInvolvement
Stress Stress ManagementManagement
7-75
CommunicationCommunication
When people clearly lose something and won’t otherwise support change
Influence by exchange-- reduces direct costs
Problems• Expensive• Gains compliance, not
commitment
Minimizing Resistance to Change
LearningLearning
Employee Employee InvolvementInvolvement
Stress Stress ManagementManagement
Negotiation
7-76
CommunicationCommunication
When all else fails
Assertive influence
Firing people -- radical form of “unlearning”
Problems• Reduces trust• May create more subtle
resistance
Minimizing Resistance to Change
LearningLearning
Employee Employee InvolvementInvolvement
Stress Stress ManagementManagement
Negotiation
Coercion