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Biological control of pests in agriculture

is a method ofcontrolling pests (including

insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases)

that relies on predation, parasitism,

herbivory, or other natural mechanisms. It

can be an important component of

integrated pest management (IPM)programs
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pest_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytopathologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_pest_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_pest_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytopathologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pest_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture


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Biological Control

Biological Control is defined as the reduction ofpest populations by natural enemies andtypically involves an active human role.

Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as

biological control agents, include predators,parasitoids, and pathogens.

Biological control agents of plant diseases aremost often referred to as antagonists.

Biological control agents of weeds includeherbivores and plant pathogens.

Predators, such as lady beetles and lacewings,are mainly free-living species that consume a

large number of prey during their lifetime.


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Cabbage pests


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Parasitisme

Parasitoids are species whose immature stage developson or within a single insect host, ultimately killing the host.

Most have a very narrow host range.

Many species ofwasps and some flies are parasitoids.

Pathogens are disease-causing organisms includingbacteria, fungi, and viruses.

They kill or debilitate their host and are relatively specificto certain insect groups.

There are three basic types of biological controlstrategies; conservation, classical biological control, andaugmentation


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1. Conservation (Pemuliharaan)

The conservation of natural enemies is probably the mostimportant and readily available biological control practiceavailable to homeowners and gardeners.

Natural enemies occur in all areas, from the backyardgarden to the commercial field.

They are adapted to the local environment and to thetarget pest, and their conservation is generally simple andcost-effective.

Lacewings, lady beetles, hover fly larvae, and parasitizedaphid mummies are almost always present in aphidcolonies.

Fungus-infected adult flies are often common followingperiods of high humidity.

Preventing the accidental eradication of natural enemiesis termed simple conservation.


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2. Classical Biological Control Classical biological control is the introduction of natural

enemies to a new locale where they did not originate ordo not occur naturally.

This is usually done by government authorities. In many instances the complex of natural enemies

associated with an insect pest may be inadequate. These introduced pests are referred to as exotic pests and

comprise about 40% of the insect pests in the UnitedStates.

Examples of introduced vegetable pests include theEuropean corn borer, one of the most destructive insectsin North America. European corn borer caterpillarsdamage the ears of corn, as well as the stalks, chewingtunnels which cause the plants to fall over.

Biological control agents of corn borers include thehymenopteran parasitoid Trichogramma , wasps.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_corn_borerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichogrammahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichogrammahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_corn_borer


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European Corn Borer , Ostrinia nubialis


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Methodology

The first step in the process is to determine theorigin of the introduced pest and then collectappropriate natural enemies associated with thepest or closely related species.

The natural enemy is then passed through a

rigorous quarantine process, to ensure that nounwanted organisms (such as hyperparasitoids)are introduced, then they are mass produced,and released.

Follow-up studies are conducted to determine ifthe natural enemy becomes successfullyestablished at the site of release, and to assessthe long-term benefit of its presence.


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There are many examples of successfulclassical biological control programs.

1. One of the earliest successes was with thecottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi, a pestthat was devastating the California citrusindustry in the late 1800s.

A predatory insect, the

vedalia beetle, and a parasitoid fly were introducedfrom Australia. Within a few years the cottonycushion scale was completely controlled bythese introduced natural enemies.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottony_cushion_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottony_cushion_scale


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2. Damage from theAlfalfa weevil, beetle, a

serious introduced pest of forage, cotton, wheat,

was substantially reduced by the introduction ofseveral natural enemies.

About 20 years after their introduction, the

population ofweevils, in the alfalfa area treated

for alfalfa weevil in the northeastern UnitedStates, was reduced by 75 percent.

Palmetto weevilLixus angustatus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weevilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weevil


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A small wasp,Trichogramma ostriniae ,

introduced from China to help control theEuropean corn borer, is a recent example

of a long history of classical biological

control efforts for this major pest.3. The population ofLevuana Moth, a

serious coconut pest in Fiji was brought

under control by a classical biological

control program in the 1920s. Extinct.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_corn_borerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levuana_Mothhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levuana_Mothhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_corn_borerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China


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Advantage Classical biological control is long lasting and

inexpensive. the initial costs of collection, importation, and rearing. When a natural enemy is successfully established it rarely

requires additional input and it continues to kill the pestwith no direct help from humans and at no cost.

Unfortunately, classical biological control does not alwayswork.

It is usually most effective against exotic pests and less soagainst native insect pests.

The reasons for failure are often not known, but mayinclude the release of too few individuals, poor adaptationof the natural enemy to environmental conditions at therelease location, and lack of synchrony between the lifecycle of the natural enemy and host pest.


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3. Augmentation

This third type of biological control involves thesupplemental release of natural enemies.

Relatively few natural enemies may be released

at a critical time of the season (inoculativerelease) or literally millions may be released(inundative release).

Additionally, the cropping system may be

modified to favor or augment the naturalenemies.

This latter practice is frequently referred to ashabitat manipulation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phytoseiulus_persimilis&action=edit&redlink=1


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An example of inoculative release occurs in greenhouseproduction of several crops.

Periodic releases of the parasitoid, Encarsia formosa, are

used to control greenhouse whitefly, and the predaceousmite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, is used for control of thetwo-spotted spider mite.

Encarsia formosa , wasp
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encarsia_formosahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phytoseiulus_persimilis&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phytoseiulus_persimilis&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encarsia_formosa


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Lady beetles, lacewings, or parasitoids such as

Trichogramma are frequently released in large

numbers (inundative release). Recommended release rates forTrichogramma

in vegetable or field crops range from 5,000 to

200,000 per acre per week depending on level

of pest infestation.

Similarly, entomopathogenic nematodes

are released at rates of millions and even

billions per acre for control of certain soil-dwelling insect pests.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichogrammahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichogramma


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Habitat or environmental manipulation is another form ofaugmentation.

This tactic involves altering the cropping system toaugment or enhance the effectiveness of a natural enemy.

Many adult parasitoids and predators benefit from sourcesofnectar and the protection provided by refuges such ashedgerows, cover crops, and weedy borders.

Also, the provisioning of natural shelters in the form ofwooden caskets, boxes or (turnaround) flowerpots is aform of this.

For example, the stimulation of the natural predatorDermaptera (earwig) is done in gardens by hanging upflowerpots with straw or wood wool.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowerpothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermapterahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermapterahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowerpothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box


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Mixed plantings and the provision offlowering

borders can increase the diversity of habitats

and provide shelter and alternative food sources.

Examples of habitat manipulation include

growing flowering plants (pollen and nectar

sources) near crops to attract and maintain

populations of natural enemies. For example,hover fly adults can be attracted to umbelliferous

plants in bloom.

Inflorescence of

Common Hogweed

(Heracleum sphondylium)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbelliferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Hogweedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Hogweedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbelliferous


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Examples of predators

1. Ladybugs, and in particular their larvae which are active

between May and July in the northern hemisphere, are

voracious predators ofaphids (also known as plant lice, are

minute plant-feeding insects) such as greenfly and blackfly,

and will also consume mites, scale insects and small

caterpillars. Ladybugs can be encouraged by

cultivating a patch ofnettles in the

garden and by leaving hollow stemsand some plant debris over winter

so that they can hibernate.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladybugshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenflyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackflyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nettlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nettlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackflyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenflyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladybugs


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Ladybird larva eating wooly apple aphids

Coccinellaseptempunctata

Aphids
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladybirdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wooly_apple_aphids&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccinella_septempunctatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccinella_septempunctatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccinella_septempunctatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccinella_septempunctatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wooly_apple_aphids&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladybird


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Hoverflies resemble slightly darkerbees or

wasps and they have characteristic

hovering, darting flight patterns. There are over 100 species of hoverfly

whose larvae principally feed upon

greenfly, one larva devouring up to fifty aday, or 1000 in its lifetime.

They also eat fruit tree spider mites and

small caterpillars. Adults feed on nectar and pollen, which

they require for egg production.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoverflyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider_mitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider_mitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoverfly


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Flies in the DipterafamilySyrphidae are commonly known as

hoverflies, flower flies, orSyrphid flies.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly


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Phacelia tanacetifolia

scorpionweeds, Limnanthes douglasiipoachedegg plant and Douglas'meadowfoam.

Hoverflies can be encouraged by growing attractant

flowers such as the poached egg plant(Limnanthesdouglasii), marigolds orphacelia throughout the growing

season
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phacelia_tanacetifolia&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poached_egg_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marigoldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaceliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaceliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marigoldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poached_egg_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phacelia_tanacetifolia&action=edit&redlink=1


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Dragonflies are important predators of

mosquitoes, both in the water, where the

dragonfly naiads eat mosquitolarvae, andin the air, where adult dragonflies capture

and eat adult mosquitoes.

Community-wide mosquito controlprograms that spray adult mosquitoes also

kill dragonflies, thus removing an

important biocontrol agent, and canactually increase mosquito populations in

the long term
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragonflyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naiadshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larvahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larvahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naiadshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragonfly


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Yellow-winged Darter Kirby's Dropwing (Trithemis

kirbyi) in Tsumeb, Namibia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow-winged_Darterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsumebhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsumebhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow-winged_Darter


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Other useful garden predators include

lacewings, pirate bugs (flower bugs), rove

and ground beetles, aphid midge,

centipedes, predatory mites, as well as

larger fauna such as frogs, toads, lizards,

hedgehogs (mammals), slow-worms andbirds.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysopidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthocoridaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidoletes_aphidomyzahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Froghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedgehoghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow-wormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow-wormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedgehoghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Froghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centipedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidoletes_aphidomyzahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthocoridaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysopidae


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Lacewings Lacewings are widespread insects; the genus

Chrysoperla is very common in North America. Their larvae

are voracious predators, attacking most insects of suitable

size, especially soft-bodied ones (aphids, caterpillars and

other insect larvae, insect eggs).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysopidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larvaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larvaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysopidae


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Cats and rat terriers kill field mice, rats,

june bugs, and birds.

Dogs chase away many types of pestanimals. Dachshunds are bred specifically

to fit inside tunnels underground to kill

badgers.dachshund is a short-

legged, elongated

dog breed of the hound

family. Origin German
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dachshundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badgershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog_breedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houndhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houndhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog_breedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badgershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dachshund


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PredatoryPolisteswasp looking for bollworms or other

caterpillars on a cotton plant
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_wasphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_wasphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predator


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Parasitic insects

Most insect parasitoids are wasps orflies. Parasitiods comprise a diverse range of insects

that lay their eggs on or in the body of an insecthost, which is then used as a food for developing

larvae. Parasitic wasps take much longer than

predators to consume their victims, for if thelarvae were to eat too fast they would run out of

food before they became adults. Such parasites are very useful in the organicgarden, for they are very efficient hunters,always at work searching for pest invaders.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipterahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_wasps&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parasitic_wasps&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diptera

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