KDN PP11720/1/2006 ISSN 0128-4347 VOL.27 SEPT-NOV 2005 RM10.00

LE

MB

AG

A

JU

RU

TE

RA

M A L AY S I A

BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIALEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA

WASTEWASTE

cont

ents

Volu

me

27

Sept

embe

r-N

ovem

ber

2005

LE

MB

AG

A

JU

RU

TE

RA

M A L AY S I A

26

47

4 President’s MessageEditor’s Note

6 AnnouncementLetter To Editor

Cover Feature10 Municipal Solid Waste – A Problem Or

An Opportunity?

18 Biomass Energy From The Palm Oil IndustryIn Malaysia

26 An Innovative, Environment-Friendly And Cost-Effective Wastewater Treatment System -UniFED™

Guidelines34 General Advice On Giving Of Second Opinion

Update35 Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling

(Buangan Terjadual) 2005 Dan Perintah KualitiAlam Sekeliling (Pembawa Yang Ditetapkan)(Buangan Terjadual) 2005

Engineering & Law40 Instructions & Variations Part 2

Environment44 Providing Sludge Dewatering Services For

Multiple-Site Operations Via AMobile Dewatering Unit – Series 4

Feature47 Construction Waste Management:

Are Contractors Unaware or Just Recalcitrant?

50 Laboratory Chemical Waste Management

54 The Role of A Concessionaire In Solid WasteManagement – Series 1

18

10

2T H E I N G E N I E U R

Pembaharuan Permit –Engineering Consultancy PracticeTahun 2006Sdn Bhd (Body Corporate)

Pembaharuan Permit –Engineering Consultancy PracticeTahun 2006Pemilik Tunggal(Sole Proprietor)/Perkongsian (Partnership)

BORANG

Pg 30

Pg 32Cover photo courtesy of Ir. Vincent H.K. Tan

Members of the Board of Engineers Malaysia(BEM) 2004/2005

PresidentYBhg. Dato’ Prof. Ir. Dr. Wahid bin Omar

RegistrarIr. Dr. Mohd Johari Mohd Arif

SecretaryIr. Dr. Judin Abdul Karim

Members of BEMYBhg. Tan Sri Dato’ Ir. Md Radzi Mansor

YBhg. Datuk Ir. Md Sidek AhmadYBhg. Datuk Ir. Hj. Keizrul Abdullah

YBhg. Mej. Jen. Dato’ Ir. Ismail SamionYBhg. Datuk Ir. Santhakumar Sivasubramaniam

YBhg. Datu Ir. Hubert Thian Chong HuiYBhg. Dato’ Ir. Ashok Kumar SharmaYBhg. Dato’ Ir. Abdul Rashid MaidinIr. Prof. Abang Abdullah Abang Ali

Ir. Prof. Dr. Mohd Ali HashimIr. Prof. Dr. Ruslan HassanIr. Ishak Abdul RahmanTuan Hj. Basar Juraimi

Ar. Paul Lai ChuIr. Ho Jin WahIr. P E Chong

Editorial Board

AdvisorYBhg. Dato’ Prof. Ir. Dr. Wahid bin Omar

ChairmanYBhg Datuk Ir. Shanthakumar Sivasubramaniam

EditorIr. Fong Tian Yong

MembersIr. Mustaza SalimIr. Chan Boon Teik

Ir. Ishak Abdul RahmanIr. Prof. Dr. K. S. Kannan

Ir. Prof. Dr. Ruslan HassanIr. Prof. Madya Dr. Eric K H Goh

Ir. Nitchiananthan BalasubramaniamIr. Shahkander Singh

Ir. Prem Kumar

Executive DirectorIr. Ashari Mohd Yakub

Publication OfficerPn. Nik Kamaliah Nik Abdul Rahman

Assistant Publication OfficerPn. Che Asiah Mohamad Ali

Design and ProductionInforeach Communications Sdn Bhd

Buletin Ingenieur is published by the Board ofEngineers Malaysia (Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia)

and is distributed free of charge to registeredProfessional Engineers.

The statements and opinions expressed in thispublication are those of the writers.

BEM invites all registered engineers to contributearticles or send their views and comments to the

following address:

Publication CommitteeLembaga Jurutera Malaysia,Tingkat 17, Ibu Pejabat JKR,

Jalan Sultan Salahuddin,50580 Kuala Lumpur.

Tel: 03-2698 0590 Fax: 03-2692 5017E-mail: bem1@jkr.gov.my publication@bem.org.my

Web site: http://www.bem.org.my

Advertising/SubscriptionsAdvertisement Form is on page 9Subscription Form is on page 56

President’s Message

Editor’s NoteWith increasing concern over the effects of the wide range

of waste that is going into the environment – solid waste,sewerage, construction waste, and hazardous and industrialwaste – the Publication Committee feels it expedient to followup from the December 2003 publication with another roundof subjects on the environment to keep readers updated withthe latest information.

In the wake of the Government’s intention to introduce self-regulation onthe building delivery system, we are pleased to receive and publish a “Letter tothe Editor” with some interesting suggestions on the subject that may be ofinterest to practising engineers.

We would welcome more “Letters to the Editor” so that The Ingenieur maybe a medium for constructive views and suggestions related to the engineeringprofession.

Ir. Fong Tian YongEditor

KDN PP11720/1/2006ISSN 0128-4347

VOL. 27 SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER 2005

4T H E I N G E N I E U R

The issue of waste has been around since mankindset foot on earth. The attitude of “not my problem” and“don’t care” over generations has escalated this issue to acritical level today. Thus, it is timely that in this bulletinwe address this highly significant issue. Managing wasteis everybody’s social responsibility. It is necessary to worktogether with everyone doing his bit to reduce theundesirable effects of waste.

Waste is a generic term for things that have outlivedtheir usefulness or their purpose over time. Waste is alsounwanted output generated from all activities be it from

the office, industry or home – municipal solid waste, agriculture waste, industrialwaste, medical waste or construction waste. Every minute, every hour someoneis discarding waste. Malaysians generate more than 18,000 tonnes of solid wastea day amounting to some eight million tonnes a year! And industries generatemore than 420,000 tonnes of scheduled wastes a year! Only a small percentageis being recycled or recovered (less than 5% of municipal solid waste and scheduledwaste).

Why is waste management crucial in any society? Besides the obvious reasonof protecting the environment, there are many other inherent benefits. In thisbulletin, some opportunities and strategies for waste management are highlighted.The private sector has already invested in research for the reuse/recycle of thewaste generated by the nation.

There are sufficient legislations and guidelines for local Governments andrelevant agencies to regulate the control of the various forms of wastes generatedand discharged. However, there is often a lack of corporate responsibility as wellas civic consciousness on the part of those who continuously flout the law,indiscriminately, and dangerously dump wastes. We, Malaysians, need to bemindful of our future generations in managing wastes in ways that are sustainableand environmentally acceptable.

There is encouragement by the Government to produce green energy utilizingplantation (e.g. oil palm) wastes and municipal solid wastes as alternative sourcesof fuel to produce energy, namely electricity and heat. Waste is viewed as asource of renewable energy which can be put to good use. The implementationof this still needs much Government intervention. Our engineers are capable ofapplying technologies to generate electricity from wastes, but are constrained byfinancial and economic barriers.

YBhg. Dato’ Prof. Ir. Dr. Wahid bin OmarPresidentBOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA

T H E I N G E N I E U R

Dear Editor,

The Role Of A Consulting Engineer In CFO Self-certification;the Certificate of Completion and Conformity (CCC): A casefor the Consulting Engineer to be a Member of the ACEM

In Malaysia to be a consulting engineer (or an engineering consultant) a natural person, who is a graduate withan engineering qualification from a recognised institution of higher learning, must be a BEM registered professionalengineer (i.e. a P.Eng who can use the title Ir. before his or her name), and concurrently, a licensed provider ofEngineering Consultancy Practice (ECP), either as a sole-proprietor, or in partnership, or as a share-holder/director of a body-corporate. In both capacities, a consulting engineer is governed by the Registration of EngineersAct 1967 (Revised 2002) and its companion Registration of Engineers Regulation 1990 (Revised 2003). TheMalaysian consulting engineer’s professional conduct and practice – including the manner of discharging one’sduties with skill, due care and diligence - are well documented in the Principle Act and Regulation; which in turnare being administered by the Board of Engineers, Malaysia (BEM). The Regulator came into being on theAugust 23, 1972.

The BEM and The IEM

Besides being registered with and licensed by the BEM, a Malaysian consulting engineer is most likely a corporatemember of the Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (IEM).

The IEM is a grass-root members’ organisation which has been in existence since 1959. It is a society registeredunder the Societies’ Act with the primary objective “…to promote and advance the science and profession of all

6

Letter To Editor

PublicationCalendar

Announcement

T H E I N G E N I E U R

The following list is thePublication Calendar for theyear 2005 and 2006. Whilewe normally seekcontributions from expertsfor each special theme, weare also pleased to acceptarticles relevant to themeslisted.

Please contact the Editor orthe Publication Officer inadvance if you would like tomake such contributions orto discuss details anddeadlines.

December 2005: WATERMarch 2006: ENGINEERING PRACTICEJune 2006: MINERALSSeptember 2006: BUILDINGDecember 2006: ENVIRONMENT

T H E I N G E N I E U RT H E I N G E N I E U R

aspects of engineering…”. The IEM assumes the role and function as a learned society in the science and art ofengineering. Based on the traditional linkage and trust among the BEM and the IEM; the Regulator of engineersand the practice of engineering, as the Designating Authority (DA) has appointed the IEM, a Certified Body (CB), tocarry out two major functions on BEM’s behalf, which are as follows:

� To conduct training and operationalise BEM’s structured life-long education programmes, such as the ProfessionalDevelopment Programme (PDP) for registered graduate engineers during their pupilage en-route to theirprofessional examinations; and Continuing Professional Development (CPD) for registered professional engineers.

� To conduct assessment examinations of engineers’ competency for professional status (i.e. professional interviews)

The IEM maintains a set of current and ever ascending benchmarks of international best practices by way ofrepresenting Malaysia and active participation at the various international engineering fora, such as the WorldFederation of Engineering Organisations (WFEO); ASEAN Federation of Engineering Organisations (AFEO); Federationof Engineering Institutions in Islamic Countries (FEIIC); Federation of Engineering Institutions South-East Asia &Pacific (FEISEAP); Commonwealth Engineers’ Council (CEC); ASEAN Engineers’ Register (AER); APEC Engineers’Register and EMF etc. To ensure its high standard for membership, the IEM has in place mechanisms which willencourage members-in-benefit to be in compliance with its Constitution, By-laws and Regulations.

It can be seen that a typical Malaysian consulting engineer benefits by being a corporate member of the IEM – itgives him or her public recognition as a professional; and as a member of a learned society, the engineer is alsorecognised as an intellectual.

The ACEM

Then there is the Association of Consulting Engineers Malaysia (ACEM); formed more than 42 years ago, “with theobject of promoting the advancement of the profession of consulting engineering”. The ACEM focuses its attentionon matters affecting the status, professional conduct, emolument and the general interests of those Malaysianengineers who have adopted engineering consultancy practice as their profession.

Members of the ACEM are BEM registered Professional Engineers cum licensed providers of ECP, are most likelycorporate members of the IEM. However, not all BEM licensed ECP providers are members of the ACEM! Here liesthe issue of peer acceptance, and the problem of perception by house-buyers, the public and other stake-holdersconcerning the proposed CFO self-certification: the CCC. Are non-ACEM member but BEM licensed ECP providerstruly recognised as consulting engineers upon whom house-buyers, the public and authorities can place their trust?Is public interest reassured? And seen to be assured? It is a cardinal and universal covenant amongst professionalsworldwide - to reassure consumers of their professional services (viz. their clients) that public interest and essentialrequirements are not compromised, profession specific fraternity associations of the like as the ACEM shall exercisepeer judgement over members of their own association. The aim: Professionalism must be the sole agenda, and beseen as the only agenda!

ACEM is also a members’ only profession specific organisation that exercises fraternity wide self-regulation amongits members – who are both individuals and panel firms; matching that of the BEM’s licensing of ECP providers. Inits efforts of maintaining the high standard expected of Malaysian consulting engineers who are members; theACEM since its earlier and formative years (for some 40 years now) has had been organising and conductingcapability and capacity (C&C) building in-career training programmes for its members, their professional and para-professional staff; with the aim of improving and upscaling the delivery system of Malaysian consulting engineers.All those C&C building in-career training programmes were ahead of the BEM’s PDP and CPD programmes. Theyhave been useful and goal-attaining in that certain determined para-professionals, with perseverance and whopursued the earlier ACEM run basic draughtsmen courses and then progressed on to the designers’ course, eventuallysucceeded to qualify as professional engineers, after a period of self-study under the mentorship of ACEM members(who were their employers) and having passed the BEM/IEM professional exams. Quality service among membersof the ACEM has thus been established as the profession’s culture with a tradition of constant up-grading of thedelivery system.

As the consulting engineering profession specific fraternity, the ACEM has well established Aims and Objectives;plus transparent definitions of both the Profession and Practice of Engineering Consultancy: which are bindingto ACEM members and are published in the ACEM’s yearly Directory. Besides, there are other ACEM documents

7

Letter To Editor

T H E I N G E N I E U RT H E I N G E N I E U R 8

in force. Of the various documentation, is one with special focus on the important topic of “ProfessionalPractice.” The special ACEM publication dealing with FAQs on issues relating to Professional Practice hasbeen endorsed by the President of the BEM, YBhg. Tan Sri Dato’ Ir. Hj Zaini Bin Omar, who said in theForeword, among other things, that he “........... believe(s) the FAQ published is intended to guide and assist allpractising engineers in their quest to be more vigilant and guarded in their professional practices and at thesame time avoid the associated pitfalls”.

Three-tier regulatory regime

Besides its policies and guidelines which are in line with international best practices, the ACEM being a long-time Member Association of FIDIC, also subscribes to positions adopted by FIDIC; such as in the areas of QBS,Conditions-of-Contract, environmental sustainability and others; and most important of all – the adoptionof FIDIC’s Integrity Management System (IMS). Being conscious of the need to manage risks, the ACEM alsoadministers a Group Professional Indemnity (PI) scheme which supports ACEM members in providing thatadditional comfort to their clients in the over-all matter of Professional Practice. All these are expected of adependable professional consulting engineer who subscribes, as a matter of fact, to a Three-tier RegulatoryRegime being built up by the sum total of: Third Party, Second Party and First Party Regulations. Third PartyRegulation – the BEM; Second Party – the ACEM, and the First Party will be the self – the engineer, thenatural person.

Therefore, to ensure that the necessary mechanism is in place for CFO self-certification: CCC, besides theofficial guidelines that would be issued by the Government (via. The Ministry of Housing and Local Government)and the refinement of the BEM’s code-of-professional practice (as contained in BEM Circular No. 3/2005) –which will all be aggregated into the Third Party Regulation; the consulting engineer must also be subjectedto a Second Party (peer and fraternity-wide self) Regulation by being a member of the ACEM. Besides beingguided by ACEM’s own codes and policies, plus FIDIC’s stance and policies, ACEM members are also expectedto subscribe to the ACEM adopted FIDIC’s IMS and ACEM Group PI coverage.

Condition Precedent – Globally

In conformity to globalisation, advanced countries such as those in Europe when establishing benchmarks forbest practices of the delivery system, require their domestic consulting engineers, as condition precedent, tobe members of profession-specific fraternity associations. For example, consulting engineers are to be membersof their domestic associations of consulting engineers, which in turn would also be members of FIDIC. Thiscondition precedent requirement which provides a Second Party (peer and fraternity-wide self) Regulationhas resulted in the higher esteem position that consulting engineers are perceived by the public.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is the Author’s opinion that BEM licensed ECP providers as the consulting engineers who areexpected to sign-off CCC, should also be members of ACEM. Because PAM is both a learned society (like theIEM) and the profession specific fraternity association for providers of architecture professional services(equivalent to ACEM), BAM registered professional architects are also members of PAM – so why not Malaysianconsulting engineers?

Recommendation

It is therefore the recommendation when official guidelines concerning CFO self-certification: the CCC arebeing drawn up, that there be a Three-tier Regulatory Regime as recommended herein; with a conditionprecedent that non-ACEM member but BEM licensed ECP providers should also apply to the ACEM to bescreened for membership by peer acception, and to subscribe to ACEM Values.

from,

Ir. Rocky H.T. WongPast Chairman - ACEM

Letter To Editor

T H E I N G E N I E U R

By Sivapalan Kathiravale, Muhd Noor Muhd Yunus & Mohamad Puad AbuMINT Incineration and Renewable Centre (MIREC), Malaysian Institute of Nuclear Technology (MINT)

Municipal Solid Waste –A Problem Or An Opportunity?

Waste, regardless of its kind(either in solid or liquidform) is produced since the

dawn of human existence and it isnot excessive to say, waste is the firstthing generated before people are ableto contribute to the betterment oflives. Indifferent of the variousdefinitions, the problems regardingthe disposal and management ofwaste have then never been out ofthe issues of open discussion. Thiscontroversial subject has becomemore severe when the growth of wastehas reached a critical condition dueto the increasing demands on theconsumption of natural resources andraw material in the creation ofproducts to enrich people’s lives.Hence, the current and futuregenerations must ensure that allresources be preserved, fully utilizedand well managed.

Generation rates of MunicipalSolid Waste (MSW) vary according tothe economic and social standing ofa country. This, in return, will alsoaffect the management style of theMSW generated. Generally, thehigher income community generatemore waste, recycle more and havethe money to employ new technologyto treat their waste. As for the lowerincome communities, the wastegenerated is more organic in nature,which calls for lesser recycling,whereas disposal is by open dumping.The effects of this naturally wouldmean that in the lower incomecountries pollution to water and airis huge as compared to the moredeveloped countries. However, on theother hand, does waste alone generateharmful gasses that pollute the worldor does manufacturing, transportationand power production, which arerampant in the more industrialised

countries contribute more towardspollution? This subject isargumentative and could be discussedat length. However, the environmentcannot wait for its population todebate on the above matter. Actionneeds to be taken in a world whereeconomic power determines thetreatment method. Hence, the ideaof recovering all ‘wealth’ in the wasteis essential to ensure that even thepoorest countries could benefit fromall waste management technologies.For this to work, recycling, reuse andrecovery of energy is essential in anintegrated approach towards wastemanagement.

WASTE GENERATION RATES

MSW could be considered to beproduced in proportion with theeconomic productivity and theconsumption rate of the populationof the countries’ resources. Countrieswith higher incomes produce morewaste per capita and per employee,and their waste generally containsmore packaging material andrecyclable items. In low-incomecountries, commercial and industrialactivities are limited; thus recyclingactivities are limited. Table 1 reflectsthe generation rates as compared tothe economic level and themanagement cost. In most lowincome countries, land availability,due to lack of economic value, makesit easier to operate open dumps ascompared to developed countrieswhere land cost is too high due toeconomic and residential demand,and calls for more sophisticatedmanagement methods such asincineration, refuse-derived fuel,composting, material recoveryfacilities and others [1,2]. At the same

10

time, the generation rate with therelated disposal cost alone does notreflect the MSW managementcondition in most countries. Manyother factors, such as land availability,public opinion, political, economicaland legal conditions too do governover the decision made to tackle theMSW management problem in acountry.

Mostly, when waste generationis considered, many reflect on thequantity of the waste that isgenerated, forgetting the qualityof the waste that is disposed off.Table 2 re f lec ts some of thegeneration rates, a country’s incomeand the composition of the MSWgenerated. Indications from Table 2show that in the lower incomecountries generation rates are lower.At the same time the recyclable itemssuch as plastic, paper and glass arelow as compared to the higher incomenations. This goes to show that thesocio economic status of a countryhas adverse effect on the generationrates and also the recycling rates, notto mention the fact that thepopulation does not get to enjoy theproduct of the modern world such asexcessive packaging.

As for Malaysia, the capital cityof Kuala Lumpur is usually thecenter of attention for wastemanagement problems due to thecongestion and over production ofMSW. It is reported that on average,the daily collection is between18,000 and 25,000 tons/day forMalaysia and in Kuala Lumpur it isas high as 3,000 tons/day [6,7]. Onaverage, the generation rate is about0.8 to 1.2 kg/capita/day and thisgeneration rate is increasingannually at a rate between 2 and 3%.As for other Asian countries the

cover

featu

re

Municipal Solid Waste –A Problem Or An Opportunity?

T H E I N G E N I E U R

City Country Socio-economic factors

W T PD P/DW GNP POP

Municipal

Waste

MW

Major waste components (% by weight) Paper Plastic Food Metal Glass

High Income

New York USA

Sydney Australia

Tokyo Japan

Paris France

Rome Italy

1,000 15 450 4.2 12,800 9.12

620 25 30 4.2 4,100 3.23

700 15 40,694 7.0 4,910 11.60

1,250 10 4,000 2.5 18,400 2.18

580 14 700 4.9 7,000 2.88

720

690

400

590

460

35.0 10.0 22.0 13.0 9.0

38.0 0.1 13.0 11.0 18.0

38.0 11.0 23.0 4.0 7.0

30.0 1.0 30.0 4.0 4.0

18.0 4.0 50.0 3.0 4.0

Medium Income

Madrid Spain

Singapore Singapore

Manila Philippines

Taipei Taiwan

Kano Nigeria

410 14 290 4.2 5,000 3.19

440 29 26,472 3.9 4,000 2.44

64 27 983 5.0 807 1.63

220 22 1,250 4.2 - 2.50

70 30 200 4.5 2,000 1.00

390

-

-

-

-

21.0 - 45.0 3.0 4.0

43.0 6.0 5.0 3.0 1.0

17.0 4.0 43.0 2.0 5.0

8.0 2.0 25.0 1.0 3.0

17.0 4.0 43.0 5.0 2.0

Low Income

Bangalore India

Dacca Bangladesh

Karachi Pakistan

Jakarta Indonesia

Rangoon Burma

50 24 1,300 7.0 320 2.91

25 26 3,750 6.0 200 1.31

340 29 1,300 5.5 1,890 5.10

45 24 700 8.0 474 6.50

32 26 200 6.0 120 2.60

-

-

-

-

-

3.0 0.5 65.0 0.4 0.2

2.0 1.0 40.0 1.0 9.0

0.5 0.5 56.0 0.5 0.5

2.0 3.0 82.0 4.0 0.5

1.0 4.0 80.0 3.0 6.0

Table 2 : Socio-economic data, generation rates and major waste components in some countries [4,5]

W= monthly wages in US$ T = annual average temperature, %oC POP = total population in millions

PD = population density, persons/km2 P/DW = persons /dwelling GNP=gross national product, US$ MW = kg/capita/yr

11

cover

featu

re

Table 1:Global Perspective of Municipal Solid Waste Generation Rates and

The Respective Management Costs [3,4]

Units Low

Income

Middle

Income

High

Income

Mixed Urban Waste – Large City kg/cap/day 0.50 to 0.75 0.55 to 1.10 0.75 to 2.20

Mixed Urban Waste – Medium

City

kg/cap/day 0.35 to 0.65 0.45 to 0.75 0.65 to 1.50

Residential Waste Only kg/cap/day 0.25 to 0.45 0.35 to 0.65 0.55 to 1.00

Average Income from GNP US$/cap/yr 370 2,400 22,000

Collection Cost US$/ton 10 to 30 30 to 70 70 to 120

Transfer Cost US$/ton 3 to 8 5 to 15 15 to 20

Open Dumping Cost US$/ton 0.5 to 2 1 to 3 5 to 10

Sanitary Landfill Cost US$/ton 3 to 10 8 to 15 20 to 50

Tidal Land Reclamation Cost US$/ton 3 to 15 10 to 40 30 to 100

Composting Cost US$/ton 5 to 20 10 to 40 20 to 60

Incineration Cost US$/ton 40 to 60 30 to 80 70 to 100

Total cost without Transfer US$/ton 13 to 40 38 to 85 90 to 170

Total cost with Transfer US$/ton 17 to 48 43 to 100 105 to 190

Cost as % of Income % 0.7 to 2.6 0.5 to 1.3 0.2 to 0.5

* Income based on 1992 Gross National product data form the World Development Report, 1994

generation rate increase is between 3and 7 %. Table 3 shows some figureson the generation rates and thecomposition of the different classesof income based on a study done inSelangor. A comparison betweenTable 2 and 3 indicates the state ofSelangor to be in between highincome and middle income group ofcountries if the MSW generation isused as a yard stick to judge economicstatus of a state.

WASTE MANAGEMENT TRENDS

To many residents of the world,generation of waste is considered apart of life which cannot be changed,but to some, the generation of wasteis something that will eventuallyaffect them if not managed properly.Having all the best wastemanagement options available isgood but a reflection of the currentgeneration rates and the disposal

methods are necessary in order toavoid overspending. This brings in theconcept of BATNEEC (Best AvailableTechnology, Not Entailing ExcessiveCost) where the technology is suitedto the problem and the situation inthe country. However, there are somecountries or rather counties/states thatdo not process their waste in theirown state, bring about the NIMBY(Not In My Back Yard) syndrome,which will entail excessive cost in just

T H E I N G E N I E U R 12

cover

featu

re

transporting the waste across theboarder [8]. Table 4 shows theamount of waste that is collected andhow it is managed in a few countries.From the table it is good to note thatmost of the nations in the world areproviding for the collection of wasteto at lease 80% of that which isgenerated.

As for Malaysia, until the year2000, land filling of the wastegenerated has been the main option.However, the 144 landfills and opendumps scattered all over the countryare at a critical level of either at theend or beyond their lifespan. At thesame time, Malaysia enjoys a highdevelopment rate and combined with

the strict environmental regulationsenforced, land for dumping of wasteis scarce. Over the last five years, themanagement trends in major townshave changed from land filling toputting great pressure to recycle,recover and reuse. Kuala Lumpurhas closed two landfills and createdonly one landfill, one transfer station

Table 3: Generation rates and major waste components in the state of Selangor, Malaysia

[4,5]

High

Income

(> RM

3,000)

Middle Income

(RM 1,500 to

2,999)

Low Income

(< RM 1,500)

Generation Rate kg/capita/

day

1.70 0.71 0.80

Composition

Food % 38.81 47.21 49.38

Paper % 12.81 12.28 12.58

Textile % 2.18 2.38 2.26

Rubber / Leather % 2.17 0.69 0.73

Wood % 1.16 0.82 0.45

Garden Waste % 11.26 8.64 5.94

Other Organic % 0.59 0.18 0.27

Other (plastic, metal,

etc.)

% 31.02 27.80 28.39

Table 4: Amount of waste collected and the management methods [9 - 18]

Country Data

latest

year

available

Municipal

waste

collected

(1000

tonnes)

Population

served by

municipal

waste

collection

(%)

Municipal

waste

collected

per

capita

served

(kg)

Municipal

waste

landfilled

(%)

Municipal

waste

incinerated

(%)

Municipal

waste

recycled/

composted

(kg)

United

States 2001 207 957 100.0 722 55.7 14.7 29.7

Australia 1999 13 200 ... ... 95.0 0.0 7.3

Japan 2000 52 362 100.0 412 5.9 77.0 15.0

France 2001 32 174 100.0 540 43.2 32.2 24.6

Italy 2002 29 788 100.0 525 63.8 8.9 ...

Spain 2001 26 340 ... 595 59.6 5.6 21.6

Singapore 2002 4 402 ... ... 3.7 55.0 41.3

Mexico 2002 32 174 86.0 367 97.6 0.0 2.4

Peru 2001 1 444 100.0 ... 64.6 ... ...

Madagascar 2002 151 100.0 ... 100.0 0.0 0.0

Mauritius 2003 351 95.0 303 100.0 ... ...

Hong Kong 2002 5 399 100.0 773 63.7 ... 36.3

Singapore 2002 4 402 ... ... 3.7 55.0 41.3

Thailand 2000 13 972 ... ... ... 0.8 14.3

T H E I N G E N I E U R

cover

featu

re

and a Refuse Derived Fuel plant andan Incineration plant is in thepipeline. The same could be saidabout Penang and Johor Bahru.However, the management style inthe lesser-populated states is stilldependent on landfills. As for thecentral Government, efforts are in thepipeline for the tabling of a NationalWaste bill that will empower the localauthorities to provide bettermanagement and allow forprivatization of the collection anddisposal of the MSW. A master planfor the nation on waste managementpolicies and strategies has beenprepared and earmarked forimplementation until 2020 [8].

THE PROBLEM

Waste generation at all pointsneeds to be managed in a propermanner. The effects of this wasteeither managed or mis-managedcould lead to either the pollution ofwater or air. In most cases, waterpollution is contributed by theimproper management of landfills orjust open dumps, which allowsuntreated or semi-treated leachate toflow into waterways causingtremendous health problems.

The standards and norms forhandling MSW in industrialised

countries have reduced health andenvironmental impact substantially.About four decades ago, high-income countries required opendumps to be covered daily with soilto curtail vector access, turning thesedumps into controlled landfills.However, in the 70s, when it becameapparent that even controlledlandfills could cause major waterpollution, sanitary landfills becomea necessity. This technologydevelopment allowed for the propertreatment of leachate and also for thecollection of the landfill gasses [6].

As for pollution to theatmosphere as a result of wastegeneration or its management, thepath has been well documented andresearched, for it contributes to manyproblems. Figure 1 , gives anindication of the amount of CO2 thatcould be emitted or saved byemploying the various technologiesavailable. It is generally noted thatif waste is just dumped withoutrecycling the material or the recoveryof energy, then it is a net disaster tothe environment in terms of releaseof CO2 and CH4 to the air which aresaid to be the main contributors tothe greenhouse effect.

In the case of Japan, it isestimated that as a result of MSWmanagement, 38% of the amount of

CO2 produced could come fromincineration, while landfill generates3%, collection and transportation4%, crushing activities 4% and lastlythe handling of plastics generates51% of the total CO2 generated fromwaste management. In another studydone in Japan, the amount of greenhouse gasses generated from variouswaste management methods areshown on Table 5. As for Malaysia,the actual amount of gassesgenerated from the wastemanagement of MSW is unknown.However, data from the World Bankindicate in Malaysia in 2000 theamount of CO2 emitted was 123.6million metric tons and CH4 emittedwas 2.44 million metric tons. This isemission from all types of fuels.

Generally, it is evident that nomatter what the managementmethod may be, the effect on theenvironment is still unavoidable.The only way to reduce waste is toincrease recycling and ultimately tostop the production of waste. Thishas to come into effect in terms ofreducing the demand on goods andalso ensuring the production ofgoods are full proof with 110%efficiency. This is something for thefuture but for the current market,waste management has to strike abalance between the environment

SRF and paper

fibre recovery + co-

gasification in coal

boiler

SRF production co-

gasification in coal

boiler

Mix waste

combustion plant +

power production

Landfill +

Gas recovery +

Power Production

CO2

equivalents

per annum

–

+

TotalRecyclingLandfil

Energy

Figure 1:Greenhouse gasemissions ofdifferent wastemanagementsystems [14]

13

T H E I N G E N I E U R 14

cover

featu

re

and economical returns. Most wastemanagement methods other then theconventional landfill, demand highcapital and operational cost. Due tothese projects being not bankable, theGovernment funded the wastemanagement projects in the past.Fortunately, technology hasprogressed and new laws allow forthe trading of CO2 in the open market

making waste management viableand economically encouraging.

THE OPPORTUNITY

From the previous arguments, itis evident that the concept of recycle,reuse and recover is essential inminimizing the amount ofenvironmental and economical

damage that could be done if wasteis disposed off indiscriminately.However, management of wasterequires considerable funds and manycountries do not have the economicresources for high technologymanagement. On the other handprivate companies are looking at theGovernment for capital expenditureto reduce the financial burden on the

Table 5 : Amount of Green House Gases from Waste Management in 2000 – Japan

Source GHG s Gg CO2 eq

Kitchen Garbage CH4 1,205.5

Paper / Fiber CH4 2,576.4

Emissions

from

Landfill

Controlled

Landfill Wood CH4 1,537.7

Industrial Waste Water CH4 308.5

CH4 231.3 Final Treatment

Plant N2O 620.9

CH4 418.9 Domestic

Treatment Plant N2O 360.7

CH4 34.0

Emissions

from Waste

Water

Treatment

Municipal /

Commercial

Waste Water Human Waste

Treatment Plant N2O 868.6

CO2 12,804.5

CH4 11.2 Municipal Solid Waste

N2O 650.1

CO2 11,440.2

CH4 0.8

Emissions

from

Incineration Industrial Solid Waste

N2O 1,621.1

Total 34,690.5

Processing Intermediate

Products

M aterials

For M arket

Conversion

To Energy

Incineration

Compost

Anarobic Digestion

Pyrolisis

Gasification

Combustion

Co - utilisation

with Fossil Fuels

G lass, M etals, Aluminium etc

Biodegradable

Fr action

Secondary Raw material

Solid

Fuels

Recovered

Mechanical

Separation

M SW

Figure 2:Pathways forprocessing of

municipal solidwaste [14]

T H E I N G E N I E U R

proper manner. Current technologiesallow for even inert ash material fromthe incinerators to be recycled intoroad payment materials or for themanufacturing of tiles. This wouldnot only save resources but allow forthe extension of landfill lifespan whileensuring almost zero waste to thelandfill.

Table 6 shows the amount ofenergy produced in 1999 and alsothe amount of energy consumed in2001 either by non-renewableresources or by renewable resources.Some countries are producing a fairbit via renewable resources but themajor industrialised countries arestill very much dependent ondepleting fuels as a resource. Thetable also goes to show weatherproduction and demand aremaintained at a margin or there istoo much stand-by power, which isbeing generated by not being used.On the other hand, Figure 3, paintsa different picture of how much CO2could be saved if energy is recoveredfrom the waste that is dumped intothe landfill.

Net reduction in CO2 = 220-592-1610 = -1982 kg

CO2

1100 kg CO2

(220 kg fossil and 880

kg biogenic)

592 kg

CO2

Coal

1 tonne

MSW

1 tonne

MSW

1610 kg

MSW

Coal Combustion

Landfill

Without gas utilization

600 kWhe

600 kWhe

Figure 3: Greenhouse gas emissions from electricity production[14]

Table 6: Amount of energy produced and consumed by Non-renewable

and renewable resources [9 – 18]

Country Total Energy Produced (1999) Total Energy Consumed (2001)

All

Sources

(1000

Metric

TOE)

Non-

Renewable

Energy

Source (%)

Renewable

Energy

Source

(%)

All

Sources

(1000

Metric

TOE)

Non-

Renewable

Energy

Source

(%)

Renewable

Energy

Source

(%)

Sweden 34,377 57.1 42.9 51,054 71.2 28.8

United

Kingdom 262,186

99.1 0.9 235,158

98.4 1.6

Bulgaria 10,325 92.9 7.1 19,476 99.5 0.5

Denmark 27,171 91.6 8.4 19,783 88.7 11.3

Canada 379,207 88.8 11.2 248,184 85.1 14.9

Mexico 230,236 92.9 7.1 152,273 89.8 10.2

United

States 1,711,814

93.1 6.9 2,281,414

95.4 4.6

China 1,138,617 78.9 21.1 1,139,369 79.0 21.0

Japan 104,092 83.8 16.2 520,729 96.8 3.2

Malaysia 77,623 95.8 4.2 51,608 94.6 5.4

Thailand 40,059 63.3 36.7 75,542 81.8 18.2

Australia 250,436 96.9 3.1 115,627 94.2 5.8

New

Zealand 14,932

59.3 40.7 18,294

70.4 29.6

company. Hence, the financial modelbecomes an important tool in makingthe final decision on the managementmethod.

At this point, the concept ofturning waste to wealth becomesapparent. The need to recovermaximum profits from the

management method employed whileensuring environmental sustainabilityis the main objective. Figure 2 showsthe pathways that are available rightfrom the processing of the MSW tothe final landfill. It is obvious that atevery level of processing, there ismoney to be made if processed in a

15

cover

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R

In Malaysia , as mentionedearl ier, the major cit ies havechanged from total land filling torecycling, recovery of energythrough incinerat ion or evenconversion of MSW to RefuseDerived Fuel (RDF). Table 7 and 8shows the removal efficiency of theRDF process and the expenses andprobable income from managingthe waste in an integrated fashion.These are projection figures for acommercial RDF plant, which willcommence operation in 2006 forthe area of Kajang, Selangor. This

is just one option and there aremany more methods of integratingthe management methods to obtainfruitful income. Malaysia is alsor ich in bio resources andagricul tural act ivi ty, whichgenerate a lot of waste. Thesewastes could act as enhancingmaterials to better manage theMSW generated while ensuring notmuch methane is emitted into theatmosphere. This will not onlyimprove the quality of live inMalaysia but a lso ensuremanagement of all waste material

is handled properly while bringingeconomical returns to the investors.

The ideal about RDF productionis that the plant allows for materialrecovery, which is an income to theplant, and then the organics areshred and either converted to RDFor fed into composters to generatebiogases which are fed to a fuel cellto create Hydrogen fuel. Theopportunities are unlimited, withthe integrat ing of var ioustechnologies and various wastes togenerate the most income.However, technology has to be

Table 7: Conversation of MSW to RDF and the amount of recyclables obtained with

improvement in calorific value (CV). [1]

MSW weight Removal % RDF weight RDF (%) CV MSW (kJ/kg) CV RDF (kJ/kg)

Food 59.19 50.00 29.60 49.34 16,373.68 8,079.01

Plastic 12.65 10.00 11.38 18.97 35,028.95 6,646.57

Paper 7.99 10.00 7.19 11.98 14,528.85 1,741.23

Rubber 0.65 10.00 0.59 0.98 21,310.43 207.92

Yard 7.92 10.00 7.13 11.88 13,653.13 1,622.36

Textile 1.36 10.00 1.22 2.04 17,735.08 361.57

Wood 2.32 10.00 2.09 3.48 15,727.25 547.36

Glass 1.56 90.00 0.16 0.26

Aluminum 0.39 90.00 0.04 0.06

Ferrous 2.01 90.00 0.20 0.33

Fine 3.97 90.00 0.40 0.66 10,723.86 70.97

Total 100.00 59.98 100.00 17,532.96 19,277.00

* Note – all calculations based on dry weight

Table 8: Typical expense and income from managing MSW generated - Kuala Lumpur [1]

Estimated Expenses (RM/ton MSW)

Collection 90

Transfer Station 32

Landfill 27

Incineration 100

Refuse Derived

Fuel

30

Composting 33

Possible Income (RM/ton MSW)

Recycling

Plastic 20 20%/ton MSW – with 20% recycled – RM 0.50 / kg

Metal 18 8%/ton MSW – with 75% recycled – RM 0.50 / kg

Others 5 Estimated

Energy from RDF 29.5 30%/ton MSW – 3,500kcal/kg – RM 0.17/ kW.h

Composting 30 60%/ton MSW – 5% compost – RM 1.00 / kg

Carbon Trading 35 1.9 tons CO2/ton MSW – US$ 5 / ton CO2

16

cover

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R

developed locally where the ‘know-how’ will be gained at the sametime. Only by this method willMalaysia become an exporter oftechnology instead of just materialsand products.

Apart form just waste treatment,landfill mining and recovery ofmaterials from closed landfills areoptions. Most countries evolvefrom open dumps that receive allkinds of waste to sanitary landfills,which receive waste that has beenrecycled, thermally treated, and theinert only end up in landfills. Bylocating a material recovery facilityor a RDF plant on a closed landfillor open dump, the plant couldoperate to recover some of thematerials that have been buried asfuel. On the other hand, opendumps that have been closed couldalso be harvested for the landfillgasses that are emitted to beconverted into electricity. This notonly saves the environment butalso generates electricity. Over aperiod of time, these landfills couldalso be converted into orchards,golf courses or even residentialareas in years to come. Thefinancial opportunities for this isenormous and waiting to be tapped.

CONCLUSION

Waste generated and managedin a proper manner is essentiallygood for the environment .However, with the advancement oftechnology and in the pursuit of amodern and more comfortablelifestyle, many the countries areendangering the environment tothe point of no return. It hasalready been established that insome countries, the backgroundlevel of dioxin in the air is higherthen the allowable cancer risk setas 1 pica g/Nm3. The way forwardshould be not treating the wasteproduced but how not to producewaste in the first place. This wouldtake a long time to achieve butsome action needs to be taken inorder to stop excess manufacturingin the name and glory of seeking acomfortable lifestyle.

1. Sivapalan Kathiravale, ‘PhD Thesis in Preparation’, UKM, 2003.2. Manser, A.G.R., and Keeling, A.A., ‘Processing and Recycling Municipal

Waste’, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, 1996.3. Cointreau, Sandra, ‘Occupational And Environmental Health Issues

of Solid Waste Management: Special Emphasis on Middle and Lower-Income Countries’ , Report to the Waste Management Unit of theWorld Health Organization, Regional Office in Europe

4. Ali Khan. M.Z. and Burney. F.A., ‘Forecasting Solid Waste Composition– An Important Consideration in Resource Recovery and Recycling’,Resources, Conversation and Recycling, Elsevier, 3 (1989), 1-17

5. ‘Municipal Waste Arising’, www.un.org/depts/unsd/enviro6. Mohd Nasir Hassan, Sivapalan Kathiravale, et. Ai. 2002, ‘Municipal

Solid Waste Characterisation Study of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia’International Solid Waste Association World Environment Congress& Exibition 2002, Istanbul Convention & Exhibition Center, Turkey,July 8-12. 2002

7. Sivapalan Kathiravale, et. al. 2002, ‘A Material Balance of theMunicipal Solid Waste Generated by the Various Sources in KualaLumpur’ World Engineering Congress 2002, Kuching Sarawak, July22-25. 2002

8. Muhd Noor Muhd Yunus, ‘Developing Strategies for MSWManagement R&D in Malaysia and the Repositioning of the ThermalTreatment Discipline’, 3rd I-CIPEC, Hongzhou, China, October, 2004

9. Earth Trends Data Tables: Climate and Atmosphere, 2005, WorldResources Institute, International Energy Agency, United NationsFramework 10. Earth Trends Data Tables: Energy Consumption bySource, 2005, World Resources Institute, International Energy Agency,United Nations Framework

11. Earth Trends Data Tables: Energy Production by Source, 2005, WorldResources Institute, International Energy Agency, United NationsFramework

12. Earth Trends Data Tables: Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Source, 2005,World Resources Institute, International Energy Agency, UnitedNations Framework

13. Earth Trends Data Tables: Energy, 2005, World Resources Institute,International Energy Agency, United Nations Framework

14. ‘Municipal Solid Waste and its Role in Sustainability’ A positionpaper prepared by IEA Bioenergy, www.ieabioenergy.com

15. Sivapalan Kathiravale, Muhd Noor Muhd Yunus 2003, ‘RecoverableEnergy From Malaysian Municipal Solid Waset’ Bulletin Ingenieur,Malaysia, Vol. 21 Quarter 4/4 Dec 2003 Pg 8 – 12

16. Blueprint on Waste to Wealth, Malaysian Institute for NuclearTechnology, in Print

17. Earth Trends Data Tables: Green Gas Emissions from Fossil FuelBurning by Sector, 2005, World Resources Institute, InternationalEnergy Agency, United Nations Framework

18. Earth Trends Data Tables: Energy Consumption by Sector, 2005, WorldResources Institute, International Energy Agency, United NationsFramework

19. Earth Trends Data Tables: Resources Consumption, 2005, WorldResources Institute, International Energy Agency, United NationsFramework BEM

REFERENCES

17

cover

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R

By Dr. Ma A N and Dato’ Dr. Yusof Basiron, Malaysian Palm Oil Board

Over the last 40 years, theMalaysian palm oil industryhas grown by leaps and

bounds to become the world largestproducer and exporter of palm oil andits products. In 2004, Malaysia hadabout 3.87 million hectares of landunder oil palm cultivation. There werealso 380 palm oil mills processing about70 million tonnes of fresh fruit bunch(FFB) to produce 13.98 million tonnesof crude palm oil (CPO) and 3.66 milliontonnes of palm kernel. There were also48 active refineries, 40 palm kernelcrushing plants and 17 oleochemicalfactories producing various processedpalm oil, palm kernel oil, palm kernelcake, oleochemicals and finished palmproducts. The total export earnings ofpalm oil products, constituting refinedpalm oil, palm kernel oil, palm kernelcake, oleochemicals and finishedproducts amounted to RM 30.41 billion(RM3.80=US$ 1).

Traditionally oil palm is grown forits oils, i.e. palm oil, palm kernel oiland palm kernel cake as thecommodity products. There are manyco-products like fronds, trunks, emptyfruit bunch (EFB) palm fibre and shellthat have not been fully commerciallyexploited. In some cases they are stillbeing considered as a nuisance to theindustry. Through concerted researchand development efforts by manyresearch organisations includingMalaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB),these co-products from palm oilindustry have been found to be goodresources for many applications.There are now many competitive usesof these materials. One of them is toutilise them as fuel for energyproduction. In fact, the MalaysianGovernment has identified biomass asthe fifth fuel resource to complementthe petroleum, gas, coal and hydroas energy resources.

Currently more than 80% of thepalm oil produced is used for foodapplications like coking oil, fryingoil, margarine, shortening and manyothers. The non-edible applicationsinclude soap and candle as well asoleochemicals production. Themain raw material for majoroleochemicals production is palmkernel oil.

In recent years, the escalatingpetroleum price coupled with thecompelling pressure under the KyotoProtocol to reduce carbon dioxide(green house gas) emission haveforced many countries to look foralternative and renewable fuels.Vegetable oils and their esters havebeen identified as potential greenfuels for the future. In the Malaysiancontext, palm oil and its derivativesincluding palm oil methyl esters havebeen successfully researched andevaluated as diesel substitutes. Thepotential energy from all these palmbiomass is presented in this paper.

18

Energy From Fibre, Shell AndEmpty Fruit Bunches

Oil palm is a perennial crop. It hasan economic life span of about 25years. Oil palm is grown for its oils.Palm oil and palm kernel oil areextracted from the mesocarp andkernels of the fruits respectively. Ingeneral, the fresh fruit bunches (FFB)contains about 20-25% palm oil, 6-7% palm kernel, 14% fibre, 7% shelland 23% empty fruit bunch (EFB) (Ma,2002). Table 1 shows the type andamount of biomass generatedtogether with their heat values.

Fibre And Shell

All the palm oil mills in Malaysiause fibre and shell as the boiler fuelto produce steam and electricity forpalm oil and kernel productionprocesses. The fibre and shell alonecan supply more than enoughelectricity to meet the energy demand

Biomass Energy From ThePalm Oil Industry In Malaysia

cover

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R 19

cover

featu

re

of a palm oil mill. It is estimated that20 kWh (lower kWh for highercapacity mill) of electrical energy isrequired to process one tonne of FFB.Thus, in 2004 about 1400 millionkWh of electricity was generated andconsumed by the palm oil mills.Assuming that each mill operates onthe average 393.35 hours per month,the palm oil mills together will havea generating capacity of 296 MW.This constitutes about 2.5 % of theenergy demand of the country. Itmust be mentioned here that the palmoil mills generally have excess fibreand shell, which are not used andhave to be disposed off separately. Inother words, the palm oil mills stillhave excess capacity to produce morerenewable energy.

Assuming that a diesel powergenerator consumes 0.34 litre of dieselfor every kWh of electricity output,the oil palm industry in 2004 isestimated to have saved the countryabout 476 million litres of dieselwhich amounted to about RM395million (price of diesel @ RM0.83 perlitre). The energy requirement forpalm oil mills is mounting as palmoil production is expected to reach14 million tones in the year 2005.Furthermore, the fuel cost could havebeen more if fuel oil was used as boilerfuel to generate steam separately forthe milling processes.

The oil palm industry is indeedfortunate that the fibre and shell canbe used directly as the boiler fuelwithout any further treatment. Withproper control of combustion, blacksmoke emission usually associatedwith the burning of solid fuel can becontrolled. Another intangibleadvantage of using both theseresidues as fuel is that it helps todispose off these bulky materials

which otherwise would contribute toenvironmental pollution. Unlessthese materials can be morebeneficially utilised, it is envisagedthat they will remain as boiler fuelfor the foreseeable future. It hasgenerally been considered thatenergy is free in the palm oil mills.This has undoubtedly contributedgreatly to the success of the palmoil industry.

Empty Fruit Bunch

Apart from fibre and shell, EFBare another valuable biomass, whichcan be readily converted into energy.However this material has only beenutilized to a very limited extent. Thisis mainly because there is alreadyenough energy available from fibreand shell. Also, due to its physicalnature and high moisture content of65 %, the EFB has to be pre-treatedto reduce its bulkiness and moisturecontent to below 50 %, in order torender it more easily combustible(Jorgensen, 1985; Chua, 1991).

The EFB has a heat value of18,883 kJ/kg on dry weight. Thusthe total heat energy obtainable fromthe EFB in 2004 would be 106 x 1012

kJ. This is sufficient to generateabout 26.5 million tonnes of steam(at 65 % boiler efficiency and 2,604kJ per kg of steam) and 980 millionkWh of electricity saving the country333 million litres of diesel or RM276million. The above calculation wasbased on standard non-condensingturbo-alternator working against abackpressure of 3 bars gauge. Morethan double of the energy could beobtained if condensing turbinesworking at a vacuum of 0.25 bar(absolute) are used for powergeneration (Chua, 1991).

The above estimation representsthe total obtainable energy from allthe 380 palm oil mills distributed allover the country. Thus it can be saidthat the energy generated from asingle palm oil mill will not besignificant in volume and it may notbe viable for commercialconsideration or to supply theelectricity to the national grid.However, the EFB, unlike fibre, canbe easily collected and transported.The possibility of producing electricityat a central power generating plantcan be a viable proposition. Thecentral power plants can be sited atlocations where there are highconcentrations of palm oil mills sothat the EFB and the surplus fibre andshell from the mills can be transportedat a reasonable distance and cost tothe respective central power plants.Also since the power plants can beindependent entities, they can beoperated throughout the year. Theenergy data analysed for various palmbiomass as shown in Table 2 providesuseful information when they are usedin boiler fuels to generate electricity.

Biogas From POME

Besides the solid residues, palm oilmills also generate large quantities ofliquid waste in the form of palm oilmill effluent (POME), which, due toits high biochemical oxygen demand(BOD), is required by law to be treatedto acceptable levels before it can bedischarged into watercourses or ontoland. In a conventional palm oil mill,about 0.7 m3 of POME is generatedfor every tonne of FFB processed.Hence in 2004, about 49 million m3

of POME was generated in thiscountry. Anaerobic process is adoptedby the palm oil mills to treat their

Table 1. Biomass Generated by Palm Oil Mills in 2004

Biomass

Quantity

(million tones)

Moisture

Content (%)

Oil

Content (%)

Calorific Value (dry)

(kJ/kg)

EFB 16.1 65 5 18,883

Fibre 9.8 35 5 19,114

Shell 4.9 12 1 20,156

POME 49.0 93 1

Note : EFB - Empty fruit bunch POME - Palm oil mill effluent

T H E I N G E N I E U R 20

cover

featu

re

POME. The biogas produced duringthe decomposition is a valuableenergy source. It contains about 60-70% methane, 30-40% carbon dioxideand trace amount of hydrogensulphide. Its fuel properties are shownin Table 3 together with other gaseousfuels.

About 28 m3 of biogas is generatedfor every m3 of POME treated. Mostof the biogas is, however, notrecovered. So far only a few palm oilmills harness the biogas for heat andelectricity generation (Quah et al.,

1982; Gillies and Quah, 1985; Chua,1991). In a gas engine, it has beenreported that about 1.8 kWh ofelectricity could be generated fromone m3 of biogas (Quah et al., 1982).The potential energy from biogasgenerated by POME is shown inTable 4. Again, as all the palm oilmills have enough energy from fibreand shell, there is no outlet for thissurplus energy. Considering the costsof storage and transportation of thebiogas, perhaps the most viableproposition is to encourage the setting

up of industries in the vicinity of thepalm oil mills where the biogas energycan be directly utilized. This canresult in a substantial saving inenergy bills (Chua, 1991).

It was estimated that one cubicmeter of biogas is equivalent to 0.65litre of diesel for electricitygeneration. Hence, the total biogasenergy can substitute 892 millionlitres of diesel in 2004. This amountedto RM740 million. Again the amountof biogas generated by an individualpalm oil mill is not significant for

Table 2. Energy Database for Palm Biomass

Sample Calorific Value

(kJ/kg)

Ash

(%)

Volatile Matter

(%)

Moisture

(%)

Hexane

Extractable

(%)

Empty Fruit

Bunch (EFB) 18,795 4.60 87.04 67.00 11.25

Fibres 19,055 6.10 84.91 37.00 7.60

Shell 20,093 3.00 83.45 12.00 3.26

Palm Kernel

Cake 18,884 3.94 88.54 0.28 9.35

Nut 24,545 4.05 84.03 15.46 4.43

Crude Palm

Oil 39,360 0.91 1.07 1.07 95.84

Kernel Oil 38,025 0.79 0.02 0.02 95.06

Liquor from

EFB 20,748 11.63 78.50 88.75 3.85

Palm Oil Mill

Effluent 16,992 15.20 77.09 93.00 12.55

Trunk 17,471 3.39 86.73 76.00 0.80

Petiole 15,719 3.37 85.10 71.00 0.62

Root 15,548 5.92 86.30 36.00 0.20

Source: Chow et al. (2003)

Table 3. Some Properties of Gaseous Fuels

Biogas Natural gas LPG

Gross calorific value (kJ/Nm3) 19,908 – 25,830 3,797 100,500

Specific gravity 0.847 – 1.002 0.584 1.5

Ignition Temperature (0C) 650 – 750 650 – 750 450 – 500

Inflammable limits (%) 7.5 – 21 5 – 15 2 – 10

Combustion air required (m3/m3) 9.6 9.6 13.8

All gases evaluated at 15.5

oC, atmosphere pressure and saturated with water vapour.

LPG - Liquefied petroleum gas

Source: Quah and Gillies (1981)

Table 4. Potential Energy from Biogas

Year Palm oil production

(million tonnes)

POME

(million m3)

Biogas

(million m3)

Electricity

(million kWh)

2004 13.98 49 1372 2470

T H E I N G E N I E U R 21

commercial exploitation. However,the economic viability may beattractive if the palm oil mills canutilize all the fibre, shell, EFB andbiogas for steam and electricitygeneration.

Palm Oil Methyl EstersAs Diesel Substitute

Biodiesel has gained muchattention over the recent years dueto the increasing awareness towardsthe environment. Biodiesel isproduced from renewable plantresources and thus does notcontribute to the nett increase ofcarbon dioxide. From 1996 to 2004,the biodiesel production capacity inthe European Union has increased bya factor of four from 591,000 tonnesto a total of 2.355 million tonnes(Bockey, 2002 and Bockey, 2004).

Further utilisation of biodiesel isanticipated due to the initiative of therespective authorities to promotebiodiesel and the high cost ofpetroleum diesel. For example, by theend of 2005, at least 2% (about 3.1million tonnes) of fossil fuels will bereplaced by biofuels (biodiesel,bioethanol, biogas, biomethanol etc.)in all European Union (EU) countries.This minimum target quantities havebeen laid down in the EU commissionaction plan, by which the proportionwill be increased annually by 0.75%to reach 5.75% (about 17.5 milliontonnes) in the year 2010 (Schöpe andBritschkat, 2002; Bockey and Körbitz,2002; Markolvitz, 2002). Biodieselwill take up about 10 million tonnes.This proposal also envisages that by2020, the proportion of biofuels willbe 20% and obligatory blending of1% of biofuels will be introduced from2009 (1.75% from 2010 onwards). Thecurrent trend and legislation will seta momentum for greater biodieselproduction and consumptionworldwide. Thus, there will be anupward course and new marketopportunities for biodiesel.

Methyl esters of vegetable oilshave been successfully evaluated asdiesel substitute worldwide (Choo andMa, 2000; Choo et al., 1997). Forexample, rapeseed methyl esters inEurope, soybean oil methyl esters in

USA, sunflower oil methyl esters inboth Europe and USA; and palm oilmethyl esters in Malaysia. As thechoice of vegetable oil depends on thecost of production and reliability ofsupply, palm oil would be thepreferred choice. The reason being oilpalm is the highest oil-yielding crop(4-5 tonnes/hectare/year) among allthe vegetable oils and the cheapestvegetable oil traded in the worldmarket.

Malaysia has embarked on anextensive biodiesel programme since1982. The biodiesel programmeincluded development of productiontechnology to convert palm oil topalm oil methyl esters (palm diesel),pilot plant study of palm dieselproduction as well as exhaustiveevaluation of palm diesel as dieselsubstitute in conventional dieselengines (both stationary engines andexhaustive field trials).

Crude palm oil can be readilyconverted to their methyl esters. TheMPOB/PETRONAS patented palmdiesel technology (Choo et al., 1992)has been successfully demonstratedin a 3,000 tonne per year pilot plant(Choo et al., 1995; Choo et al., 1997;Choo and Cheah, 2000). The novelaspect of this patented process is theuse of solid acid catalysts for theesterification. The resultant of thereaction mixture, which is neutral, isthen transesterified in the presence ofan alkaline catalyst. The conventionalwashing stage or neutralization stepafter the esterification process isobviated and this is an economicadvantage.

Crude palm oil methyl esters (palmdiesel) have been systematically andexhaustively evaluated as diesel fuelsubstitute from 1983 to 1994 (Chooet al., 1995; Choo et al., 2002a). Theseincluded laboratory evaluation,stationary engine testing and fieldtrials on a large number of vehiclesincluding taxis, trucks, passenger carsand buses. All these tests have beensuccessfully completed. It is worthmentioning that the tests also coveredfield trials with 36 Mercedes Benzengines from Germany mounted ontopassenger buses running on threetypes of fuels namely 100% petroleumdiesel, blends of palm diesel and

petroleum diesel (50:50) and 100%palm diesel. Each bus has covered300,000 km, the expected life of theengines (total mileage covered by the10 buses on 100% palm diesel is 3.7million km). Very promising resultshave been obtained from theexhaustive field trial. Fuelconsumption by volume wascomparable to the diesel. Differencesin engine performance are so smallthat an operator would not be able todetect. The exhaust gas was foundto be much cleaner as it containedcomparable NOx, less hydrocarbon,CO and CO2. The very obviousadvantage is the absence of blacksmoke and sulphur dioxide from theexhaust. This is a truly environmentbenign fuel substitute.

Palm diesel has very similar fuelproperties as the petroleum diesel(Table 5). It also has a higher cetanenumber (63) than diesel (less than 40)(Table 6). A higher cetane numberindicates shorter ignition time delaycharacteristics and generally, a betterfuel. It can be used directly inunmodified diesel engines. Obviouslyit can be used as diesel improver.Compared to crude palm oil, palmdiesel has very much improvedviscosity and volatility properties. Itdoes not contain gummy substances.However, it has a pour point of 15°Cand this has confined its utilisationin tropical countries only.

In recent years, palm diesel withlow pour point (without additives) hasbeen developed to meet seasonal pourpoint requirements, for examplespring (-10°C), summer (0°C), autumn(-10°C) and winter (-20°C). The MPOBpatented technology (Choo et al.,2002b) has overcomed the pour pointproblem of palm diesel. With theimproved pour point, palm diesel canbe utilised in temperate countries.Besides having good low temperatureflow characteristic, the palm dieselwith low pour point also exhibitscomparable fuel properties aspetroleum diesel (Table 6).

The main benefit derived fromsuch renewable source of energy isthe reduction of emission ofgreenhouse gases (GHG) such as CO2.The production and consumption ofpalm diesel has a closed carbon cycle.

cover

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R 22

This closed carbon cycle recycles thecarbon dioxide and therefore, thereis no accumulation of carbon dioxidein the atmosphere. Subsequently, thepalm diesel production, because of itslower emissions, is in-line with theClean Development Mechanism(CDM) of 1997 Kyoto Protocol.

Under the terms of 1997 KyotoProtocol (a major internationalinitiative established to reduce thethreat of global warming), there ispotential financial gain to transactthese GHG benefits to the palm oilindustry under the CDM. Thismechanism allows emission reductionprojects to be implemented andcredits are awarded to the investingparties. Financial incentives likeattractive carbon credit scheme

should further enhance the economicviability of these renewable fuels.

In 2003, Malaysia consumed 8.91million tonnes of petroleum diesel(National Energy Balance, Ministry ofEnergy, Water & Communication,2004). The transport sector aloneconsumed 4.941 million tonnes andgenerated 19.32 million tonnes ofcarbon dioxide. The transport sectorhas been identified as one of the chiefcontributors to air pollution,particularly black smoke (due todiesel) and carbon dioxide. If 10% ofthe diesel (0.4941 million tonnes) werereplaced by palm diesel, the industrywill enjoy 1.932 million tonnes ofcarbon credit, which amounted toUS$19.32 millions at US$10 per tonneof carbon dioxide.

Palm Oil As Diesel Substitute

Many researchers haveinvestigated the possibility of usingvegetable oils (straight or blended) asdiesel substitute. A good account oftheir attempts was reported in the1983 JAOCS Symposium onVegetable Oils as Diesel Fuels(Klopfenstein and Walker, 1983; Pryde1983; Strayer et al., 1983). Thesymposium revealed that vegetableoils have good potential as alternativefuels if the following problems couldbe overcome satisfactorily. Theseinclude high viscosity, low volatility,and the reactivity (polymerisation) ofthe unsaturated hydrocarbon chainsif the oil is highly unsaturated. Thesewill give rise to coking on the

Table 5. Fuel Characteristics of Malaysian Diesel, Palm Diesel and Palm Diesel with Low Pour Point

Property Malaysian

Diesel

Palm Oil Methyl

Esters (Palm

Diesel)

Palm Diesel

With Low Pour

Point

Specific gravity

ASTM D1298

0.8330

@15.5°C

0.8700

@ 23.6°C

0.8803

@ 15.5°C

Sulphur content (% wt)

IP 242 0.10 <0.04 < 0.04

Viscosity at 40oC (cSt)

ASTM D445 4.0 4.5 4.5

Pour point (oC)

ASTM D97 15.0 16.0 -15.0

Cetane Index

ASTM D976 53 50 NA

Gross heat of combustion (KJ/kg)

ASTM D 2382 45,800 40,135 39,160

Flash point (oC)

ASTM D 93 98 174 153

Conradson carbon residue (%wt)

ASTM D 189 0.14 0.02 0.01

NA: not available

Table 6. Cetane Numbers of Palm Diesel, Petroleum Diesel and their Blends

Blends

CPO methyl esters (%) Petroleum diesel (%)

Cetane number

ASTM D613

100

0

5

10

15

20

30

40

50

70

0

100

95

90

85

80

70

60

50

30

62.4

37.7

39.2

40.3

42.3

44.3

47.4

50.0

52.0

57.1

cover

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R 23

injectors, carbon deposits, oil ringsticking, and thickening and gellingof the lubricating oil as a result ofcontamination with vegetable oil.

It is possible to reduce theviscosity of the vegetable oil by

incorporating a heating device to thediesel engine as has been successfullydemonstrated by Elsbett enginemanufacturer (Yusof Basiron andAhmad Hitam, 1992). Other factorsthat may have long term effects on

the engine are free fatty acids andgummy substances, which are foundin the crude vegetable oils. Theincomplete combustion residues maycontribute to undesirable deposits onthe engine components. The gummy

Table 7. Fuel Characteristics of Crude Palm Oil (CPO), Medium Fuel Oil (MFO) and Blends of Crude Palm Oil /Medium Fuel Oil (CPO / MFO)

Properties Method Unit MFO CPO CPO / MFO

(50:50)

Gross Heat of

Combustion

D 240 btu/lb

kJ/kg

18,350 Min

42,680 Min

17,064

39,690

17,692

41,150

Sulphur D 4294 wt % 3.5 Max 0.03 1.55

Viscosity @ 50o C D 445 cSt 180 Max 25.6 67.3

Flash Point D 93 Deg C 66 Min 268 99

Ash D 482 wt % 0.1 Max NA 0.012

Pour Point D 97 Deg C 21 Max 21.0 -6

Carbon Residue D 4530 wt % 13.0 Max 8.5 7.0

Density @ 15o C D 1298 kg/L 0.98 Max 0.9140 0.9408

Sediment by

Extraction

D473 wt % 0.10 Max NA 0.02

Water by Distillation D 95 vol % 0.5 Max NA 0.25

Table 8. Fuel Characteristics of RBD Palm Olein (RBDPOo), Petroleum Diesel and Blends of RBD Palm Olein /Petroleum Diesel (RBDPOo / Diesel)

Blends

Test Conducted

RBD Palm

Olein

(RBDPOo)

RBDPOo /

Diesel

(90:10)

RBDPOo /

Diesel

(70:30)

RBDPOo /

Diesel

(50:50)

RBDPOo /

Diesel

(30:70)

RBDPOo /

Diesel

(10:90)

Diesel

Density @ 40 °C

(kg/L)

ASTM D1298

0.9150 0.8940 0.8770 0.8600 0.8435 0.8275 0.8190

Sulfur Content

(% Wt)

IP 242

0.035 0.035 0.055 0.060 0.080 0.090 0.100

Viscosity @ 40oC

(cSt)

ASTM D445

39.2 29.5 14.8 8.6 7.0 3.8 3.7

Pour Point (oC)

ASTM D97 9 9 12 12 12 15 15

Gross Heat of

Combustion

(kJ/kg)

ASTM D240

38,975 39,800 40,625 41,450 42,275 43,100 45,000

Flash Point (oC)

PM cc ASTM D93 326 142 110 99 93 90 89

NA: Not available

cover

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R

Table 9. Fuel Characteristics of RBD Palm Oil (RBDPO), Petroleum Diesel and Blends of RBD Palm Oil/ Diesel (RBDPO/ Diesel)

Blends

Test Conducted Diesel

RBDPO /

Diesel

(2:98)

RBDPO /

Diesel

(3:97)

RBDPO /

Diesel

(5:95)

RBDPO /

Diesel

(6:94)

RBDPO /

Diesel

(7:93)

RBD

Palm Oil

(RBDPO)

Density @ 15°C

(kg/L)

ASTM D1298

0.8479 0.8492 0.8499 0.8502 0.8521 0.8525 0.9151

Sulfur Content

(% Wt)

IP 242

0.16 0.13 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.12

Viscosity @ 40oC

(cSt)

ASTM D445

0.4248 4.895 4.576 4.656 5.010 5.021 40.68

Pour Point (oC)

ASTM D97 9 9 9 9 9 12 24

Gross Heat of

Combustion

(kJ/kg)

ASTM D240

45,050 45,340 45,160 45,095 45,085 45,015 39,260

Flash Point (oC)

ASTM D93

ASTM D92

84.0 84.0 84.0 84.0 85.0 86.0

322.0

24

substances may cause filter pluggingproblem. This will call for moreregular and frequent servicing andmaintenance of the engine.

Various blends of crude palm oiland palm oil products such asrefined, bleached and deodorisedpalm olein with medium fuel oil(MFO) and petroleum dieselrespectively have been evaluated asboiler fuel and diesel substitute(Ahmad Hitam et al., 2001). Crudepalm oil (CPO) and refined, bleached

and deodorized palm olein (RBDPOo)were blended with MFO andpetroleum diesel respectively atvarious ratio by volume. Theresultant fuel blends, CPO/MFO andRBDPOo/petroleum diesel exhibitadvantages and fuel characteristicsthat are better compared to that whenthe individual CPO, RBDPO, RBDPOo,MFO and petroleum diesel are usedsolely as fuel (Tables 7, 8 and 9)(Yusof Basiron, 2002). Currently,field trials using MPOB’s in-house

vehicles are being conducted toevaluate blends of RBDPOo/petroleum diesel (up to 10% of theformer) as diesel substitute. Notechnical problems have beenreported so far.

Conclusion

The progressive escalation of fuelprices in recent times has led to anintensified search for viable alternativesources of energy globally. Asconventional energy resources becomemore difficult to obtain, efforts mustbe directed towards development ofalternative energy sources.

The palm oil industry is bestowedwith plentiful supply of co-productsthat can be readily used as energyresources with ease. When EFB andbiogas are properly processed usingproven and innovative techniques, aconsiderable amount of energy sourcecan be economically recovered. Theutilization of these co-products fromthe palm oil mill if accepted by theauthorities will, to some extent, help

cover

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R

in lowering escalation of energyshortages. The production andapplication technologies have beenfully demonstrated.

Energy is considered free for palmoil mills. Fibre and shell together cansupply more than enough energy tomeet the mill’s energy demand. Theelectricity generated indirectly fromfibre and shell represents about 2% ofthe national electricity demand.Energy from biogas and empty fruitbunch has so far been ignored thoughthey represent a hefty 4% of the

BEM

REFERENCES

Ahmad, H., Choo, Y. M., Hasamuddin, W.H. and Yusof B. (2001). In proceedings of2001 MPOB International Palm OilCongress, 20 – 23 August 2001, HotelIstana, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Bockey, D. (2002). Situation andDevelopment Potential for the Productionof Biodiesel – An International Study.Union for Promoting Oilseeds and ProteinPlants.

Bockey, D. (2004). Policy InitiativeSchemes and Benefits of BiofuelPromotion in Germany - Current Statusof Legislation and Production. Paperpresented at The Conference On Biofuels- Challenges for Asian Future. QueenSirikit National Convention Center,Bangkok, Thailand. 30 – 31 August 2004.

Choo, Y. M., Ong, A. S. H., Cheah, K. Y. andAbu Bakar (1992). Production of MethylEsters from Oils and Fats. AustralianPatent No. 626014.

Choo, Y. M., Ma, A. N. and Yusof Basiron(1995). Production and Evaluation of PalmOil Methyl Esters as Diesel Substitute.Elaeis Special Issue: pp. 5 – 25.

Choo, Y. M., Ma, A. N. and Ong, A. S. H(1997). Biofuel. Book Chapter in Lipids:Industrial Applications and Technology.Eds: Gunstone, F. D. and Padley, F. B.Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. pp. 771 –785.

Choo, Y. M. and Cheah, K. Y (2000).Biofuel. Book Chapter in Advances of OilPalm Research. Eds: Yusof, B., Jalani, B. S.and Chan, K. W. Volume II. Malaysian PalmOil Board, Malaysia. pp. 1293 – 1345.

Choo, Y. M. and Ma, A. N. (2000). PlantPower. Chemistry & Industry, August2000. pp. 530 – 534.

Choo, Y.M., Ma, A. N. and Yusof Basiron(2002a). Palm Diesel. Paper presented at 2002Oils and Fats International Congress (OFIC),7 – 10 October 2002, Putra World TradeCentre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Choo, Y. M., Cheng, S. F., Yung, C. L., Lau, H.L. N., Ma, A. N. and Yusof Basiron (2002b).Low Pour Point Palm Diesel. Malaysian PatentNo. PI 20021157.

Chow, M. C., Subramaniam, V. and Ma, A. N.(2003). Energy Database of the Oil Palm. Inproceedings of 2003 MPOB InternationalPalm Oil Congress, 24 – 28 August 2003,Hotel Marriott, Putrajaya, Malaysia.

Chua, N. S. (1991). Optimal Utilization ofEnergy Sources in a Palm Oil ProcessingComplex. Paper presented at Seminar onDevelopments in Palm Oil Milling Technologyand Environment Management, 16-17 May1991, Genting Highlands, Pahang, Malaysia.

Gillies, D. and Quah, S. K. (1985). TennmaranBiogas Project. Paper presented at theSecond Asean Workshop on BiogasTechnology, 8-13 October, 1984. KualaTrengganu, Trengganu, Malaysia.

Jorgensen, H. K. (1985). Treatment of EmptyBunches for Recovery of Residues Oil andAdditional Steam Production. JAOCS, 62,(20):282-284.

Klopfenstein, W. E. and Walker, H. S. (1983).Efficiencies of Various Esters of Fatty Acidsas Diesel Fuels. JAOCS, 60:1596-1598.

Ma, A. N. (2002). Carbon Credit from Palm:Biomass, Biogas and Biodiesel. Palm OilEngineering Bulletin, Issue No. 65:24 - 26.

Malaysian Palm Oil Board (2004). MalaysianOil Palm Statistics 2003. Malaysian Palm OilBoard, Ministry of Plantation Industries andCommodities, Selangor, Malaysia.

Markolvitz, M. (2002). The EuropeanBiodiesel Market. Biodiesel Status Report.Degussa AG, Niederkassel, Germany.

Ministry of Energy, Water &Communication (2004). National EnergyBalance 2003. Malaysia Energy Centre,Selangor, Malaysia.

Pryde, E. H. (1983). Vegetable Oils asDiesel Fuels: Overview. JAOCS, 60:1557-1558.

Quah, S.K. and Gillies, D. (1981). PracticalExperience in Production Use of Biogas.In proceedings of National Workshop onOil Palm By-Product Utilization. Palm OilResearch Institute of Malaysia, KualaLumpur. pp. 119-125.

Quah, S. K., Lim, K. H., Gillies, D., Wood,B. J. and Kanagaratnam, K. (1982). SimeDarby POME Treatment and LandApplication System. Proc. of Reg.Workshop on Palm Oil Mill. Techy. Effl.Treat. Palm Oil Research Institute ofMalaysia, Kuala Lumpur. pp. 193-200.

Schöpe, M. and Britschkat, G. (2002).Macroeconomic Evaluation of RapeCultivation for Biodiesel Production inGermany. Munich. March 2002.

Strayer, R.C., Blake, J.A. and Craig, W.K.(1983). Canola and High ErucicRapeseed Oil as Substitutes for DieselFuel: Preliminary Tests. JAOCS, 60:1587-1592.

Yusof Basiron and Ahmad Hitam (1992).Cost Effectiveness of the CPO Fuel in theMercedes Elsbett Engine Car. PORIMInformation Series, No. 4, July.

Yusof Basiron (2002). Palm Oil and PalmOil Products as Fuel Improver. MalaysianPatent No. PI 20020396.

national energy demand in terms ofelectricity. Efforts are being made toencourage palm oil mills to sell thisexcess energy in the form of electricityto National Grid.

Palm diesel has been fullyevaluated as potential diesel substituteand diesel/cetane improver. Low pourpoint palm diesel (-21°C) without anyadditives that can meet stringentwinter diesel specification has alsobeen produced. The palm diesel is anenvironmentally benign fuel substitutein terms of exhaust gas emission.

Blends of CPO/MFO and RBDPOo/diesel have also been evaluated aspotential fuel for boiler fuels anddiesel engines respectively.

All the above mentioned energysources are renewable and theirsupply is readily available andassured. Currently, burning of thebiomass residues is often consideredas a way to disposal of the productrather than as an energy source. Theyshould be commercially exploited.This will make the palm oil industrymore environmentally sustainable.

25

cover

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R 26

By Ir. Vincent H.K. Tan, Executive Director, Kumpulan IKRAM (Sabah) Sdn Bhd,Principal, Perunding Pertama Consulting Engineers

Domestic wastewater has beenidentified as one of the majorcontributors of pollution to

the environment in our country.Hence, a reliable and efficientwastewater treatment system is a vitalcontributing factor towards theimprovement in environmentalquality in the country.

The wastewater treatment industryhas lagged behind the other sectorsin terms of infrastructuredevelopment. The growth in thisindustry is further affected by thesegregation of potable water servicesand wastewater services, which aremanaged by different authorities. TheGovernment has recently put boththese two important services underone single Ministry. This augurs welltowards the eventual integration ofthe water and wastewater services inMalaysia.

For domestic wastewater, thebiological treatment is the heart ofthe treatment process. It is in thisstage where the wastewater is exposedto living organisms that removedissolved and non-settleable organicmaterials in the wastewater.

The following types of biologicaltreatment processes are commonlyused in Malaysia.

� Conventional ActivatedSludge (CAS) system

� Extended aeration activatedsludge system

� Rotating biologicalcontactor system

� Trickling filter system� Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBR)

All effluents from wastewatertreatment plants are required tocomply with the standards prescribedunder the Environmental Quality Act1974. The regulations made under theEnvironment Quality Act, 1974 withrespect to effluent discharges ofwastewater treatment systems are theEnvironmental Quality (Sewage andIndustrial Effluents) Regulations,1979. There are two dischargestandards prescribed for compliancepurposes; Standard A for effluentdischarge introduced at upstream ofa water intake, while Standard B foreffluent discharge at downstream ofa water intake. However, the current

An Innovative, Environment-FriendlyAnd Cost-Effective WastewaterTreatment System – UniFED™

practice for wastewater effluentenforcement has required allmechanical operated wastewatertreatment plants to meet the StandardA effluent quality, which governscontent limits of 23 physico-chemicalcompositions of the effluent. Thestandards, however, do not coverlevels of nutrients in the effluents(nitrogen and phosphorous) which areimportant components to ensure goodenvironment standards. It isenvisaged that the next update of theregulation will incorporaterequirements in this category, whichhas been implemented in mostdeveloped countries.

With the rapid growth of the ourcountry’s population, particularly inthe urban areas, contributed largelyby migration, more and more mixeddevelopments are expected in variouspopulous cities and major towns. Thedrastic increase of concentratedpopulation will incur higherrequirement for wastewater treatmentsystems, and it will form a significantcost center in terms of operation,maintenance costs and increasinglyexpensive land cost.

Clear effluent during decanting phase extracted from the UniFED™ wastewater treatment system.

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R 27

These requirements have driventhe industry towards research anddevelopment to find more efficientwastewater treatment systems whichcan satisfy more stringentrequirements of effluent dischargestandards as well as low operationcost and minimum land usage.

One of such system is the UniFED™system, which was developed inAustralia and has been successfullyadopted in Sabah, Malaysia. TheUniFED™ system is economically andtechnically considered as veryaffordable and robust, as it has provenfar superior than many other systemssuch as CAS system, SBR system,oxidation ditches etc, due to thefollowing factors:-

� Lower capital and operating costs� All reactions take place in a single

reactor� Simple operations controlled by

PLC (Programme Logic Control)� Minimal level of technical support

required� Accommodate wet and dry

weather cycles.� Small footprint� Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR)

capabilities� Small quantity of sludge

production

Australia has a long and proventrack record with innovative processdesign of wastewater treatment plantsfor municipal and small industrialusage. Novel process operation andstrict regulatory controls have meantthat public utilities and infrastructuredesigners must strive for more costeffective and process efficient plants.A vast country with a small, butinnovative population and theremoteness of towns and cities, havemeant that environmentaltechnologies have usually beendeveloped in-country, and withspecific local adaptations.

UniFED™ wastewater treatmentsystem has been developed in recentyears to provide regional towns andvillages with a higher level of effluentcontrols by removing nutrients suchas nitrogen and phosphorus beforethey discharge to the interior’s lakesand river systems. The UniFED™process was developed from original

were commissioned in the Philippines(2 off), East Malaysia (3 under finalphases), New Zealand (1 off) and thePeople’s Republic of China (2 majorretrofits).

The nitrogen removalperformance of the IDEA process isgenerally very good, but only littlephosphorus removal is achieved.During the 1990s the awareness of theimportance of nutrients in Australia’sinland and some coastal waters wasgreatly increased by the widespreadoccurrences of toxic cyanobacteria(‘blue-green algae’) blooms. Intensiveefforts were therefore made in thisperiod to develop and implement newprocesses that achieved a high levelof nitrogen and phosphorus removal.

Different BNR processtechnologies were proposed on thebasis of overseas concepts for bothcontinuous and intermittent systems.To continue the use of the IDEAconcept and on the basis of the goodnitrogen removal performance, a bio-P IDEA was developed by the NSWDepartment of Public Works. Theconcept includes a continuouslyoperated, baffled anaerobic zone atthe inlet of the tank through whichthe influent and a recycle flow fromthe main tank pass. In this zone therequired anaerobic conditions forbiological phosphorus removal areachieved and this arrangement alsoprovides for an effective mixing ofthe influent with the reactor content.

A novel approach was been takenby a team of researchers from the

work by the New South WalesDepartment of Public Works andServices (DPWS) and its regionalwastewater treatment plant design/operation programmes of the early1970s.

Early adaptations to a continuousfeed intermittently aerated processsystem in 1965 were derived from theearlier Passveer oxidation ditch work,and were followed in the 1970s withmajor development work to designand construct a 950m3/dayintermittently aerated and decantedbatch facility at Bathurst, New SouthWales. This Bathurst Boxconfiguration comprised a deeprectangular basin as a single-tankactivated sludge treatmenttechnology.

A second period of increasingpopularity of intermittent systems wasinitiated by the growing need fornutrient removal from domestic andindustrial effluents. During the 1990s,modified Intermittent DecantExtended Aeration (IDEA) systems,designed for BNR, were implemented.In parallel, other, largely proprietarydesigns were implemented around thecountry. In addition a novel single-tank SBR design was developed at thesame time, largely driven by researchefforts in this area. All systemsdemonstrated their ability to achievethe very stringent effluentrequirements in Australia’s inland andsensitive coastal waters. Over 120IDEA type plants were built aroundNew South Wales and later plants

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R

Cooperative Research Centre for WasteManagement and Pollution ControlLimited and the University ofQueensland to achieve full BNR in asingle tank without any recycles orbaffles. The initial Research andDevelopment (R&D) project objectiveswere to:

� optimise existing wastewatertreatment processes to improveeffluent quality,

� develop low cost retrofits withminimal structural and equipmentchanges, and

� develop a robust and reliable costeffective process for BNR.

The resulting system, which becameknown as UniFED™, has been patentedworldwide.

The unique feature of the UniFED™process is the introduction of the influentinto the settled sludge blanket duringthe settling and decant periods of theSBR operation. This achieves suitableconditions for denitrification andanaerobic phosphate release which iscritical to successful biologicalphosphorus removal. It also achieves a“selector” effect, which helps ingenerating a compact, well settlingbiomass in the reactor.

While the removal of phosphoruscan be achieved both chemically andbiologically, the biological alternativehas a number of significant advantagessuch as considerably lower operatingcosts, less sludge production and nochemical contamination in the sludge.Total nitrogen removal in wastewatertreatment plants is most commonly andmost economically achieved in a two-step system through nitrification (underaerobic conditions) and denitrification(under anoxic conditions). Together withthe required anaerobic conditions for thebiological phosphorus removal process,at least three separate zones or periodsin intermittent systems are required toprovide the different environmentalconditions. Additionally, the possibleinterferences between nitrogen andphosphorus removal processes oftenmean that additional zones or periodsare required, for example for the removalof nitrate in the recycled activated sludge.Therefore, BNR process designs canbecome quite complex and thereforehigh in capital costs.

SBRs have been utilisedextensively for the removal of CarbonOxygen Demand (COD) and in manycases also nitrogen. In recent years, anumber of phosphorus removalprocesses using the SBR principlehave also been developed. However,many of them require some additionaltankage (or separated zones in the onetank), often linked with sludgerecycle, to create the most favorableconditions for the anaerobic phase ofthe biological phosphorus removalprocess. This eliminates some of thesimplicity and ease of operationinherent in SBR processes.

One of the most challengingissues in BNR is the most efficientuse of the available carbon (COD)source in the influent, particularlyin domestic wastewater with highnutrient levels. Since COD is requiredfor both the biological phosphorusremoval and the denitrification, butis also fast degraded during theaerobic conditions, the optimalsupply and utilization of the COD iscritically important. This poses amajor challenge in a simple, single-tank SBR process as the conditions(aerobic or anoxic/anaerobic) canonly be changed for the entire tank.However, the settling and decantphases provide some opportunity forsome differing conditions in thesupernatant and the sludge blanket.Additionally, the method of influentsupply provides an added option tointroduce different conditions inparts of the tank.

UniFED’s™ main feature is theuniform introduction of the influentinto the bottom of the tank duringthe period when the sludge is settlingor compressing. In this way, thespecific conditions required for theBNR processes can all be achieved ineach cycle in the single-tankarrangement. This process has anumber of advantages in relation toa successful BNR operation:

1. The nitrate/nitrite (NOx) in thesludge blanket is quicklydenitrified with the incominginfluent or even just utilising theslowly degradable COD entrappedin the flocs.

2. The incoming soluble COD isprimarily available for theanaerobic phosphate releasephase, which is criticallyimportant for successful biologicalphosphorus removal. Thedeliberate stratification in the tankmeans that a large fraction of thewater in the tank may still containsome levels of NOx withoutinterfering with the anaerobicconditions near the bottom of thetank.

3. All of the influent and its COD isintensively contacted with mostof the biomass in the reactor sinceit is concentrated near the bottomof the tank. This provides a verystrong “selector” effect since theinfluent is diluted only minimallyand most of the biomass isexposed to high COD conditionsin every cycle. This resultsgenerally in very well settlingsludge, leading to an efficientoverall SBR operation.

4. The overlapping of feed andsettling/decanting period meansthat the SBR cycle is used moreefficiently since importantbiological reactions are occurringat all times, thereby eliminatingthe “non-productive” periods ofsettling and decant.

Table 1 contains a summary ofthe performance of all majorparameters for the UniFDE™ SBRprocess over an entire study periodin 1998/99. The test plant wasmodified to the UniFED™ process andoperation started in mid September1998. Some minor operationalmodifications were undertaken inOctober and the results presented in

Table 1 Typical effluent quality for various plants

Parameter Continuous IDEA UniFED™BOD (mg/L) 10 5 2SS (mg/L) 20 15 13NH4-N (mg/L) 2 1 0.5TN (mg/L) 20 7 5TP (mg/L) 10 5 1

28

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R

include all data from October 3, 1998to April 7, 1999.

UniFED™ has demonstrated theability to produce excellent effluentquality with a very high level ofbiological nutrient removal in asimple, single tank activated sludgeprocess. The introduction of the feeddistribution system together with anovel operating strategy allows theuse of the installed hydrauliccapacity for virtually 100% of thetime, eliminating the “non-productive” periods of settling anddecant since during this time, thelower part of the reactor is used forthe anoxic and anaerobic processesto take place. Given that largevolume tanks are used for clarifiers(in continuous flow systems) orsignificant fractions of the cycles inintermittent processes, thismodification can substantiallyincrease the overall process capacityof such systems.

The achieved simplicity of thisSBR process also allows it to beimplemented in a “low-tech” version– eg: a simple pond (or lagoon)-likeinstallation. Such alternative low-costin situ construction methods allow forthe UniFED™ single tankconfiguration to have sloped walls(less concrete needed) or even wallsof a geotechnic fabric in the form ofearthen lagoons (the Quaker’s Hill STPin Sydney has 2x IDAL lagoons andwas a retrofit to an activated sludgeprocess system). Other alternativesinclude steel framed and lined tanks,which are already in-place and

transportable UniFED™ units can befactory fabricated for hotel/institutions usage, with almostimmediate installation andcommissioning at the client’s facility.

These construction techniquesresult in a drastic reduction in capitalcosts of UniFED™ systems comparedto the traditionally required 4-6 tankcontinuous flow BNR processes. Evenin comparison to other intermittentBNR processes, the UniFED™implementation allows furthersimplification by not having anyadditional tanks or separated zonesand no recycles. Therefore, apart fromthe possible need for an influent pump(and for sludge wastage, if not bygravity), no pumps are required forthe entire operation.

A further process benefit isUniFED™ flexibility. Apart from theoverall hydraulic retention time, noother operating parameter iscompletely fixed at the time ofconstruction of the plant. The entirecycle timing can be adjusted duringthe commissioning and optimizationof the process, making it very suitablefor applications with a high degreeof uncertainty at the design stage(such as industrial situations).Furthermore, this allows easymodification of the operation toaccount for diurnal fluctuations,weekly or even seasonal changes inthe wastewater characteristics orflows.

UniFED™ derived plants are nowused in municipal and industrialapplications, including textiles,

Bathurst City Council’s sewage treatment plant (NSW, Australia) - site of the original“Bathurst Box”, IDEA development work, and the first UniFED™ plant.

hotels, office buildings, hospitals andfood/beverage sectors and we arecurrently looking at refineries,chemical production and mineralsprocessing. UniFED™ willsignificantly increase the capacity (orthroughput) relative to the plantcapacity/size in these applications.

Ongoing research/field adaptationof the UniFED™ is allowing for betterprocess control and optimization.Development of the overall system’sinfluent distribution and up-datedprocess control systems, will allow forremote site monitoring and on-lineoperations of these newer UniFED™plants.

The UniFED™ process technologyhas many design advantages overconventional systems, including asingle tank without recycle streams,simple footprint (land-size) and robustdesign and operation and enhancednitrification/denitrification. UniFED™plants can also be constructed instages to suit a city’s development andits regulatory programmes.

Other competitive advantages ofUniFED™ include use of a single tankfor biological nitrogen andphosphorous removal and achievinga high quality effluent withoutchemical dosing. UniFED™ is also ableto offer reduced capital costs (around20% less land-use and design/equipment costs) and lower operatingcosts than conventional systems.UniFED™ can be applied to a green-field site or retrofitted to existingwastewater treatment plants.

References

1. Keller, J., Watts, S., Battye-Smith, W., Chong, R., 2000,Full scale demonstration ofbiological nutrient removal ina single tank SBR process: 2nd

International Symposium onSequencing Batch ReactorTechnology , 10-12 July,Narbonne, France.

2. Scientific and Technical ReportNo 10 Sequencing BatchReactor Technology, 2001, EdsPeter A Wilderer, Robert JIrvine and Mervyn C Goronszy,IWA Publishing, ISBN 1900222 21 3. BEM

29

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R 34

General Advice OnGiving Of Second Opinion

1. It has been brought to the notice of the Board that it is not uncommon for an engineer to offer to a project ownerunsolicited suggestion or proposal on the design which has been, or is being, carried out by another engineer alreadyappointed by the owner to be the consulting engineer for the project. Quite commonly, such suggestion or proposaldeals with the choice of engineering system (structural, geotechnical, etc.) or the so-called “value engineering”. TheBoard is very concerned with the ethical aspect of this practice and would like to lay down the following guidelinesfor registered Engineers.

2. Regulation 27 of the Registration Of Engineers Act reads as follow:-

“A Registered Engineer shall not—

(a) canvass or solicit professional employment;(b) offer to make by way of commission or any other payment for the introduction of his professional employment;

or(c) except as permitted by the Board, advertise in any manner or form in connection with his profession.”

Sub-sections (a) and (b) relate to action by registered Engineer in actively seeking professional employment withspecific potential employers or project owners. The Regulation is unequivocal on this matter. For sub-section (c),however, the Board has issued its guidelines vide Circular No. 2/2003 entitled “Guidelines On Advertising By RegisteredEngineers”. Hence some party may attempt to offer second opinion by taking advantage of sub-section (c) under theguise of advertising their services.

3. The Board has no intention to restrict project owners from seeking other views on the design of his project. It isstrictly his prerogative. Nevertheless, when he has already engaged a registered Engineer to provide him with engineeringdesign and services for the project, then certain procedures must be followed to avoid infringement of the Code ofProfessional Conduct of the Act.

4. Generally, an engineering design covers four aspects, namely, (1) Function, (2) Safety, (3) Cost, and (4) Aesthetics. Asecond opinion, which invariably means checking or reviewing another’s work, can relate to any one or all of the fouraspects. It can involve correction, modification or even total replacement of the work of the first designer (the FirstEngineer) in all these aspects.

5. On the aspect of safety, the Board has already issued its guidelines on checking/reviewing vide Circular No. 1/2003entitled “Guideline For Checking / Reviewing The Work Of Another Engineer”. The Board holds the view that theguidelines in Circular No. 1/2003 are also applicable to checking / reviewing on any other aspect of the work of theFirst Engineer.

6. The Board hereby advises all concerned that, as long as a registered Engineer has already been engaged for a project,any other registered Engineer wishing to offer second opinion to the project owner must follow the guidelines inCircular No. 1/2003.

[BEM-247th Meeting / 19th July 2005]

TAN SRI DATO’ Ir. Hj. ZAINI BIN OMARPresidentBoard of Engineers Malaysia

CIRCULAR NO. 4/2005L

EM

BA

GA

JU

RU

TE

RA

M A L AY S I A

BOARD OF ENGINEERSMALAYSIA

guid

elines

T H E I N G E N I E U R

LE

MB

AG

A

JU

RU

TE

RA

M A L AY S I A

30

PEMBAHARUAN PERMIT

ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY PRACTICE (ECP)

TAHUN 2006

*SDN BHD (BODY CORPORATE)*

1. Permit 2005 pertubuhan perbadanan (body corporate) untuk menjalankan amalan kejuruteraan perunding akan

tamat pada 31/12/2005.

2. Adalah menjadi tanggungjawab tuan untuk membaharui permit syarikat untuk meneruskan amalan. Kegagalan

tuan untuk membaharui permit syarikat membolehkan tindakan di bawah Seksyen 16(b), Akta Pendaftaran Jurutera

1967 (Pindaan 2002) diambil.

3. Permohonan pembaharuan permit perbadanan syarikat tuan hendaklah dikemukakan ke pejabat Lembaga Jurutera

Malaysia bersama borang-borang berikut:

(i) Borang H1 beserta bayaran pembaharuan tahunan sebanyak RM1,000.00

** Sila sertakan tambahan RM0.50 komisyen bagi cek luar Lembah Kelang.

(ii) Borang Akuan Lembaga Pengarah Syarikat Tahun 2006.

(iii) Borang Pemegang Saham Syarikat 2006.

(iv) Borang 49 DAN Annual Return Tahun 2005.

** Salinan hendaklah disahkan oleh Pendaftar Syarikat ATAU Setiausaha Syarikat. Cop pengesahan mestilah

yang asal dan terkini.

4. Sila kemukakan permohonan tuan sebelum 31/01/2006 kepada:

LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA

Tingkat 17 Ibu Pejabat JKR, Kompleks Kerja Raya Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50580 Kuala Lumpur.

Tel. No: 03-2696 7095/96/97/98 Fax No: 03-2692 5017

Saya yang menurut perintah,

———————SGD———————

(Ir. Dr. MOHD JOHARI BIN MD ARIF)

Pendaftar,

LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA.

1. Application for renewal of registration year 2006 of :

* Body Corporate * Partnership * Sole Proprietorship

2. Name of *sole proprietorship/partnership/body corporate : ………………………………………………...…...……….

3. Registration No. : ……………………………………………....

4. Address (if there is any change) : …………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………….

5. Tel. No. : ……………………….…… 6. Fax No. : ………………………….… 7. E-mail : …………………………….

8. Details of payment enclosed :

**Money order/bank draft/cheque No. ……………… for the amount of RM …….............…….

…………………….…. ………………………..

(Signature) (Date)

* Tick whichever applicable ** Delete whichever not applicable

REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERS ACT 1967

REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERS REGULATIONS 1990

(Regulation 36)

Application For Renewal Of Registration As An Engineering Consultancy Practice

FORM H1

✁

T H E I N G E N I E U R 31

Nama pertubuhan perbadanan : ……………………………………………….........................…………………………

No. pendaftaran di Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia: ……………………………………………..........................…………..

LEMBAGA PENGARAH SYARIKAT

TAHUN 2006BORANG AKUAN

(Borang ini hendaklah diisi oleh semua Pengarah Syarikat)

(Borang ini boleh difotostat sekiranya pengarah syarikat lebih daripada dua)

1. Nama:……………………………………………………………………….......................................……

2. No. Pendaftaran: ……………….....…....... Cawangan Kejuruteraan: …………………......……......

3. Syarikat-syarikat lain yang tuan ada terlibat:

PE

NG

AR

AH

I

………………………………………. …………………………......…………..

(Tandatangan) (Seal Jurutera Profesional)

1. Nama:……………………………………………………………………….......................................……

2. No. Pendaftaran: ……………….....…....... Cawangan Kejuruteraan: …………………......……......

3. Syarikat-syarikat lain yang tuan ada terlibat:

PE

NG

AR

AH

II

………………………………………. …………………………......…………..

(Tandatangan) (Seal Jurutera Profesional)

PEMEGANG SAHAM SYARIKAT TAHUN 2006

No. pendaftaran Nama Jumlah saham yang dipegang

Jawatan Nama syarikat Jenis Perniagaan

Jawatan Nama syarikat Jenis Perniagaan

✁

T H E I N G E N I E U R 32

LE

MB

AG

A

JU

RU

TE

RA

M A L AY S I A

PEMBAHARUAN PERMIT

ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY PRACTICE (ECP)

TAHUN 2006

*PEMILIK TUNGGAL (SOLE PROPRIETOR)/PERKONGSIAN (PARTNERSHIP)*

1. Permit 2005 syarikat Pemilik Tunggal (Sole Proprietor)/Perkongsian (Partnership) untuk menjalankan amalan

kejuruteraan perunding akan tamat pada 31/12/2005.

2. Adalah menjadi tanggungjawab tuan untuk membaharui permit syarikat untuk meneruskan amalan. Kegagalan

tuan untuk membaharui permit syarikat membolehkan tindakan di bawah Seksyen 16(b), Akta Pendaftaran Jurutera

1967 (Pindaan 2002) diambil.

3. Permohonan pembaharuan permit syarikat tuan hendaklah dikemukakan ke pejabat Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia

bersama borang-borang berikut:

(i) Borang H1 beserta bayaran pembaharuan tahunan sebanyak RM1,000.00

** Sila sertakan tambahan RM0.50 komisyen bagi cek luar Lembah Kelang.

(ii) Borang Akuan * Prinsipal/Pekongsi Syarikat Tahun 2006.

4. Sila kemukakan permohonan tuan sebelum 31/01/2006 kepada:

LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA

Tingkat 17 Ibu Pejabat JKR, Kompleks Kerja Raya Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50580 Kuala Lumpur.

Tel. No: 03-2696 7095/96/97/98 Fax No: 03-2692 5017

Saya yang menurut perintah,

———————SGD———————

(Ir. Dr. MOHD JOHARI BIN MD ARIF)

Pendaftar,

LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA.

1. Application for renewal of registration year 2006 of :

* Body Corporate * Partnership * Sole Proprietorship

2. Name of *sole proprietorship/partnership/body corporate : ………………………………………………...…...……….

3. Registration No. : ……………………………………………....

4. Address (if there is any change) : …………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………….

5. Tel. No. : ……………………….…… 6. Fax No. : ………………………….… 7. E-mail : …………………………….

8. Details of payment enclosed :

**Money order/bank draft/cheque No. ……………… for the amount of RM …….............…….

…………………….…. ………………………..

(Signature) (Date)

* Tick whichever applicable ** Delete whichever not applicable

REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERS ACT 1967

REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERS REGULATIONS 1990

(Regulation 36)

Application For Renewal Of Registration As An Engineering Consultancy Practice

FORM H1

✁

T H E I N G E N I E U R 33

**PRINSIPAL/PEKONGSI SYARIKAT

TAHUN 2006

BORANG AKUAN

(Borang ini boleh difotostat sekiranya pengarah syarikat lebih daripada dua)

** Potong jika tidak berkenaan

1. Nama:……………………………………………………………………….......................................……

2. No. Pendaftaran: ……………….....…....... Cawangan Kejuruteraan: …………………......……......

3. Syarikat-syarikat lain yang tuan ada terlibat:

………………………………………. …………………………......…………..

(Tandatangan) (Seal Jurutera Profesional)

Jawatan Nama syarikat Jenis Perniagaan

*PRINSIPAL/PEKONGSI SYARIKAT I

1. Nama:……………………………………………………………………….......................................……

2. No. Pendaftaran: ……………….....…....... Cawangan Kejuruteraan: …………………......……......

3. Syarikat-syarikat lain yang tuan ada terlibat:

………………………………………. …………………………......…………..

(Tandatangan) (Seal Jurutera Profesional)

Jawatan Nama syarikat Jenis Perniagaan

*PEKONGSI SYARIKAT II

✁

T H E I N G E N I E U R

Peraturan-peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling(Buangan Terjadual) 2005 – P.U.(A) 294/2005;Dan Perintah Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (PembawaYang Ditetapkan) (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 –P.U.(A) 293/2005

PENDAHULUAN

1. Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 mula berkuatkuasa pada 15 Ogos,

2005. Peraturan baru ini menggantikan peraturan lama buangan terjadual yang telah dikuatkuasa semenjak

01 Mei, 1989.

2. Manakala Perintah Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Pembawa Yang Ditetapkan) (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 pula digubal

untuk mengawalselia dengan lebih berkesan mana-mana kenderaan atau kapal yang digunakan untuk

membawa buangan terjadual. Di bawah perintah ini, tiap-tiap kenderaan atau kapal yang digunakan untuk

membawa buangan terjadual hendaklah memiliki lesen di bawah subseksyen 18(1A) Akta Kualiti Alam

Sekeliling 1974. Perintah ini juga berkuatkuasa pada 15 Ogos, 2005.

3. Peraturan-peraturan dan perintah di atas digubal bertujuan untuk memantapkan lagi proses kawalselia dan

pengurusan buangan terjadual di Malaysia dengan mengambilkira isu-isu semasa, kekurangan-kekurangan

peraturan lama dan keperluan masa akan datang bagi menjamin negara kita tidak dicemari oleh buangan

toksik dan berbahaya.

PERKARA-PERKARA PENTING

Senarai Buangan Berasaskan Kandungan Bahan Toksik dan Berbahaya

4. Di dalam Jadual Pertama, Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 (selepas ini

disebut PBT 2005), buangan-buangan disenaraikan berasaskan kandungan bahan toksik dan berbahaya

yang terdapat dalam buangan berkenaan dan tidak lagi terikat kepada punca-punca specifik buangan tersebut

dijana seperti daripada sistem pengolahan effluen atau daripada alat kawalan pencemaran ataupun daripada

aktiviti-aktiviti tertentu. Rasionalnya adalah ketoksidan sesuatu buangan bergantung kepada kandungan

bahan toksik yang terdapat didalamnya tidak kira dari punca mana buangan berkenaan dijana.

5. Selain daripada itu, bagi mengurus kes-kes pengimportan buangan dengan lebih berkesan, beberapa kategori

baru buangan dimasukkan dalam senarai buangan terjadual 2005. Kategori buangan ini termasuklah buangan

elektrikal dan elektronik, buangan gipsum, dan buangan mengandungi dioksin dan furan.

35

update

T H E I N G E N I E U R

Jangka Masa dan Kuantiti Buangan Yang Dibenarkan Disimpan Dalam Premis

6. Dalam peraturan lama tidak dinyatakan had tempoh dan kuantiti buangan yang dibenarkan untuk distor di

dalam premis. Manakala dalam PBT 2005, jangka masa penstoran buangan hanya di benarkan selama 180

hari atau 20 tan metrik, yang mana lebih dahulu. Peruntukan ini bertujuan mengelakkan risioko kepada

kesihatan manusia dan alam sekitar jika berlaku kebocoran atau pertumpahan.

7. Selaras dengan had masa penstoran buangan selama 180 hari, PBT 2005 menetapkan supaya tiap-tiap

bekas mengisi buangan ditandakan dengan jelas tarikh buangan dijana, nama, alamat dan nombor telefon

pengeluar buangan. Pelabelan ini juga memudahkan penjejakan identiti pengeluar buangan dan

mengurangkan kejadian-kejadian pelupusan haram buangan.

Penjejakan dan Pemantauan Buangan Secara Elektronik

8. Berbanding dengan peraturan lama yang menetapkan pengisian Borang Konsainan secara manual, PBT

2005 menyediakan kemudahan kepada pengeluar buangan untuk mengisi maklumat pergerakan buangan

secara elektronik (e-consignment). Prosedur ini memudahkan semua pihak terbabit iaitu pengeluar buangan,

pengangkut buangan, penerima buangan dan Jabatan Alam Sekitar dalam pemantauan pergerakan buangan

secara “on-line”.

Pengurusan Khas Buangan Terjadual

9. PBT 2005 juga menyediakan kemudahan kepada pihak industri untuk melupus, mengolah atau mengitar

semula buangan dipremis lain setelah buangan tersebut dibuktikan tidak mempunyai ciri-ciri toksik dan

berbahaya.

Keperluan Pekerja Yang Terlatih

10. Pekerja yang terlatih penting bukan sahaja bagi menjamin keselamatan pekerja itu sendiri tetapi juga bagi

membolehkan buangan yang dikendalikan oleh pekerja itu diurus dengan sempurna supaya tidak

memudaratkan orang ramai dan alam sekitar. PBT 2005 menetapkan supaya setiap pekerja yang terbabit

dengan buangan terjadual menghadiri program latihan dalam aspek pengenalan, pengendalian, pelabelan,

pengangkutan dan penstoran buangan terjadual. Latihan juga memberi penekanan kepada keupayaan

bertindakbalas ketika berlaku kecemasan seperti tumpahan buangan terjadual.

PENUTUP

11. Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 adalah digubal bagi meningkatkan

lagi kawalan terhadap pergerakan, pengeluaran, pengendalian dan pelupusan buangan terjadual di Malaysia.

Walaupun peraturan ini boleh dikatakan sempurna, kejayaan mengurus buangan toksik dan berbahaya

dengan sempurna sangat bergantung kepada komitmen penjana buangan dalam mengamalkan “self-

regulations” dan penghayatan yang mendalam dalam aspek tanggungjawab sosial termasuk nilai-nilai

murni sejagat.

36

update

T H E I N G E N I E U R

1. OBJECTIVE

The objective of the Master Plan is to reduce injuryrates, work related ill-health and consequent days lostfrom work in the industry. It is hoped that the fatalityrate of 26 per 100,000 workers in 2003 can be furtherreduced by 30% by the year 2010. Through increasedresearch and development activities, the causesunderlying accidents at construction site could beaccurately determined and the right strategies appliedduring the planning, design and construction phaseof the project to prevent the occurrence of accidentsand fatalities.

2. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN MALAYSIA

The construction industry in Malaysia is generallydivided into two areas. One area is generalconstruction, which comprises residentialconstruction, non-residential construction and civilengineering construction. The second area is specialtrade works, which comprises activities of metal works,electrical works, plumbing, sewerage and sanity works,refrigeration and air-conditioning works, paintingworks, carpentry, tiling and flooring works and glassworks. The high economic growth rate has broughtincreased injuries and fatalities in this industry dueto lack of focus in occupational safety and health.CIDB in collaboration with the stakeholders isdeveloping the Construction Industry Master Plan(CIMP). This Master Plan has identified a number ofpolicies, one of which is a policy on health and safetyin construction. It is envisaged that theimplementation of this policy in the short to mediumterm is expected to reduce the high incidence ofaccidents and economic losses to stakeholders thusindirectly improving productivity, quality and imageof the industry as a whole.

3. FRAMEWORK FOR THE MASTER PLAN

The framework for the Master Plan for OccupationalSafety & Health in Construction Industry has beenstructured as follows:

a) Stakeholders to enhance the occupational safety,health and welfare of all persons working atconstruction site.

b) Stakeholders to internalize the Master Plan withintheir own organization.

Submitted by Yong Kher Shin

Master Plan For Occupational Safety & HealthIn Construction Industry: 2005-2010

37

c) Stakeholders shall review their own ‘action plan’once every two years or earlier to gauge whetherthey still meet the current requirements.

d) Improvement on occupational safety and healthperformance in the industry has to be based onrectification of the current weaknesses as wellas the reasons/circumstances leading to theiroccurrence.

e) Action plan on measures to improveenforcement, training, management, goodpractices, promotion, design and work practicesso as to have overall improvement on safety andhealth performance in the industry.

f) Safety and Health to be incorporated intoNational Occupational Skilled Standard (NOSS).

4. STRATEGIES ON OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY ANDHEALTH IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

� ENFORCEMENT & LEGISLATION : Compliance tolegislation and management systems to bemonitored and performance evaluated .

� EDUCATION & TRAINING : construction personnelto be equipped with suitable knowledge and skillon OSH.

� PROMOTIONS : as one of the main pillars ofenhancing OSH in the construction industry.

� INCENTIVES : to be introduced� STANDARDS : Necessary standards and

guidelines should be developed and introducedto the stakeholders.

� RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R & D) ANDTECHNOLOGY : to be further encouraged

5. IMPLEMENTATION

Successful implementation of The “Master Plan foroccupational Safety and Health in ConstructionIndustry” depends very much on the stakeholders’incorporation of its guidelines and objectives in theirbusiness operations and also use it as part of forwardplanning document within their organisations.

STAKEHOLDERS

� Government Agencies� Trade Associations/Contractors� Professional Bodies

The Professional Bodies to give full commitment

T H E I N G E N I E U R

update

T H E I N G E N I E U R

and support to ensure that the guidelines andstandards are effectively implemented.Professional Bodies shall also encourage theirmembers to incorporate occupational safety andhealth requirements in the planning and designof a project.

� Project OwnersProject owners could insist that only contractorswith good safety and health track record beselected for the project.

� Training Providers� Insurance Companies� Roles of National Council For Occupational

Safety & Health

6. ACTION PLANThe following are recommended action plans forimplementation:

a) Enhancement of Capabilities of EnforcementAgencies

Review of Existing Regulations� Review of Factories & Machinery (Building

Operations and Works of EngineeringConstruction (Safety) Regulations 1996

� Proposed New Construction (Design &

Management) Regulation� Revision on the Provisions for Reporting of

Accidents/Incidents and Diseases� Circulars on Occupational Safety & Health

Requirements� Proposed New Standard for Safety and Health

Management System� Statutory declaration by Contractors on

accidents and fatalities

b) Safety & Health Training & Education

i) Training for safety & Health Personnel� Site Safety Supervisors (SSS)� Construction Safety & Health Officer

(CSHO)� Career Advancement for Site Safety

Supervisors� Safety & Health Committee Members

ii) Senior management’s Trainingiii) OSH Competency to be Pre-Requisite for

Registration of Professional Architects,Engineers and Quantity Surveyors and otherrelated professionals

iv) Worker’s Trainingv) Safety Induction for Construction Personnel

� Senior Management� Professionals/Sub-Professional

38

vi) Seminars� Competency & Skill Training� Specialised Training for High Risk Jobs

vii) Training Providers/Individual Trainersviii) Construction (Design & management) Course

for professionalsThe proposed Construction (Design &

management) Regulations to be promulgatedwill place duties on all those who cancontribute to health and safety of aconstruction project.Since construction involves teamwork of client,designs (including architects, engineers andsurveyors) and contractor, all parties or dutyholders must work together towards a bettersafety consciousness and contributeaccordingly.

c) Safety & Health Promotions

� Promotion through electronic media� Stakeholder role in promoting MS-OSHMS

through ‘DO IT YOURSELF’ programme� Formation of Malaysian Construction Safety

and Health Association – MCSHA� Promoting Safe Work Practices� Development of Standard Safety Signs� Safety promotion by stakeholders� Annual Award� Special Certificate of Achievement for Best

Practice In Occupational Safety & Health� Publication of Safety & Health Prosecutions

d) Safety & Health On Incentive & Disincentive

To encourage more construction personnel toundergo training programmes and also encourageconstruction-related organisations to play activerole in promoting occupational safety and healthin construction industry.� Incentives for Construction Safety & Health

Officer Course and Site Safety SupervisorCourse

� Incentives by SOCSO� Incentives from Insurers for Good Risk

Management� Itemisation of safety and health item in

Preliminary� Tax-Exemption for PPE, all tools and equipment

related to safety and health used in theConstruction Industry

� Reduction of fee for Occupational Safety &

Health Management System Certification� Incentives for Courses to be Organised by the

Proposed Malaysia Construction Safety andHealth Association

� Incentives From Employers

T H E I N G E N I E U R

update

T H E I N G E N I E U R

With Compliments from

39

e) Safety & Health Standards

� Malaysian Standards� Guidelines on MS Construction Occupational

Health and Safety management System (MSCOHSMS)

� Guidelines for Safe Construction Works- Guideline on Prevention of Falls at

Construction Sites- Guidelines on Working at Confined Area- Guidelines-Working at Noisy and Dusty Area

� Standards for Scaffolding material and jointingmethod, workers housing and amenities

� Guidelines on Construction (Design &

Management) Regulations (CDM)� Code of Practice on Construction at Highly

Hazardous Workplace� Hand Book on Good Practice – Occupational

Safety and Health at Construction Sites� Department of Standard Malaysia To Accredit

Certification Body For MS COHSMS� Green Lane Approval for Standard Design and

Drawings – Scaffolding, Workers Quarters andTemporary Sanitary System

� Revision to Codes of Practice & Guidelines toIncorporate latest legislation and technology

f) Safety & Health R & D And Technology

To reduce occupational safety and health hazardsby introduction of mechanization and new methodof construction that will optimise labour utilizationin the industry.

� Construction Accident Reporting Mechanism� New Methods For Preventing Fall From Height� Research and Development on Project Safety

and Health� Improving the Signal System for Site Traffic

Management� E-Portal for Construction Occupational Safety

& Health and On-Line Accident Reporting� Personal protective Equipment, Safety tools and

Equipment for Working at Height� Tools and Equipment for Working in Confined

Spaces� Standard Drawings for Temporary Works

Implemented by BEM and PAM� Industrialized Building System (IBS)� Study on the Suitability and Practicability of

Personal Protective Equipment and Safety andHealth Tools and Equipments for use inConstruction Industry in Malaysia.

update

FIVE-H ASSOCIATES SDN. BHD.(241573- M)

Mechanical, Electrical, Civil,

Structural Engineers,

Project Managers & Energy Managers

Wisma Zambahari,

No. 3&5, Jalan SS15/8A,

47500 Subang Jaya,

Selangor Darul Ehsan.

Tel: 603-5637 6800 (Hunting),

5632 1729 / 9100, 5634 5152, 5636 0927

Fax: 603-5637 6680

E-Mail: fiveme@streamyx.com,

fivehcs@streamyx.com

Website: www.fiveh.com.my

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCEIN DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY 2005

Nov 29 – Dec 2, 2005

Organised by: Military Academy Malaysia

Supported by: Ministry of Defence, Malaysia

Venue: Marriott Putrajaya, Malaysia

Invitation: All researchers, academics, defence

personnel, defence industry and any interested

parties are welcome to participate.

Theme: “Defence Technology: Evolution,

Achievements and Challenges”.

For further information please visit:

http://www.atma.gov.my/ICDT2005/index.html

or contact:

Secretariat ICDT 2005,

Military Academy Malaysia,

Sungei Besi Camp,

57000 Kuala Lumpur,

MALAYSIA.

Email : ICDT2005@atma.gov.my

Tel: (603)-90575345 ext: 2412/2436/2211/2190

Fax: (603)-90574291/90574361

T H E I N G E N I E U R

By Ir. Harbans Singh K.S.

Instructions And VariationsPart 2

VARIATION CLAIMS: NATURE AND TYPES

Having dealt with the instructions, variations and thenexus between the two, the discussion of this paper willmove on to the contentious area of variation claims; amatter of extreme concern to practitioners and a maladyafflicting many a contract in its implementation stage. Itis an undeniable fact that the instant topic is very wide inits ambit and cannot be considered in length within thelimits of this session.

Nevertheless, some important facets of this interestingdomain of claims will be examined, in particular,considerations pertaining to the nature and types ofvariation claims and the main heads or grounds ofcontention 42.

Nature and Types

Although there is no universal formula for classifyingvariation claims, the contemporary approach is to dividesuch claims according to the broad categories as listedbelow i.e. classification according to 43:

� The claimant’s identity e.g. contractor’s claim, sub-contractor’s claim, etc.;

� The ultimate remedy or remedies sought e.g. cost relatedclaim, time related claims, etc.;

� The legal basis e.g. ‘contractual’ claim, ‘extra-contractual’ claim, ‘ex-gratia’ claim, etc.; and

� The form/procedural nature of the claim e.g.‘particularized’ claim, ‘global’ claim, etc.

It should be appreciated that the categories advertedto above overlap to a certain degree. To this end, a typicalclaim is a combination of possibly all of the said categoriese.g. a variation claim can be a contractor’s claim for extra‘costs’ made on a ‘contractual’ basis in a ‘particularized’form.

Whilst acknowledging the other categories as advertedto here above, the following discussion will be confinedmainly to variation claims vis-à-vis their legal basis.

Contractual Claims

The bulk of variation claims encountered in practice 44

are ones going under the label of ‘contractual’ claims.Synonymous with the term ‘ex-contractu’ claims, theinstant category of claims is one that arises from thecontract itself i.e. the legal basis of the claim proper is

founded in the specific provision(s) or the term(s) of thecontract in question. To ensure the tenability of such aclaim and its successful realization, it is thereforeimperative for the applicable contractual provisions to bestrictly adhered to 45. In furtherance to the foregoing, it isimperative for a variation claim to satisfy the contractuallystipulated pre-condition i.e. the existence of a validvariation order 46. On a comparative basis, it is relativelyadvantageous to pursue a contractual claim as thiscategory of claim provides a simpler machinery for theapplication, justification, assessment and reimbursementbased on a pre-agreed contractual mechanism or formula.

Extra-Contractual’ Claims

Where it is not possible, to justify or advance a‘contractual’ claim vis-à-vis variations, resort can bemade to the category of claims going under the umbrellalabel of ‘extra-contractual’ claims 47. Also known as ‘excontractual’ or ‘common law’ claims, the claims underthe instant category are those that arise apart from theexpress provisions of the contract and cover claims underimplied contract, in tort, for ‘quantum meruit’, etc. It isapparent from the nature of such claims that there areseldom, if any, procedures enshrined in the particularcontract governing matters such as the notification,submission, assessment and realization of ‘extra-contractual’ claims.

Such requirements would have to be established bynecessary implication from the prevailing principles ofthe law. Variation claims that fall under this categoryare mainly those involving procedurally invalidvariations, invalid omissions, ‘cardinal changes’, etc. Italso covers the situation where work ordered falls outsidethe scope of the contract i.e. work has been undertakenbut it falls outside the purview of an express variationclause: Sir Lindsay Parkinson & Co. v Commissioner ofWorks 48.

42. For a more detailed reference See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S.‘Engineering and Construction Contracts Management: Post-Commencement Practice’ - Chapter 4.

43. See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. ‘Engineering and Construction ContractsManagement: Post-Commencement Practice’ at P 850.

44. Be these Contractors initiated or initiated by Sub-Contractors,Suppliers, etc.

45. Both in the substantive and procedural sense.46. The subject of the preceding discussion.47. See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. ‘Engineering and Construction Contracts

Management: Post-Commencement Practice’ at P 858-869.48. [1949] 2 KB 632.

40

engin

eeri

ng &

law

T H E I N G E N I E U R

Ex-Gratia’ Claims 49

Where it is neither possible to found a ‘contractual’claim nor ‘extra contractual’ claim, the last resort is toattempt to pursue an ‘ex-gratia’ claims. Also known as‘sympathetic’ claims, this species of claims have no legalbasis but are made on mere hardship or moral groundsand payment is made usually as a matter of grace on apurely without prejudice and non-admission of liabilitybasis. As such claims are non-legal in nature, theircontents and procedures are ad-hoc and informaldepending on the particular circumstances of the case.Accordingly no precise requirements as to their timing,mode and documentation exist. Hence, each such claimis essentially dictated by its own particular facts.

The party against whom the claim is made is neitherobliged to entertain nor make payment for such claims.This is subject to the caveat that should a promise benevertheless made to settle to the claimant, the promisoris bound by such promise or agreement. In the event of asubsequent default i.e. failure and/or neglect to honourthe promise, the claimant has a legal entitlement to recoverthe remedy promised based on the promise or agreement:Lester Williams v Roffey Brothers & Nicholls(Contractors) Ltd. 50.

In a typical variation claim scenario, the sequenceusually encountered in practice involves the claimant firstattempting to pursue a ‘contractual’ claim. Should sucha claim fail or be not tenable in law, then resort issubsequently made to an ‘extra-contractual’ claimpremised normally on quantum meruit 51. In the eventthat such a claim also does not meet with any success,then as a last resort, an ‘ex-gratia’ claim remains the onlyoption available to the claimant. Practitioners should bewell aware that such claims are more of a rule rather anexception on the local scene, as seldom if ever ‘contractual’and/or ‘extra-contractual’ see the light of day in many acontract.

Common Grounds For Variation Claims

Variation claims encountered in practice exhibit avariety of hues in form, content and lastly on the veryground forming the sub-stratum of the claim. Discountingthe novel basis of founding such claims which haveinfiltrated the industry, the common grounds can be listedas hereunder:

� Adverse physical conditions;

� Difference between billed and actual quantities;

� Tendering errors;

� Change in Employer’s Requirements;

� Errors/discrepancies in drawing/plans andspecifications; and

� Change in construction methods;

For the sake of brevity, the more important aspects assome of the abovementioned grounds are examined herebelow.

Adverse Physical Conditions

A claim based on the above-mentioned ground isnormally premised on the contention that the physicalconditions actually encountered on site are different ormore adverse than those that could have been reasonablyforseen by the contractor at the time of contracting.

Whether a claim premised on the instant ground canbe successfully pursued depends much on the contractualprovisions governing the party responsible for shoulderingthe consequences of encountering the adverse physicalconditions 52 Roger Knowles 53 is of the opinion that ‘whichparty is responsible for bad ground conditions should bemade clear by the express terms of the contract. If thecontract is silent on the matter and there is no provisionfor remeasurement, the contractor will normally be deemedto have taken the risk. This is particularly relevant inlump sum design and construct forms of procurement.’

For adverse ground conditions which are reasonablyforeseeable, two renowned cases can be cited as a goodcomparison. The first is Pearce (CJ) & Co. Ltd. v HerefordCorporation and Others 54 where it was held the existenceof an old sewer could have been ‘reasonably forseen’, sothat even if the contractor had served the necessary notice,they would not have been entitled to extra payment underthe contract clause of renewing the old sewer, backfillingthe excavation, back heading, etc. However, in HumberOil Terminals Trustee Ltd. v Harbour and General Works(Stevin) Ltd. 55 it was held that the adverse physicalconditions could not have been forseen by an experiencedcontractor and hence could give rise to a contractual claimthereto.

Difference Between Billed And Actual Quantities

A Bill Of Quantities Contract has been lucidly explainedby Keating 56 as:

…….a contract where the bills of quantities form part ofthe contract and describe the work to be carried out forwhich a lump sum is payable. The contractor may be,and usually is, bound by the terms of the contract to carryout work in excess of that stated in the bills of quantitiesif it is necessary to complete the contract, but in a bills ofquantities contract such excess work is extra work. This

49. See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. ‘Engineering and Construction ContractsManagement: Post-Commencement Practice’ at P 870-873.

50. [1989] 48 BLR 69.51. Although the basis may be breach of implied terms, tort, etc.52. E.g. additional cost and/or time.53. See ‘100 Contractual Problems and Their Solutions’ at P 157.54. [1968] 66 LGR 647 quoted by Max Abrahamson in ‘Engineering

Law and The ICE Contracts’.55. [1992] 59 BLR 1.56. See ‘Building Contracts’ [4th Edn] at P 64.

41

engin

eeri

ng &

law

T H E I N G E N I E U R

type of contract has been said to be “obviously unsafe” foran employer because it can hardly ever be knownbeforehand what exact quantities of work may be necessaryto complete; conversely it may save the contractor muchtrouble and loss’.

For such contracts, the courts have a tendency to holdthat:

� All items which are intended to be executed by thecontractor in consideration for the contract pricewould have been expressly provided for in thecontract. Hence, any error or inaccuracy in the billsof quantities is at the risk of the employer in that itmay constitute a ‘variation’: Patman & FotheringhamLtd. v Pilditch 57;

� If the bills of quantities are not prepared in accordancewith the applicable Standard of Measurement e.g. SMMfor building works, CESMM for civil engineering works,etc., there may be a contractual basis for a ‘variation’:Bryant & Sons Ltd. v Birmingham Hospital SaturdayFund 58; and

� Where the actual quantities of work as executed bythe contractor exceed the quantities shown against theparticular item in the contract bills of quantities thismay constitute a ‘variation’. Accordingly:

(a) The contractor is bound to carry out works inexcess of those stated in the contract bills if it isnecessary to complete the contract provided thatthese works are paid for as ‘extras’ or a ‘variation’:Patman & Fotheringham Ltd. v Pilditch 59; and

(b) If such extra over is not within a reasonable limit,the contract rates may have to be adjusted. Forthe purposes of the latter, it is immaterial thatthey do not stem from an express exercise of thevariation powers: Mitsui Construction Co. Ltd. vAttorney General of Hong Kong 60.

Discounting the fact that there may be some possibilityof implying the duty of the contractor to undertake acertain amount of extra work without the latter beingcategorized as a contractual ‘variation’, the courts areinclined in such contracts especially those based on billsof quantities to strictly construe the bills of quantitiesand conditions of contract, in some instances of providinga literal interpretation; thereby leaving little room for suchimplication as alluded to hereabove.

Tendering Errors

Chow Kok Fong in his authoritative text entitled ‘Lawand Practice of Construction Contract Claims’ at P69 states:

….. a Contractor may commit a tendering error in billsof quantities contracts in two ways. First, the error mayarise from the computation of the unit rate for a work

item in the bills, so that the result is that he tendered(for example) $X for a cubic metre of general excavationinstead of $Y which he had intended. Secondly, he couldhave correctly stated his price per unit of measurementbut incorrectly extended the price and this error had beenincorporated in the total contract price which he tendered…..’

Prima facie, in both situations, a contractual claimmay not see a realistic chance of success. In the first ofthe two cases, unless the contractor can show fraud ormisrepresentation or common intention of the parties 61,the risk of such tendering errors rests squarely on thecontractor’s shoulders. The contractor may apply to thecourts for rectification of the contract but as Chow KokFong rightly opines, this may be a mere exercise infutility 62. As for the second category of claims, it issubmitted that the fate of such claims depends essentiallyon the governing conditions of contract. In MV GleesonLtd. v Sleaford UDC 63 the contractor could not recoveranything as the court held that on a true construction ofthe particular form of contract (the RIBA Standard Form)there was no provision for the rectification of such errorsin the bills except where there was an omission of billitems.

Change in Employer’s Requirements

As a typical contract traverses the full cycle frominception to ultimate realization and handover, it is acommon occurrence that not only the designers but theusers introduce a number of revisions or changes. Thereare a host of reasons for these; ranging from a review ofdesign to matters such as change of ultimate use to whichthe finished work would be put. Furthermore commercial,technical and political developments may impact on theinitial contract requirements and necessitate a reviewand change before the contract can be eventuallydischarged.

Most, if not such changes will result in variations tothe contract; the bulk of these contractual in nature whilstothers may fall under the category of ‘extra-contractual’claims. This is especially so in the so called ‘PackageDeal’ type of contracts 64 where owing to the inherentnature of such contracts, changes in Employer’sRequirements seem to be the most prevalent. Suchchanges generally result in claims for additional costsand/or time depending on the areas of impact.

57. [1904] ‘Hudson’s Building Contracts’ [4th Edn.] Vol. 2, P 369.58. [1938] 1 All ER 503.59. [1904] ‘Hudson’s Building Contracts’ [4th Edn.] Vol. 2, P 36960. [1986] 33 BLR 1.61. See Royston UDC v Royston Builders Ltd [1961] 177 E.G. 589.62. See ‘Law and Practice of Construction Contract Claims’ at P69.63. [1953] Unreported.64. i.e. ‘Turnkey’, Design and Construct, Design and Build Contracts,

etc.

42

engin

eeri

ng &

law

T H E I N G E N I E U R

Errors / Discrepancies In Contract Documents

Variation claims under this head are usually premisedon the contention that owing to the existence of errorsand/or discrepancies in the contract documents i.e. arisingfrom defective drawings, specifications, bills of quantities,etc. the contractor has suffered additional cost and/or timethan originally envisaged under the particular contract.

Whether such claims are contractually tenable dependmuch upon matters such as:

1. Nature of the Contract

In general, for a contract based on bills of quantities, sincethe risk is basically on the employer in terms of correctnessand accuracy, errors arising therefrom may entitle acontractor to an additional claim. However, this may notbe true for lump sum contracts based on drawings andspecifications and of the ‘Package Deal’ type.

2. Construction of Contract

The contract may be couched in terms which attempt totransfer the risk of such errors or discrepancies on to thecontractor 65. If such stipulations are held to be valid andenforceable, then a contractor may, for all intents andpurposes be precluded from seeking any further remedyfor a risk that has been effectively transferred to him.

Changes in Construction Methods

Variation claims under this head entail three distinctscenarios, namely:

1. Where a contractor has tendered on the basis of a certainconstruction method and this method, thoughincorporated into the contract is later varied by theemployer for some specific reason(s). This may, for allintents and purposes arise consequent to an act ofprevention and presumably for neutral events too; or

2. It may also encompass a situation where the contractorrevises his method of construction post-contract awardand such revision is eventually accepted by the employeras occasioned in the celebrated case of Simplex ConcretePiles Ltd. v St. Pancras Borough Council 66; or

3. A more common scenario arises where the contractor isasked at the tender stage to submit his method statementand construction programme; which documents thenbeing incorporated into the subsequent contractformalized between the parties. Should the methodstatement and/or the construction programme be variedsubsequently, such changes may give rise to acontractual claim for varied work 67.

A rare but seemingly valid claim can also be,founded in the event the contractor’s method statementsubmitted 68 and approved post-contract award materiallydeparts from the requirements stipulated in the contract.

CONCLUSION

Variation claims are said to be a curse afflicting many aconstruction contract being implemented in this country.The story is no different when one looks at the situationelsewhere in areas where such contracts have been or arebeing in the process of practical realization. There are manyreasons attributed for this sad occurrence; a situation wherethe only apparent winners are lawyers and claim consultants.Captains of the industry point their fingers at the currenttight contracting environment where risks on contractorsare high whilst the profits are relatively low. The situation isfurther exacerbated by an army of contractors bidding atcut-throat prices just to stay afloat with subsequent variationclaims being used either to make up for the initial losses orto pad up the profit margins.

At the end of the day, this may be all part of a game of‘Russian roulette’; a view buttressed by the fact that unlesssuch claims are tenable in the first place i.e. initiated througha valid variation order or instruction of the contractadministrator and premised on sound contractual basis, mostland up generating unnecessary paperwork, strained workingrelations and a sheer waste of senior management time onboth sides of the equation. Hence, in the final analysis it isup to the industry to investigate and regulate itself such thatvariation claims are not made simpliciter but only when allother remedies for retribution have been exhausted.

65. See for example Clause 1.2 PAM 98 Form (With Quantities Edn).66. [1958] 5 BLR 34.67. See Yorshire Water Authority v McAlpine & Son [1985] 32 BLR

114.68. Where none was submitted at the tendering stage; the only

requirement being for the method statement submitted forapproval prior to commencement of work under the contract.

43

1 Chow Kok Fong ‘Law and Practice of ConstructionContract Claims’ [2nd Edn], Longman.

2 Ir. Harbans Singh K.S., ‘Engineering and ConstructionContracts Management: Commencement andAdministration’, ‘Engineering and Construction ContractsManagement: Post-Commencement Practice’, Lexis-Nexis/Butterworths.

3 Ir. Harbans Singh K.S., ‘Malaysian Precedents and Forms:Engineering and Construction Contracts’, Malayan LawJournal Sdn. Bhd.

4 Joseph T. Bockrath, ‘Contracts and the Legal Environmentfor Engineers and Architects’ [5th Edn.], McGraw Hill.

5 J. Murdoch & W. Hughes, ‘Construction Contracts’ [3rd

Edn.] Spon Press.6 Peter Davison, ‘Evaluating Contract Claims’, Blackwell.7 Peter R. Hibberd ‘Variations In Construction Contracts’,

Colins Professional and Technical Books.8 Powell-Smith, Chappel & Simmonds, ‘An Engineering

Contract Dictionary’, IBC.9 Robinson, Lavers, Tan & Chan, ‘Construction Law in

Singapore and Malaysia’ [2nd Edn.], Butterworths.10 Roger Knowles, ‘100 Contractual Problems and Their

Solutions’, Blackwell Science.

REFERENCES

BEM

engin

eeri

ng &

law

T H E I N G E N I E U R

Providing Sludge Dewatering ServicesFor Multiple-Site Operations Via AMobile Dewatering UnitBy Ruhaidah Md Hassan, Indah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd and Chua Wee Shiong, Environ Holdings Sdn Bhd

Series 4

Sludge is a major by-productof any sewage treatmentsystem. The treatment anddisposal of this sludge is a

major consideration in the treatmentprocess. A typical disposal method isto send the sludge for landfilling. Re-use of the sludge is also possible, withapplications such as energy recoveryby incineration and conversion tofertilizers. Whether the sludge isdisposed or re-used, there must behandling and transportation of thesludge. As sludge consists primarilyof water and only a small amount oforganic matter, the sludge must bedewatered so that the resultant sludgecake will be dry enough for it to behandled easily and economically.

Being the national sewerageconcessionaire in Malaysia, sludgemanagement is an important part ofIndah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd’s(IWK’s) operations. With over 7,500public sewage treatment plants (STPs)and over 350,000 individual septictanks under their care, IWK is takingsteps to improve sludge managementto cater for the growing needs of thecountry. One solution IWK isexploring, is to use dewateringequipment that is easy to operate,

easy to maintain, requires minimummanpower, and easily transportablefrom site to site.

Pilot Trials for the MobileDewatering Unit

Environ Holdings Sdn Bhd(Environ), one of the earliest wastewatercompanies in Malaysia, had brought ina mobile dewatering unit from Italy. Theeffort was aimed at conducting pilotplant trials, to observe the performanceof a mobile dewatering unit in a typicalMalaysian sewage treatment plant. Twotrial runs were conducted toaccommodate visits from variousparties from all over the country.

The details of the trials are givenin Table 1.

For a mobile dewateringapplication such as that required byIWK, the centrifuge decanter was oneof the many choices of mechanicaldewatering equipment for use. Thedecanter provides the followingadvantages over other means ofmechanical dewatering:� Clean continuous operation� Minimal odour problems� Fast start-up and shutdown

capabilities

The Mobile Dewatering Unit

� Relatively dry sludge cake� Low capital cost to capacity ratio� Small footprint� Easily mobile� One trained team can serve

several plants, thus reducing thenumber of trained personnelrequired

In addition to the above, thedecanter also offered the followingfeatures that are unique:

� Open scroll, which allows feed toenter anywhere within thedecanter

� Adjustable shuttle feed pipe,which allows feed location to beprecisely adjusted, even while thedecanter is in operation

� Sludge scraper, which preventssludge build up in the sludgedischarge chamber and thereforeprevents blocking of the bowlrotation

These additional features facilitateease of operation, as well as reducemaintenance and downtime; factorsthat ensure the long periods oftrouble-free operation for any mobileequipment system.

44

envir

onm

ent

T H E I N G E N I E U R

Besides the decanter, the mobiledewatering unit also came fullyinstalled with all the equipment and

piping necessary to make it a completesludge dewatering system (see Table1). The only external requirements

needed werepower supplyand watersupply, whichwere easilyconnected to theunit. Feed waspumped directly

from the STP’s gravity thickener intothe mobile unit, using the screw pumpprovided inside the mobile unit. Thedischarged effluent was channeledback to the STP’s headworks.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

On average, the sludge cakeproduced had a dryness of about 18%to 20% dry solid content. While not

Typical cross-section of the Pilot Trial centrifuge decanter

Feed sludge from gravity thickener

Internal view of the Pilot Trial Mobile Dewatering Unit

Table1: Details of the Mobile Dewatering UnitPilot Trials

Trial DetailsLocation: STP at Taman Dagang,

Ampang, SelangorDates: July and October 2003Source of sludge: Thickened activated sludge

Mobile Unit Details1 no. centrifuge decanter1 no. polymer preparation station1 no. polymer pump1 no. sludge feed pump1 no. effluent pump1 no. screw conveyor1 no. control panelAll necessary pipes, valves, hoses and fittingsAll of the above are fully containerized within a 20ft container

Decanter DetailsMake: PieralisiModel: Baby 2Hydraulic Capacity: 4.0 m3/hrMain motor: 7.5 kW

45

envir

onm

ent

T H E I N G E N I E U R

container was ready to be moved tothe next plant. During the pilot trials,the unit was moved in and out of thesite using a 10-tonne lorry with a cranefor lifting. No special permits orallowances were required to transportthe mobile unit from site to site.

CONCLUSION

With the large number of plantsunder IWK’s maintenance, the mobiledewatering unit is a viable option fortheir sludge dewatering operations. Amobile unit will remove the need forindividual dewatering systems forevery STP, thus reducing the problemsassociated with operating andmaintaining these equipment, alongwith the need for extensive stafftraining. The dryness of the sludgecake produced is satisfactory andsimilar results can be expected fromthe dewatering of sludge from otherSTPs. The mobile sludge dewateringtrials successfully show the possibilityof providing sludge dewateringservices for multiple site operations.This might be the future trend ofsludge dewatering system particularlyfor widely scattered individual septictanks and small sewage treatmentplants in rural areas.

Dewatered sludgeproduced from thePilot Trial MobileDewatering unit

Dewateredsludge,

filtrate andwet sludge

Table 2: Results of the pilot trials

as dry as cake produced from a filterpress, it was more than adequate foreasy handling.

The effluent from the decanter wasfound to be clear, indicating a goodsolid capture rate within the decanter.The effluent quality can be adjustedto obtain a drier sludge cake, if sodesired.

Start-up and shutdown of the unitwere fast and simple. The preliminarysetting up of the unit at site took onlytwo hours. Water and power supplywere tapped from existing sources.The feed and discharge connectionswere made using hoses supplied withthe unit. Closing down took onlyabout an hour. Once closed up, the

Parameters Results

Influent sludge dry solids content, % d.s. 3-4Sludge cake dry solids content, % d.s. 18-20Polymer consumption, kg/tonne dry solids produced 3-6

BEM

Dewateredsludge Filtrate Wet sludge

REFERENCES

1. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. (1991),Wastewater Engineering:Treatment, Disposal andReuse, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

2. Sewerage ServicesDepartment, Ministry ofHousing & Local Government(2001), Sewerage ServicesReport 2001 , SewerageServices Department.

3. Indah Water Konsortium SdnBhd (2004), Indah WaterKonsortium Sdn Bhd Web Site,Indah Water Konsortium SdnBhd

4. Pieralisi Benelux BV (2002),Centrifugal Extractors – ADifferent Perspective, PieralisiBenelux BV

46

envir

onm

ent

T H E I N G E N I E U R

By Joy Jacqueline Pereira and Rawshan Ara Begum, Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI),Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

The construction industry playsa pivotal role in helping thenation to achieve sustainable

development. Sustainabledevelopment requires theconstruction industry itself to besustainable. There are three elementsrelated to sustainable constructionand these are the economic, social andenvironmental dimensions. Theeconomic dimension includes aspectssuch as wealth generation,employment, profitability andcompetitiveness. The social dimensioncovers aspects such as realization ofGovernment policies aimed to developthe nation, delivery of buildings andstructures that meet the satisfactionof their users as well as respect andfair treatment for all stakeholders. Theenvironmental dimension relates tothe major impact associated with theconstruction industry such as soilerosion and sedimentation, flashfloods, destruction of vegetation, dustpollution, depletion of naturalresources and waste generation,among others. In order to enable theconstruction sector to meet theaspirations of sustainability, economicand social goals should be met withminimal environmental impact.

Waste generation is becomingan increasingly s ignif icantenvironmental problem associatedwith the construction industry,undermining its sustainability. This isparticularly true in urban areas wherelandfills are closing due to lack ofland. In addition, waste managementpractices are generally outdated andgood practices are inadequatelydocumented to allow for industry-

wide dissemination. Currently,construction waste is considered aspart of solid waste and is disposed ofin dumpsites and landfills, whilewood-based materials are sometimesillegally burned at the site. Theeconomic potential of this disposedmaterial is generally ignored. This ispartly because the characteristics ofconstruction waste in Malaysia havenot been adequately studied toevaluate its feasibility as an economicresource.

This situation served as an impetusfor the Construction IndustryDevelopment Board of Malaysia(CIDB) to fund a research project on“Waste Minimization and RecyclingPotential of Construction Materials”,conducted by the Institute forEnvironment and Development(LESTARI) and Forest ResearchInstitute Malaysia (FRIM) and severalother collaborators. One researchactivity in the Project involved a

47

survey of CIDB RegisteredContractors, particularly regardingtheir level of awareness, attitudes,behaviour and willingness to pay forimproved construction wastemanagement (LESTARI 2005).

This article highlights some of thefindings obtained from the survey inthe Klang Valley, specifically inKajang, Petaling Jaya, Subang Jayaand Seri Kembangan. The “purposivestratified random sampling” methodwas used, focusing on three majorgroups of contractors registered withCIDB. These are Group A comprisingG6 and G7 contractors, Group Bcomprising G4 and G5 contractorsand Group C for G1, G2 and G3contractors. The final survey wasbased on 130 samples of contractorsi.e. 35 from Group A, 35 from GroupB and 60 from group C. The samplerepresents 2% of the total registeredcontractors in Selangor. Interviewswere based on a set of questionnaires

Construction WasteManagement: Are ContractorsUnaware Or Just Recalcitrant?

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R 48

that was pre-tested and modifiedbefore being used in the survey(Begum et al. 2005).

Waste Management Hierarchy

Construction waste, also referredto as construction and demolitionwaste, is as defined as mineral andnon-mineral matter in variablecomposition from construction,demolition and renovation projectsincluding excavated natural or fill soiland rock material generated duringconstruction. The projects include thebuilding, renovation and demolitionof residential and non-residentialbuildings and other infrastructureincluding road construction or re-pavement. Construction waste ishighly heterogeneous depending onthe type of project and the localgeology, and may contain materialundesirable and environmentallydamaging materials. Examples ofconstruction waste include ferrousand non-ferrous metals, soil, rocks,sand, cement, bricks, concrete, asphaltand bituminous material, treated anduntreated wood, plaster, plastics,paper as well as hazardous materialsuch as paint and lacquers (LESTARI2005).

Within the framework of life cycleassessment, the overall aim is toprevent to the extent possible, andminimise the generation of waste, aswell as manage those wastes in sucha manner that they do not cause harmto health and the environment. Thus,in the context of waste managementfor the construction industry, the firststep involves the reduction of waste.The next step is the recovery of wasteby means of reuse and recycling. Ifthere are no options left for recovery,the last step is the disposal of wasteinto the landfill.

Minimizing its generation duringthe operational process can reducewaste. Reducing the material in-flowcan also effect waste reduction, andresult in reducing the materials out-flow. A simple example would be tolower the extra material in the bill ofquantity. Material substitution is alsoone way to reduce waste. Reuse isactually closed-loop recycling, where

a product of a system is recycled fora new use in the same system (Buheet al . 1997). Materials in theconstruction industry can bereemployed after refurbishment or ina lower-grade application. Forexample, excavated soil can be usedas backfill, for landscaping or noisebunding (Goh and Anuar Kasa 2000).Recycling is an open loop where theproduct of a system finds new use inanother system (Buhe et al. 1997).There are many examples of recyclingin the construction industry. Woodmaterials can be recycled into paperproduct, ground to make livestockbedding and used for mushroomcultivation (Mohamed and Nasri2000). Concrete can be crushed toproduce secondary aggregates whilemetals can be moulded into newproducts.

In the Project, material flow isassessed based on the Life CycleAssessment approach (LCA) where thefollowing definitions apply. Theboundaries are defined at the pointswhere the materials enter and leave aconstruction site. Thus, reuse refersto closed-loop recycling, where aproduct of a site is recycled for a newuse within the same construction site.Recycling is an open loop where theproduct from a site finds new use inanother construction site in itsoriginal form, or is transformed intoa product for a different use, eitherwithin or outside of the constructionindustry. Opportunities for wasteminimisation occur both within andoutside of the defined boundaries.

Construction Waste Generators

The survey revealed manyinteresting characteristics ofcontractors, the primary generators ofconstruction waste, particularlyregarding their level of awareness(Begum 2005). All contractors are wellaware of waste collection services,with a small majority (54%) practisingself disposal while the rest havearrangements with private wastecollectors. In terms of collectionfrequency, only 3% of contractorspractice daily disposal. A third of thecontractors (37%) do not have a

schedule, while 32% have their wastecollected once a week. The othercontractors have collectionfrequencies of twice a week (15%),once a month (5%), and three timesper week (4%), while about 5% haveno knowledge of frequency. Group A(G6 and G7) contractors generallyengage private waste collectors whilecontractors in other categories tendto practise self disposal. It could bespeculated that incidences of illegaldisposal is more likely to be associatedwith the latter group, as private wastecollectors are relatively organised intheir operations and more easilytraceable for legal non-compliance.

About 79% of the contractorssurveyed are aware of sourcereduction with respect to the wastemanagement hierarchy, while 21% arenot aware of the matter. The sourcesof information are varied. About 78%of the contractors obtained theirinformation from television, followedby newspapers (70%), Internet (55%),local authorities (36%), seminar/conferences/workshops (27%), CIDB(22%), contractor associations (20%),private waste contractors (20%), non-Government organisations (14%) andforeign sources (5%). About 87% ofthe contractors surveyed are aware ofreuse and recycling with respect tothe waste management hierarchy,while only 13% are not aware of thematter. The most common source isthe newspaper, where 80% (Real datais 80.5%) of the contractors obtainedtheir information from this source.This is followed by other sources suchas television (69%), Internet (48%),seminar/conferences/workshops(47%), local authorities (31%), CIDB(26%), contractor associations (21%),private waste contractors (16%), non-Government organisations (15%) andforeign sources (6%).

It appears that contractors arerelatively less familiar with sourcereduction compared to reuse andrecycling. More than half thecontractors surveyed cited the massmedia, particularly television andnewspapers, as the main source ofinformation regarding wastemanagement, followed by theInternet. The next important sources

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R 49

are local authorities, technicalmeetings such as seminars,conferences and workshops. Less than30% of the contractors surveyed findCIDB, contractor association, privatewaste contractors and non-Government organisations asimportant sources of information inthe Klang Valley, while foreignsources are the least important. Itappears that important stakeholdersin the construction industry,particularly CIDB and contractorassociations, have had little impactin increasing awareness regardingwaste management among thecontractors. These organisations canand should do more to increase theireffectiveness in the arena ofconstruction waste management.

When asked if they would bewilling to pay for improvedconstruction waste managementservices, specifically for wastecollection and disposal services, 68%of the contractors surveyed reporteda positive willingness to pay while therest were not willing. In terms ofactual values, the average maximumwillingness to pay value of thecontractors in the three groups varies.Contractors are willing to pay anaverage maximum amount ofRM69.88 per tonne for wastecollection and disposal services. Thehighest average maximum value theyare willing to pay is RM88 for GroupA (G6 and G7), RM78.25 for Group B(G4 and G5) and RM55.80 for GroupC (G1, G2 and G3). It was found thatnone of the contractors are willing topay more than RM200 per tonne forwaste collection and disposal services.During the survey, the wastecollection and disposal services wasin the region of RM50 per tonne.These are expected to rise because ofclosure of dumping sites in the KlangValley. Such a situation makes inmore important for source reduction,reuse and recycling practices to comeinto play.

Conclusions

The majority of contractorssurveyed in the Klang Valley are wellaware of source reduction, reuse and

recycling with respect to the wastemanagement hierarchy. However,contractors are relatively less familiarwith source reduction compared toreuse and recycling. The main sourceof information regarding wastemanagement is the mass media,particularly television andnewspapers. Other important sourcesof information are the Internet, localauthorities, technical meetings suchas seminars, conferences andworkshops, CIDB, contractorsassociation, private waste contractorsand non-Government organisations.Less than 6% of the contractorssurveyed obtained information onwaste management from foreignsources.

Group A (G6 and G7) contractorsgenerally engage private wastecollectors and they are willing to payRM88 per tonne for waste collectionand disposal services. Contractors inother categories tend to practise selfdisposal. Group B (G4 and G5) iswilling to pay RM78.25 and GroupC (G1, G2 and G3) RM55.80 pertonne for waste collection anddisposal services. None of thecontractors surveyed are willing topay more than RM200 per tonne forwaste collection and disposalservices. Given the scenario wherewaste collection and disposalservices are set to rise because ofclosure of dumping sites in the KlangValley, it is inevitable that theconstruction industry will intensifyefforts on source reduction, reuse andrecycling.

The survey has provided a profileof contractors in the Klang Valley.The findings will assist theformulation of appropriate policyinterventions in addressing theconstruction waste problem inMalaysia and indirectly improvingthe quality of construction in thecountry.

Acknowledgement

This article is based on the findingsfrom the research project entitled“Waste Minimization and RecyclingPotential of Construction Materials”,funded by CIDB and conducted by

LESTARI and FRIM and several othercollaborators. The contribution of theresearch group to this article, inparticular Prof. Chamhuri Siwar andAssoc. Prof. Dr. Abdul Hamid Jaafar,is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Begum, R.A. 2005. EconomicAnalysis of the Potential ofConstruction Waste Minimisationand Recycling in Malaysia.(Unpubl. Ph.D Thesis). Submittedto Universiti KebangsaanMalaysia, Bangi.

Begum, R.A., Siwar, C., Pereira,J.J. and Jaafar, A.H. 2005.Awareness, Attitude andBehavioural Factors: EconometricAnalysis of Waste Management inthe Construction Industry [Inpreparation]

Buhe, C., Achard, G., Le Tono, J.F.and Chevalier, J.L. 1997.Integration of the RecyclingProcess into the Life CycleAnalysis of ConstructionProducts. Resources, Conservationand Recycling, 20, 227-243.

Goh W.L. and Anuar Kasa 2000.Analisis Sistem Tembok PenahanBertetulang Dawai MenggunakanTanah Baki Sebagai BahanTimbus Balik. ProsidingKejuruteraan Awam UKMKejuruteraan Geoteknik danPengangkutan, 1, 29-35.

LESTARI 2005. ConstructionWaste Management (MilestoneReport 4). LESTARI/FRIM Projecton Waste Minimization andRecycling Potential ofConstruction Materials. Submittedto CIDB: July 2005.

Mohamed Neyzam Atan and NasriNasir 2000. Kajian PenggunaanAbu Terbang Dalam BancuhanKonkrit Yang Diisi Dengan KertasSuratkhabar Lama. ProsidingKejuruteraan Awam danKejuruteraan Struktur Bahan, 1,199-205. BEM

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R 50

By Chang Yit Fong, Jabatan Kimia MalaysiaMinistry of Science, Technology and Innovation

All laboratory work with chemicals eventuallyproduces chemical waste, and those who generatesuch waste have the obligation to ensure that

the waste is handled, segregated and disposed in ways thatpose minimum potential harm, both short term and longterm, to human health and the environment. In Malaysia,the control of wastes is governed by the EnvironmentalQuality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989 requiring allwastes to be handled properly and as far as possible, berendered innocuous prior to disposal and be treated atprescribed premises or on-site treatment facilities only.

Broadly, a hazardous chemical is a chemical that posesa danger to human health or the environment if improperlyhandled. The hazard inherent in a small quantity of achemical from a laboratory is the same as the hazardinherent in a much larger quantity of the same chemicalfrom another source eg. from an industrial facility. Theoverall potential for harm to human health or theenvironment is less from the former because of the smallerquantity. A large fraction of laboratory waste comprisessmall amounts of many kinds of chemicals. A wastemanagement system needs to be implemented to handlethis low-volume, chemically diverse wastes.

Managing Unneeded Chemicals

A laboratory worker faced with unneeded chemicalmust provide information on the properties of the chemicalto guide in the selection of the method of disposal. Thechemical is considered whether to be reused, recycled, orrecovered for reuse. If it is decided to be a scheduled waste,it must be properly labelled, classified and segregated tobe eventually disposed in some ecologically prudentmanner. Its route of disposal is to be governed by itscombustible, non combustible, biological or explosivecharacteristics. If it is non-hazardous, it can be incinerated,sent to a municipal landfill or put in the sanitary sewer.Many common chemicals can be safely and acceptablydisposed down the drain.

The characteristics of many hazardous chemical wastescan be reduced or completely destroyed by chemicalreaction in the laboratory. If the waste is not destroyed inthe laboratory, it can be either incinerated or buried. Mostlaboratories do not have their own waste-disposal facilitiesand usually employ contractors from commercial firms

to pack and arrange for their transportation to be treatedat the integrated scheduled waste treatment and disposalfacility at Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd, Bukit Nenas, NegeriSembilan.

A Waste Management System ForChemical Laboratories

Four elements essential to any laboratory wastemanagement system are(1) commitment of laboratory’s high level executive to

good waste management,(2) a waste management plan(3) assigned responsibility for the waste management

system, and(4) practices to reduce the volume of waste generated in

the chemical laboratory.

The support to the implementation of the wastemanagement plan must be continuous involvement ofpersonnel at all levels including laboratory managers,supervisors, personnel and safety and health unit. Writtenpolicies and procedures should be prepared to cover allphases of waste handling, from generation to ultimatesafe and environmentally acceptable disposal. This planshould preferably be reviewed at regular intervals. The

featu

re

Laboratory ChemicalWaste Management

T H E I N G E N I E U R 51

waste management unit is responsible for setting up,maintaining, and inspecting waste accumulation sites, fordisposal of waste and for providing advice and training.Integral to the plan are policies and practices directedtowards reducing the volume of waste generated in thelaboratory such as planning of every experiment withconsideration of waste reduction, reduction of the scaleof experiments, control of accumulation of excess reagentsor chemicals and prevention of the occurrence of orphanreaction mixtures (those generated by workers who havedeparted from the laboratory, leaving unidentifiedmaterials behind).

Identification, Classification, Segegration AndStorage Of Chemical Laboratory Wastes

The laboratory worker must decide if the material is nolonger needed. It does not become a waste unless adecision is made to discard it. The typical laboratorywastes are:(1) contaminated rags and gloves(2) expired and/or used chemicals and solvents(3) chemical spillage(4) used and/or expired laboratory samples and(5) empty contaminated /chemical containers.

Laboratory wastes must be segregated by wasteclassification at the point of generation. Every effort shouldbe made to avoid creating wastes which fall into multipleclassifications; such “mixed wastes” may be impossibleto dispose. The general waste classification groups of theKualiti Alam Sdn Bhd are divided into eight categories.They are

(i) Type A – Mineral oil wasteeg. lubricating oil, hydraulic oil.

(ii) Type B – Organic waste containing halogens and/or sulphur (>1%)eg. Freon, PVC wastes, chloroform, solventscontaining >1% halogen

(iii) Type C – Waste solvents without halogens and/orsulphur (<1%)eg. acetone, alcohols, benzene, turpentine, xylene

(iv) Type H – Organic chemical waste without halogensand/or sulphur (<1%)eg. glue, latex, paints, printing ink, soap

(v) Type K – Waste containing mercuryeg. mercury, vapour lamps, COD fluids, mercurybatteries

(vi) Type T – Pesticides wasteeg. insecticides, fungus and weedkillers, rat poisons

(vii) Type X – Inorganic wasteeg. acids, alkalis, inorganic salts, chromates andcyanides

(viii) Type Z – Miscellaneouseg. medicine waste, asbestos wastes, mineral sludge,batteries

Classes of wastes must be properly segregated fortemporary accumulation and storage as well as fortransportation and disposal. These wastes must beaccumulated in proper containers. All wastes must beproperly labelled. The label should contain sufficientinformation to assure safe handling and disposal, includingthe initial date of accumulation, chemical names of theprincipal components and of any minor components thatcould be hazardous and indication whether toxic, reactive,corrosive to skin or metal, inflammable, an inhalationhazard, or a lachrymator. The physical 3hazardous wastecharacteristics generally are as follows:

(i) Ignitability – Ignitable waste is capable of causingor intensifying a fire during routine handling andhas any of the following properties� It is a liquid, other than an aqueous solution

containing less than 24% alcohol by volumeand has a flash point less than 60oC (140oF), asdetermined by a Pensky-Martens Closed CupTester or Setaflash Closed Cup Tester;

� It is not a liquid and is capable, understandard temperature and pressure, of causingfire through friction, absorption of moisture, orspontaneous chemical changes, and whenignited, burns vigorously and persistently thatit creates hazard;

� It is an ignitable compressed gas;� It is an oxidiser

Examples include most organic solvents (acetone,benzene, ethyl ether, pentane, heptane, petroleumether, ethanol, hexane, toluene, ethyl acetate,methanol and xylene)

(ii) Corrosivity – Corrosive waste include highly acidicor highly alkaline chemicals that are capable ofcorroding metal and has either of the followingproperties:� It has an aqueous component and has a pH less

than or equal to 2, or greater than or equal to12.5, as determined by a pH meter.

� It has a liquid component and corrodes steel(SAE 1020) at a rate greater than 6.35mm (0.250inch) per year at a temperature of 55oC (130oF).

(iii) Reactivity - A waste exhibits the characteristic ofreactivity if� It is normally unstable and readily undergoes

violent change without detonating.� It reacts violently with water.� It forms potentially explosive mixtures with

water.� When mixed with water, it generates toxic gases,

vapours or fumes in a quantity sufficient topresent danger to human health or theenvironment.

featu

re

T H E I N G E N I E U R

� It is a cyanide or sulphide bearing waste which,when exposed to pH conditions between 2 and12.5 can generate generate toxic gases, vapoursor fumes in a quantity sufficient to presentdanger to human health or the environment.

� It is capable of detonation or explosive reactionif it is subjected to a strong initiating source orif heated under confinement

� It is readily capable of detonation or explosivedecomposition or reaction at standardtemperature and pressure.

� It is a forbidden explosive.

(iv) Toxicity – Toxicity is determined by the 3 “ToxicityCharacteristic Leaching Procedure” (TCLP), alaboratory test that measures the concentration ofthe toxic material that could leach into ground waterif improperly managed.

Chemical analysis on the composition andcharacteristics of the wastes is more practical andimportant for a large-volume industrial waste that isbeing generated on a regular basis than it is for the smallvolumes of the chemical diverse wastes generated in thelaboratory. Containers of waste chemicals collected fromindividual laboratories before being treated or disposedmust often be placed in a temporary storage facility inor near the laboratory located away from high workdensity but close enough to be useful and for propersurveillance and security to be accorded. Temporarystorage times should be kept as short as possible. Thefacility is designed for total containment with as littleas possible release to the environment with goodventilation and protected from adverse weather.Segregation of incompatible materials in a storage area

is essential. The term “incompatible chemicals” refers tochemicals that can react with each other(i) violently,(ii) with evolution of substantial heat,(iii) to produce inflammable products, or,(iv) to produce toxic products. Incompatible chemicals

should not put in the same container; segregationof their containers, though desirable, is not alwaysrequired.

Recovery, Recycling, Reuse And DisposalInto The Sanitary System

One intent of hazardous waste management is toencourage the recovery, recycling, or reuse of materialsthat would otherwise become wastes. It is carried out tothe extent that chemicals can be recovered, recycled orreused safely at costs less than costs of disposal as wastesuch as recovery of valuable metals (eg. mercury, silveror noble metals), recovery of solvents of low contaminantsby distillation, exchange of unneeded chemicals or theuse of unneeded chemicals as fuels.

The best approach to chemical waste management isnot to produce waste, to produce less waste or to producewaste of reduced hazard. Waste minimisation can beapproached by following the guidelines:(i) Inventory your chemicals: An inventory will prevent

you from ordering more than what you have.(ii) Order what you need: The economy of larger sizes

may be offset by the cost of disposing of yourexcess. Borrow small amounts from otherlaboratories.

(iii) Use recycled chemicals whenever possible: Have anon-going secondhand chemical programme forusable but unwanted chemicals.

featu

re

52

T H E I N G E N I E U R

(iv) Substitute with non-hazardous or less hazardousmaterials: There are many non-hazardoussubstitutes for commonly used chemicals, such aschromic acid. Other alternatives may be much lesstoxic.

(v) Do not mix hazardous and non-hazardous waste:Non-hazardous waste, when mixed with hazardouswaste, will become hazardous itself and will increasethe volume. Likewise, high concentration wasteshould not be mixed with low concentration waste.

Besides wastes sent to Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd, thereare alkaline, acid and water miscible wastes that can betreated on-site and rendered innocuous before theirdisposal. Organic compounds that are reasonably solublein water are suitable for drain disposal. Highly malodoroussubstances should not be put down the drain. In general,a water-soluble material containing a water-insolublesubstance (more that 2% of the mixture) should not bedrain disposed. Mineral acids and alkalis are preferablyneutralised before drain disposal. Some laboratories allowdrain disposal by flushing them down with excess water.The laboratory drain system can be separated from thesanitary system with these drains feeding intoneutralisation pits whose effluents then feed into the sewersystems. Laboratory procedures such as carbon adsorption,elementary neutralisation, evaporation, filtration andseparation are some of the activities that can assist inreducing the generation of hazardous wastes in chemicallaboratories. Carbon adsorption binds soluble and gaseoussubstances to a surface such as activated carbon withoutaltering them chemically. It generally produces two wastes- a treated effluent and a spent residual. Evaporation isallowed when inorganic waste mixed with water is treated.Filtration is primarily used to remove undissolved heavymetals present in suspended solids. Separation includesthose processes that separate solids from liquids andseparate liquids of different densities. Elementaryneutralisation is a process used to adjust the pH of asubstance between 6 and 10.

Safety In Handling Of Laboratory ChemicalWastes And Emergency Procedures

Exposure to laboratory wastes containing hazardousand toxic chemicals can pose a serious threat to the healthof the laboratory personnel involved. This can occur byinhalation of vapour or dust, absorption through the skinfrom contaminated clothing, spillage on benches, floorsor apparatus and ingestion from contaminated hands, foodor smoking. Personnel should be made aware of thepotential hazard of the waste, about the limitations of thepersonal protective equipment and safety procedures forhandling waste. Personal protective equipment to be usedwhen handling hazardous and toxic wastes include (i)impervious gloves (neoprene, nitrile or polythene gloves);(ii) laboratory coats, aprons or coveralls; (iii) laboratory

safety glasses or goggles or full-face shield; (iv) boots;and (v) an approved respirator. These personal protectiveequipment should be properly stored preferably adjacentto the work area. Laboratory coats should be removedbefore leaving the laboratory and should not be worn inrooms designated for eating and drinking.

Accidental skin contact with toxic waste materialsshould be treated immediately by rinsing the affected partsin cold running water for at least five minutes, followedby thorough washing with warm soapy water. If necessary,the persons should shower and change their clothes andshoes. In case of eye splash, the may be necessary to forcewater into the eye to ensure it is thoroughly irrigated.Medical advice should be sought. All persons in thelaboratory should be evacuated immediately if there is amajor spill of a toxic waste or if a fire or explosion occurs.In the event of a spillage, properly equipped and trainedpersons should be assigned to adequately contain andclean up the spill. For a minor spill, confine and containthe spill by covering with appropriate absorbent material,sweeping solid material into a dustpan and placing in asealed plastic container. Decontaminate the area with soapand water after cleanup and place residue in a plastic bagor sealed plastic container to be disposed.

Conclusion

The 2Guidelines on the Disposal of Chemical Wastesfrom Laboratories would provide information on the propertechniques of handling chemical laboratory wastes and itssubsequent disposal in such a manner that will not degradethe environment nor endanger health and safety. UnderRegulation 7(1), 5Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste)Regulation 2005, a waste generator may apply to theDirector-General, in writing, to exclude the scheduled wastesgenerated from a particular facility or process from beingtreated, disposed of or recovered at the prescribed premises.The general requirements for the application are describedin 3Guidelines for the Application of Special Managementof Scheduled Waste which is currently in the drafting stage.

BEM

featu

re

1. Prudent Practices for Disposal of Chemicals fromLaboratories; National Academy Press :Washington, 1983

2. Guidelines on the Disposal of Chemical WastesFrom Laboratories, Department of EnvironmentMalaysia, First Edition, 2000

3. Guidelines for the Application of SpecialManagement of Scheduled Waste, Department ofEnvironment, Draft August 2005

4. Hazardous Waste Management Guide, IndianaUniversity Office of Environmental, Health andSafety Management, September 2001

5. Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes)Regulation 2005

REFERENCES

53

T H E I N G E N I E U R

The Role OfA Concessionaire InSolid Waste Management

The Role OfA Concessionaire InSolid Waste Management

54

By Alam Flora Sdn Bhd

Up to the mid 1990s, solid wastemanagement was handledlargely by local authorities,

with overall management andestablishment of disposal sitesoverseen by the State Governments.Local authorities, or LAs had thepower to appoint their owncontractors to operate the solid wastemanagement business in their area.

As a result the quality of solidwaste management differed widelybetween LAs, with wealthier LAsbeing able to provide a much betterstandard of service. The poorer oneshad to make do with smallercontractors who were neither able tomeet proper environmental protectionstandards nor afford proper wastemanagement equipment.

This variance in the quality ofservice meant that, in some areas,waste management became a seriousproblem to the public’s well being.

Establishment

In 1995, the Government decidedto privatise solid waste managementin Malaysia. The Peninsular wasdivided into four Concession Areas –Northern, comprising Perlis, Kedah,Penang and Perak; Central,comprising Selangor and the FederalTerritory of Kuala Lumpur; Eastern,comprising Pahang, Kelantan andTrengganu; and Southern, consistingof Johor, Negeri Sembilan andMalacca.

Over 80 companies and consortiabid for the contracts. Alam Flora SdnBhd, a company formed by aconsortium led by the then HICOMGroup of companies, was awarded theconcession for the Central and EasternRegions. Southern WasteManagement won the Southernconcession and Northern Waste

Management won the Northernconcession.

The initial plan was for the threeconcession winners to sign theConcession Agreement, or CA, withthe federal Government in 1997.However, the Asian Financial Crisisled to a postponement of the signing,and the three concessionaires entereda period of Interim Solid WasteManagement.

Interim SolidWaste Management

Alam Flora has already taken overthe solid waste management or SWMfrom most of the LAs in Selangor,Pahang and Kuala Lumpur, althoughwaste management in Kelantan andTrengganu remains in the hands ofthe LAs. When Putrajaya was opened,it also came under the scope of AlamFlora operations. In keeping with itsimage as the new administrative hubfor the country, the highest standardsof service are applied to all operationsconcerning solid waste management.

The scope of services provided byAlam Flora varies between LAs. Thecompany provides domestic wastecollection services in most LAs inSelangor, Pahang and Kuala Lumpur.In some cases, clearing illegal dumpsalso falls under the scope of servicesprovided.

The interval between services alsovaries between LAs as some specify athree week interval between grasscutting, and some may specify a sixweek interval. Where possible, AlamFlora is trying to standardise all theseservices between LAs.

Taking Over Operations

As part of the ConcessionAgreement, Alam Flora was obliged

to take over and absorb both the SWMworkers and equipment from the LAs.In keeping with the new status ofSWM as a privatised service, all theabsorbed workers were given payincrements to bring them up to parwith the market wages for workers inthe private sector.

This absorption exercise was notwithout its drawbacks, as thecompany found itself with a pool ofageing workers and equipment thatrequired frequent attention andservicing.

Through judiciously exercisingsmart Human Resource policies,several HR issues have largely beenovercomed. The overall Alam Floraworkforce, especially at the generalworker level is more efficient andcustomer oriented than it was beforethe takeover.

The problem of ageing vehicleshowever, is a much more difficultobstacle. With a new compactorcosting over RM250,000, thecompany is in a position where it canonly replace vehicles on an absolutepriority basis.

However, Alam Flora has put intoplace an efficient maintenancescheme to prolong the useful lives ofthese vehicles so that only thosevehicles that absolutely requirereplacing are replaced with new ones.Replacing ageing equipment is apriority for the company, as this willallow for a higher degree of serviceto the public.

In order to allow assets such asvehicles and personnel to be utilisedacross the boundaries of LA areas,Alam Flora operations are organisedinto 11 Service Areas (SA), with oneSA covering between one and fourLA areas This allows surplus vehiclesobtained from one LA to be used toservice other LAs in the SA without

featu

re

Series 1

T H E I N G E N I E U R

8

6

7

5

4

3

2

1

featu

re

55

the need to purchase extra vehiclesor hire new personnel.

Even with the financial restrictionsthat the company finds itself under,customer service and satisfaction, aswell as efficient service remainpriorities. As such, the company hasembarked on a drive to increase theefficiency and cost effectiveness of allits major services.

Improved Services

Customer ServiceTo enable customers to reach

Alam Flora at any time, Alam Florahas implemented a series of steps tofacilitate customer communication,including a toll-free-line, SMS serviceand e-mail address for customerservice. Alam Flora has established adedicated customer service centre,located at our headquarters, whichsupports the toll-free-line, SMS serviceand customer e-mail responses. Thebenchmark for answering complaine-mails is half-an-hour on workingdays, and the deadline for handlingthe complaint on site is 24 hours. Thisis a great improvement from the timeprior to Alam Flora’s takeover of SWMservices.

Route OptimisationWith cost effectiveness and

maximum operations efficiency asdriving factors, Alam Flora turned toits Geographic Information System(GIS) section to begin the process ofcollection route optimisation. Usingportable Global Positioning System(GPS) equipment, existing collectionroutes were mapped and uploadedinto the GIS software. From this rawdata, and with the assistance ofexisting road maps, the GIS sectionwas able to map the best collectionroutes available. In many cases, thecompany was able to reduce thenumber of compactors servicing anygiven area, thus ensuring maximumvehicle utilisation, and minimisingthe impact of vehicle exhaustemissions on the environment. Thesurplus vehicles could then be utilisedas reserve for emergency cases, oreven utilised for servicing industrialcustomers.

Improved Worker SafetyAlam Flora’s workers are provided

with a complete personal protective

equipment kit, including safety shoes,gloves and reflective vest for useduring operations. These items havehelped reduce the number of minoraccidents that occur at any giventime, and has helped the companyreduce losses due to these accidents.

Standardised Collection VehiclesAll of Alam Flora’s in house

collection for domestic waste utilisescompactor trucks. These replace theold system where contractors usedany vehicles they wanted to collectthe domestic waste, whether or notthey were actually suited to the taskat hand. While some of the sub-contractors are still using open trucksto collect waste, especially insquatter areas where the roads aretoo narrow for compactors, by andlarge domestic waste is collectedusing compactors, which reduce theincidence of waste spillage andleachate leakage. The compactortrucks also reduce the number of tripsneeded to service any given area, asthey can carry much more than opentrucks of equivalent size. Thisreduces the impact of vehicleemissions on the environment.

RecyclingPrior to the takeover, there had

been a few unsuccessful attempts tointegrate recycling into the otheraspects of solid waste management.Alam Flora has initiated a series ofprogrammes that target various levelsof society from school children toadults, through our school,community, office and otherprogrammes. We have establishedcommunity recycling centres atseveral popular shopping malls toenable people to recycle while theyshop. A high priority for us iseducating the next generation, andour school programmes are verysuccessful, over 700 schoolsparticipating in the KitS programmeover the past five years.

In addition, the pioneer house-to-house recycling programme inMalaysia using colour coded plasticbags has been implemented inPutrajaya. Colour coded plastic bagsfor different types of recyclables havebeen distributed to residents inPutrajaya, and collection of therecycled items is handled by adedicated team and vehicles.

Public Education ProgrammesAs integrated solid waste

management is impossible withoutthe support and participation of thepublic, Alam Flora has embarked ona long term education drive to gainthe public’s buy-in. This driveincludes weekly columns in majordailies, spots on-air with major radiostations as well as seminars, talks andforums with the public. The effort hasalready borne fruit, as there has beena gradual shift in the public’sperception of Alam Flora. The public,by and large, is confident that theycome first in the company’s books,and are broadly appreciative of theseefforts to make their environmentcleaner.

Worker MoraleAlam Flora introduced a

programme whereby the publicwould be able to nominateoutstanding SWM workers for anaward. This programme encouragedthe public to get to know the SWMworkers in their area. While before,SWM workers were largely ignored,now they were becoming known tothe members of the community. Thisappreciation by the public has raisedworker morale, and reduced theincidence of absenteeism among theworkforce. This programme, calledthe Customer Choice Awards has wonrecognition from several prestigiousinstitutions.

Environmental MonitoringStandardsAlam Flora maintains a dedicated

Environmental ManagementDepartment, responsible for, amongothers, monitoring theenvironmental impact of thecompany’s waste managementfacilities, obtaining and maintainingISO14000 certification for selectedcompany activities, and liaison withthe Department of Environment.

Standards of al l the wastedisposal facilities managed by AlamFlora have been upgraded, and newlandfil l cel ls are constructedutilising proven technology toensure that the impact to theenvironment is minimised. Strictmonitoring is also enforced on thecompany’s vehicles to ensureenvironmental impacts are reducedto a minimum. BEM