KOMPONEN ALAM SEKITAR

Aspek perbincangan tentang alam sekitar melibatkan beberapa perkara yang menjadi komponen alam sekitar, iaitu bumi, manusia, tumbuh-tumbuhan, haiwan, air, tanah dan udara. Anda boleh membaca tentang komponen-komponen ini di dalam bab-bab seterusnya. Di sini diberikan sedikit maklumat awal tentang komponen alam sekitar sekadar pengenalan.

Bumi

Ahli pengkaji angkasa lepas menganggarkan bahawa usia bumi dalam lingkungan 4,600 juta tahun. Menurut satu teori, bumi terjadi melalui pengumpulan pelbagai bahan atau jisim yang terapung-terapung di angkasa selepas berlakunya satu letupan yang amat besar sekitar 15,000 juta tahun lalu. Teori ini dinamakan ‘Teori Big Bang’. Hasil letupan tersebut, maka terwujudlah juga planet lain, bintang, bulan dan sebagainya. Ada kuasa seperti kuasa graviti yang menarik bahan-bahan apungan ini untuk membentuk bintang dan planet. Sehingga hari ini beribu juta jisim di angkasa atau kosmos mampu kekal di dalam lingkungan atau orbit masing-masing, tanpa berlanggar atau berlawanan dengan arah pusingan. Bagi orang Islam, pasti ada Tuhan Yang Maha Kuasa yang mengendalikan perjalanan jisim-jisim di kosmos dengan teratur.

Contohnya, di dalam galaksi Bima Sakti, jutaan jisim kosmos wujud dalam keadaan yang mantap. Anda sendiri boleh lihat keadaan ini jika anda mendongak ke langit di malam yang terang. Pemandangan yang sangat indah dan mengkagumkan ini lebih jelas dilihat dari kawasan tanah tinggi seperti bukit atau gunung. Pengkaji bintang atau ahli astronomi sering membina tapak pemerhatian atau balai cerap di bukit-bukit untuk meninjau ciri dan pergerakan jisim kosmos dengan menggunakan teropong besar atau teleskop.

Pengembaraan ke angkasa lepas yang dilakukan sama ada oleh kapal angkasa yang dipandu manusia atau sebaliknya, seperti satelit, memberi banyak maklumat tentang bumi. Bumi umpama sebuah oasis yang terletak di tengah-tengah alam semesta yang luas terbentang. Gambar bumi yang diambil dari angkasa lepas jelas membuktikan betapa rapuhnya planet ini.

Umpamanya, satu lapisan gas yang dinamakan ozon (setiap molekul ozon mengandungi tiga atom oksigen). Lapisan ozon menapis sinar ultra-lembayung cahaya matahari yang berbahaya daripada sampai ke bumi. Kajian di awal tahun 1980 an mendapati sesetengah tempat di mukabumi seperti Antartika, dilindungi lapisan ozon yang semakin menipis. Penjumpaan ini kemudiannya dipastikan melalui kajian yang dilakukan dari satelit yang dilancarkan ke angkasa. Sehingga hari ini, kajian penipisan lapisan ozon masih diteruskan.

Manusia

Tahukah anda berapa ramai penduduk dunia pada hari ini? Penduduk dunia kini lebih kurang 6 bilion orang. Kadar peningkatan penduduk dunia lebih kurang suku juta orang setiap hari. Dengan kadar ini, dianggarkan apabila Malaysia mencapai taraf negara maju dalam tahun 2020, penduduk dunia meningkat hampir 10 bilion orang. Soalnya, adakah bumi ini mampu menampung bilangan penduduk yang begitu ramai? Jawapannya, boleh, tetapi dengan syarat mesti ada taburan penduduk yang lebih seimbang. Negara-negara mundur dan sedang membangun kini mempunyai bilangan penduduk terlalu ramai. Kadar peningkatan penduduk negara-negara ini juga adalah yang tertinggi. Keupayaan menyediakan makanan dan keperluan asas di negara-negara ini amat terhad. Justeru, kita mendengar kisah kebuluran, kekurangan tempat tinggal dan wabak penyakit sering berlaku di dalam masyarakat seperti ini. Taburan penduduk yang lebih seimbang boleh menyediakan kehidupan yang lebih selesa bagi seluruh penduduk dunia.

Berapa ramaikah pula penduduk di negara ini? Di Malaysia terdapat 26 juta orang penduduk. Sebenarnya bukan kuantiti manusia yang dipertikaikan, tetapi kualiti mereka. Manusia mempunyai tanggungjawab yang berat di dunia. Sebagai makhluk yang diberi akal dan keupayaan mental yang tinggi berbanding makhluk lain yang hidup di bumi, maka manusia berperanan sebagai khalifah. Tuhan menganugerahkan alam ini kepada manusia untuk dikongsi bersama dengan haiwan dan tumbuh-tumbuhan. Manusia hanya satu daripada jutaan jenis atau spesis makhluk hidup yang lain. Semunya ciptaan Tuhan Yang Maha Kuasa.

Haiwan

Haiwan adalah makhluk ciptaan tuhan dan terdapat berjuta-juta spesis haiwan wujud di dunia ini. Secara umum haiwan boleh dibahagikan kepada dua kumpulan, iaitu haiwan liar dan haiwan ternakan. Haiwan ternakan dijadikan sumber makanan atau diberi tugas khusus seperti haiwan pengangkut barang, haiwan tunggangan, penjaga rumah atau haiwan kesayangan. Setiap haiwan mesti dijaga dengan baik dan sempurna. Haiwan yang dihalalkan untuk dimakan, perlu disembelih dengan sempurna terlebih dahulu. Kaedah menjaga haiwan juga mesti diutamakan dengan mengambil-kira bahawa haiwan adalah amanah yang dipertanggungjawabkan kepada manusia. Kebajikan haiwan juga perlu dijaga kerana ia juga mempunyai naluri serta boleh merasai kesakitan . Haiwan juga kerap hidup sebagai sebuah masyarakat. Ada pertalian antara ibu dan anak. Jadi perkara-perkara ini mestilah diberi perhatian oleh penternak atau penjaga haiwan.

Haiwan liar juga mempunyai hak. Banyak spesis haiwan yang telah atau hampir pupus, akibat perbuatan manusia. Aktiviti pemburuan yang tidak terkawal boleh menjejaskan kewujudan sesetengah jenis haiwan. Umpamanya, beberapa jenis ikan paus mungkin pupus kerana sering diburu oleh nelayan dilautan luas. Beberapa jenis burung helang juga turut terancam. Justeru, banyak spesis haiwan yang diwartakan sebagai haiwan terlindung, dalam usaha untuk mengelakkan kepupusan dan menggalakkan pembiakan.

Nabi Muhammad s.a.w. menyatakan bahawa berbuat baik terhadap binatang sama pahalanya seperti berbuat baik terhadap manusia, dan berbuat kejam kepada binatang sama dosanya seperti berbuat kejam terhadap manusia. Baginda Rasullulah s.a.w. sendiri menyediakan sebuah kawasan rehat untuk kuda perang yang berukuran satu batu lebar dan enam batu panjang yang terletak di sekeliling kota Madinah. Kawasan ini diberi nama hema.

Khalifah Islam pertama selepas Nabi Muhammad s.a.w., Saidina Abu Bakar As-Siddiq pernah menasihati askar-askar yang akan berperang akan tidak memusnahkan tumbuh-tumbuhan dan membunuh haiwan kecuali untuk dijadikan makanan. Seorang cendekiawan Islam di kurun ke-8, al-Jahiz telah menulis sebuah buku bertajuk Buku tentang Haiwan. Buku ini membincangkan tingkah-laku haiwan dan pengaruh alam sekitar terhadap kehidupan haiwan. Sebuah buku lain tentang hak-hak haiwan telah ditulis oleh Izzah-Din Abd as-Salam dalam kurun ke-13.

Tumbuh-tumbuhan

Pernahkah anda melihat gambar pemandangan dipadang pasir? Apakah perasaan anda jika terpaksa hidup di kawasan padang pasir yang panas dan tanpa tumbuh-tumbuhan ? Kehidupan di situ pasti sukar. Tiada pokok untuk berteduh dan tiada sungai sebagai sumber bekalan air. Kita bernasib baik kerana Tuhan Yang Maha Kuasa telah mengurniakan pelbagai jenis tumbuh-tumbuhan di Malaysia.

Tahukah anda bahawa satu pertiga tanah di permukaan bumi ini ditumbuhi oleh tumbuh-tumbuhan. Fungsi tumbuh-tumbuhan ialah menyamankan cuaca, melindungi bekalan air dan menjadi tempat haiwan dan manusia berteduh. Tumbuh-tumbuhan juga menjadi sumber makanan manusia dan haiwan. Tumbuh-tumbuhan adalah satu-satunya makhluk Tuhan yang mampu berdikari membuat makanan sendiri. Daun menyerap karbon dioksida dan membebaskan oksigen. Tindakan ini menyebabkan kandungan gas dalam

udara seimbang. Justeru, suhu dan cuaca dunia terkawal. Selain itu, tumbuh-tumbuhan juga adalah sumber ubat-ubatan semula jadi. Contohnya, 2,000 dari 3,000 pokok yang dipercayai mempunyai kesan menyembuh kanser diperolehi dari hutan Amazon di Amerika Selatan.

Menurut undang-undang Islam, sesetengah kawasan hutan, termasuk haiwan liar didalamnya, diiktiraf sebagai hutan simpan. Hutan simpan ialah kawasan terlindung. Kawasan ini biasanya meliputi hutan dan kawasan sekitarnya yang menjadi tempat tumpuan akar-akar pohon hutan mendapatkan air. Bagi kawasan terbangun seperti sebuah kampung, hutan simpan merangkumi kawasan persekitarannya yang menjadi sumber rezeki atau tempat bersiar-siar dan berehat.

Tanah

Tanah membentuk 30 peratus permukaan bumi. Bukan semua tanah mampu menampung kehidupan dengan mudah. Satu pertiga keluasan tanah dunia terdiri daripada padang pasir dan tanah yang kering kontang. Lebih kurang satu persepuluh kawasan tanah lagi sentiasa dipenuhi ais seperti sebahagian besar Kutub Utara (Artik) dan Kutub Selatan (Antartik). Satu persepuluh kawasan tanah yang lain membentuk kawasan tundra yang sukar didiami. Justeru, kurang daripada separuh keluasan tanah di mukabumi yang boleh digunakan untuk penempatan manusia, pertanian dan perladangan, atau dikekalkan sebagai hutan simpan.

Terdapat kira-kira 329 juta hektar daratan kawasan daratan di bumi ini. Walau bagaimanapun hanya 226 juta hektar tanah sahaja yang sesuai untuk didiami atau dijalankan aktiviti pertanian. Baki 103 juta hektar tanah lagi terlalu kering atau sukar diterokai. Walaupun 71 peratus permukaan bumi diliputi air, namun 97 peratus daripadanya merupakan air masin dan tidak boleh digunakan untuk kehidupan manusia, haiwan dan tumbuh-tumbuhan.

Selain menjadi tempat pergantungan tumbuh-tumbuhan dan haiwan, tanah juga menjadi sumber bahan semulajadi. Sumber ini mungkin sedia wujud dipermukaan tanah seperti garam, antimoni dan gala-gala. Didalam tanah pula terdapat pelbagi galian lain, termasuk bijih timah, emas dan perak. Sesetengah kawasan kaya dengan sumber fosil seperti minyak petrol. Sumber tanah biasanya dianggap milik negara dan faedahnya dikongsi oleh semua penduduk secara adil.

Di zaman ini terdapat pelbagai program yang dijalankan bagi menambah keluasan tanah untuk tujuan pembangunan. Memandangkan bekalan tanah semakin berkurangan, maka usaha ditumpukan kearah menebusguna tanah dikawasan tepi pantai, bekas lombong atau padang pasir. Kaedah ini dikenali sebagai al-mawat dan dibenarkan selagi ianya tidak mendatangkan bahaya dan kerosakan kepada masyarakat dan alam sekitar.

Projek penebusgunaan tanah telah dijalankan di Utara Jakarta (8,750 hektar), pantai Barat Taiwan (2,200 hektar), Pulau Jurung di Singapura (1,790 hektar), Lapangan Terbang Kansai di Jepun (511 hektar) dan Lapangan Terbang Chek Lap Kok di Hong Kong (200 hektar). Dalam masa beberapa tahun akan datang kawasan seluas 97,000 hektar akan ditebusguna di sepanjang pantai Malaysia sejauh 4,800 kilometer. Perak dan Selangor masing-masing akan menebusguna 6,804 hektar dan 4,047 hektar tanah di sepanjang pantai. Usaha menebusguna tanah juga akan dilakukan di 210,000 hektar bekas tanah lombong di seluruh Malaysia. Tanah yang ditebusguna akan menjadi tapak pertanian, akuakultur, perumahan, perindustrian, pelancongan dan pembangunan infrastruktur seperti lapangan terbang dan jambatan.

Air

Pernahkah anda terfikir bahawa sebahagian besar tubuh manusia terdiri daripada air. Bumi yang dilihat dari angkasa lepas juga nampak seperti sebuah planet yang dipenuhi air, kerana 71 peratus permukaannya dipenuhi lautan, sungai dan tasik. Namun

demikian, 97 peratus daripadanya air masin dan tidak boleh digunakan untuk kehidupan manusia, haiwan dan tumbuh-tumbuhan. Kebanyakan air tawar yang sesuai untuk diminum wujud beku di Kutub Utara dan Kutub Selatan. Baki air yang boleh diminum terdapat jauh di dalam tanah. Sebenarnya, hanya 0.6 peratus dari air di mukabumi ini tersedia untuk dikongsi bersama oleh haiwan dan manusia. Walaupun peratusnya rendah, tetapi jumlahnya agak besar. Dianggarkan bahawa setiap tahun 113,000 bilion meter padu air hujan dan salji jatuh ke bumi. Perkara ini adalah salah satu kurniaan Tuhan yang paling penting.

Namun demikian, masalah kekurangan air terus berlaku. Hampir 2 bilion penduduk dunia dari 80 buah negara mengalami kekurangan air secara berterusan. Pernahkan bekalan air ke rumah anda terputus? Pastinya pernah. Tentu anda dapat merasai betapa sukar untuk hidup tanpa air. Bayangkan rakan-rakan di negara lain di dunia yang saban hari ketandusan air. Punca air juga tidak menentu. Kadang-kadang mereka terpaksa berjalan berbatu-batu setiap hari untuk mendapatkan air. Kita di Malaysia hanya perlu membuka paip dan air keluar mencurah-curah.

Selain masalah kekurangan air, pencemaran air juga semakin menjadi-jadi. Setiap hari dianggarkan 25,000 orang dijangkiti penyakit kerana menggunakan air yang tidak bersih. Air ini dicemari oleh sampah-sarap, najis dan sisa toksid industri dan pertanian. Sebahagian daripada air sungai yang tercemar mengalir dari sebuah negara ke sebuah negara yang berjiran. Penduduk di situ mungkin menggunakan air tercemar tadi untuk tujuan membersih tubuh, membasuh pakaian, sebagai air minuman dan menyediakan makanan. Jadi tidak hairanlah jika mereka terdedah kepada pelbagai jenis penyakit yang berpunca dari air. Setiap tahun dianggarkan 20 bilion tan air kotor mengalir dari tasik dan sungai ke laut. Oleh itu sumber makanan di laut juga turut tercemar dan menjejaskan kehidupan penduduk di kawasan pantai yang bergantung kepada perikanan.

Udara

Ingatkah anda tentang jerebu yang melanda negara pertengahan tahun 1997? Bagaimanakah keadaan udara yang disedut pada ketika itu? Pasti anda masih ingat rasa kurang selesa di tekak apabila menyedut udara berjerebu, bukan! Sebenarnya, udara bersih adalah sebahagian komponen penting alam sekitar. Atmosfera bumi terdiri daripada gas-gas seperti nitrogen, oksigen, karbon dioksida dan lain-lain. Kandungan gas-gas ini perlu kekal dalam komposisi tertentu. Jika tidak manusia tidak dapat hidup dengan selesa. Umpamanya oksigen merangkumi 21 peratus udara, nitrogen 78 peratus dan karbon dioksida 0.03 peratus. Kandungan oksigen di dalam udara semakin kurang jika semakin tinggi kita mendaki gunung atau terbang di angkasa. Kekurangan oksigen boleh menyebabkan manusia sesak nafas atau pitam. Pernahkan anda mengalami keadaan ini ketika mendaki bukit atau gunung? Oleh sebab itu maka pendaki gunung, seperti kumpulan pendaki Malaysia yang menawan Gunung Everest dalam tahun 1997, terpaksa memebawa bekalan oksigen sendiri. Mereka bernafas menggunakan oksigen di dalam tangki kerana kandungan oksigen di persekitaran terlalu rendah.

Udara sekarang terdedah kepada pelbagai pencemaran. Gas toksid dari pembakaran bahanapi dan aktiviti perkilangan yang tidak sistematik dan terkawal, telah banyak mencemarkan udara kita. Gas-gas seperti karbon dioksida, methana dan klorofluorokarbon membentuk halangan yang mampu meninggikan suhu permukaan bumi. Kesan yang dikenali sebagai kesan ‘rumah hijau’ ini menyebabkan fenomena pemanasan global. Para saintis menjangkakan suhu bumi akan meningkat secara purata dalam masa 50 tahun akan datang. Peningkatan suhu ini boleh mencairkan salji di Kutub Utara dan Kutub Selatan dan menyebabkan banjir di kawsan tanah rendah.

Satu lagi masalah yang timbul akibat pembebasan gas toksid, seperti klorofluorokarbon, ialah proses penipisan lapisan ozon. Lapisan ozon yang menyelubungi atmosfera bertindak sebagai pemantul sinaran ultra-lembayung cahaya matahari. Sinaran ini

berbahaya kerana boleh menyebabkan ketidakselesaan dan barah kulit kepada manusia. Jadi penipisan ozon menyebabkan atmosfera semakin telus kepada sinaran ultra-lembayung. Usaha telah diambil agar penggunaan klorofluorokarbon akan dimansuhkan menjelangkan tahun 2000.

Masalah jerebu yang pernah melanda negara pada pertengahan 1997 juga telah menyebabkan tahap kebersihan udara berada di paras tidak memuaskan. Indeks kualiti udara di kebanyakan bandar utama amat membimbangkan. Pelbagai usaha telah diambil bagi menangani masalah ini. Oleh itu rakyat negara ini mesti peka dengan isu-isu yang boleh memburukkan lagi keadaan jerebu, seperti pembakaran secara terbuka dan bekerjasama mengamalkan cara hidup yang selamat dengan tidak mencemarkan alam sekitar.

KESIMPULAN

Bumi dan alam sekitar adalah ciptaan Tuhan Yang Maha Kuasa. Manusia dijadikan Tuhan untuk menjaga alam sekitar yang telah diamanahkan kepada kita. Alam sekitar ini juga kita ‘pinjam’ dari generasi akan datang. Justeru, sebelum kita meninggalkan dunia ini, kita mesti mempastikan bahawa kita mengembalikan semula bumi dan alam sekitar kepada mereka dalam keadaan yang sebaik-baiknya.

“Dan Dialah yang menjadikan langit dan bumi dengan sebenarnya, dan pada hari Tuhan menyatakan: “ jadilah engkau”, maka jadilah dia. Perkataan-Nya adalah benar, dan Dia mempunyai kerajaan pada hari serunai sangkakala itu ditiupkan. Dia mengetahui perkara ghaib dan yang kelihatan, dan dia adalah Maha Bijaksana lagi Maha Mengetahui.Maksud ayat al-Quran, Surah al-An ‘am 6:73.

“Dan tidaklah Kami menciptakan langit dan bumi dan apa yang ada di antara keduanya untuk permainan. Dan tidaklah keduanya kami jadikan melainkan dengan tujuan yang benar”.Maksud ayat al-Quran, Surah ad-Dukhan 44:38-39.

Pendidikan Alam Sekitar - Presentation Transcript

1. PENDIDIKAN APA KHABAR ALAM Hai, apa khabar alamku masih ceriakah seperti semalam masih anggunkah seperti dulu dengan pepohon menghijau dengan anak-anak sungai mengalir jernih dengan udara yang bersih membuatkan aku senang, menjadikan mereka girang, dada kami lapang menghela nafas siang dan malam. RM/jks/jun2004

2. ANUGERAH RM/jks/jun2004

3. FIRMAN ALLAH SWT •“Dan Dialah yang menjadikan langit dan bumi dengan sebenarnya, dan pada hari Tuhan menyatakan “jadilah engkau”, maka jadilah ia. Perkataan-Nya adalah benar dan Dia mempunyai kerajaan pada hari serunai sangkakala itu ditiupkan. Dia mengetahui perkara ghaib dan yang kelihatan, dan Dia adalah Maha Bijaksana lagi Maha Mengetahui”. (Maksud ayat al-Quran, surah al- An’am 6: 73) “Dan di bumi ini terdapat bahagian-bahagian yang berdampingan dan kebun- kebun anggur, tanam-tanaman dan pohon kurma yang bercabang dan yang tidak bercabang, disirami dengan air yang sama. Kami melebihkan sebahagian tanam-tanaman itu di atas sebahagian yang lain tentang rasanya. Sesungguhnya pada yang demikian itu terdapat tanda-tanda (kebesaran Allah) bagi kaum yang berfikir.” (Surah ar-Ra’ad – 4) RM/jks/jun2004

4. DASAR ALAM SEKITAR NEGARA KENYATAAN DASAR UNTUK MENERUSKAN KEMAJUAN EKONOMI, SOSIAL DAN BUDAYA SERTA PENINGKATAN KUALITI HIDUP RAKYAT MALAYSIA MENERUSI KESEJAHTERAAN ALAM SEKITAR DAN PEMBANGUNAN LESTARI RM/jks/jun2004

5. VISION 2020 “ensure that her invaluable resources are not wasted. The land must remain productive and fertile, the atmosphere clear and clean, the water unpolluted, the forest resources capable of regeneration, able to yield the needs of the national development. The beauty of the land must not be desecrated: for its own sake and for its economic advancement” RM/jks/jun2004

6. DEFINISI PENDIDIKAN ALAM SEKITAR P.A.S. ADALAH DIMENSI BARU DALAM SISTEM PENDIDIKAN YANG TERHASIL DI ATAS KERUMITAN DAN KEPERLUAN YANG MENDESAK TERHADAP MASAALAH ALAM SEKITAR (MUTHOKA, 1985) RM/jks/jun2004

7. DEFINISI PENDIDIKAN ALAM SEKITAR P.A.S. ADALAH BERTUJUAN UNTUK MENINGKATKAN PENGETAHUAN DAN KEFAHAMAN SESEORANG MENGENAI BAGAIMANA DUNIA BERFUNGSI DAN PERKAITANNYA DENGAN KEHIDUPAN UNTUK MEMUPUK SIKAP POSITIF UNTUK MEMILIH CARA HIDUP YANG BERTANGGUNGJAWAB MEMELIHARA DAN MEMULIHARA ALAM SEKITAR UNTUK MEWUJUDKAN SATU EKOSISTEM YANG BOLEH MENYOKONG KEHIDUPAN BERSIH, SIHAT, PRODUKTIF, SEIMBANG DAN TERJAMIN DISAMPING (PUSAT PERKEMBANGAN KURIKULUM DAN WORLD WIDE FUND FOR MALAYSIA, 1998) RM/jks/jun2004

8. DEFINISI PENDIDIKAN ALAM SEKITAR P.A.S. ADALAH SATU PROSES YANG BERPANJANGAN. IA ADALAH CARA UNTUK MELIHAT TENTANG PELBAGAI KEHIDUPAN YANG BERKAITAN BELAJAR MENGENALPASTI KESAN BAIK DAN BURUK TERHADAP FIZIKAL DAN TANGGUNGJAWAB YANG HARUS DITERIMA TERHADAP AKTIVITI ALAM (HUGHES, 1977) RM/jks/jun2004

9. SIGNIFIKAN PENDIDIKAN KEHIDUPAN YANG LESTARI HARUS DIJADIKAN POLA HIDUP BARU BAGI SEMUA PERINGKAT INDIVIDU, KOMUNITI, NEGARA DAN DUNIA. MENGADAPTASIKAN POLA TERSEBUT MEMERLUKAN PERUBAHAN SIKAP DAN AMALAN HIDUP MANUSIA. KITA PERLU MEMASTIKAN AGAR PROGRAM PENDIDIKAN DAPAT MENCERMINKAN KEPENTINGAN ETIKA UNTUK KEHIDUPAN YANG LESTARI. (CARING FOR EARTH (1991)-UNEP, WWF AND IUCN) RM/jks/jun2004

10. MEMBANTU MASYARAKATMATLAMAT PENDIDIKAN ALAM SEKITAR MENGUASAI KEMAHIRAN DANSARWAJAGAT MENYEDARI DAN MEMAHAMI ISU-ISU ALAM SEKITAR MEMBENTUK MASYARAKATKESUNGGUHAN DALAM MEMBANTU MENGATASI ISU ALAM SEKITAR YANG LEBIH PEKA DAN PRIHATIN TERHADAP ISI ALAM SEKITAR SUMBER: BUKU GARIS PANDUAN P.A.S. MERENTAS KURIKULUM KBSR/KBSM PPK;1998. RM/jks/jun2004

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14. (ASAS) RM/jks/jun2004

15. KOMPONEN ALAM SEKITAR • ALAM SEKITAR SEMULAJADI • ALAM SEKITAR BUATAN • ALAM SEKITAR SOSIO BUDAYA RM/jks/jun2004

16. – Ecology is the study of living organisms in relation to their environment. RM/jks/jun2004

17. • IALAH SEMUA KOMPONEN FIZIKAL, BIOLOGIKAL DAN PROSES SEMULAJADI ALAM. RM/jks/jun2004

18. ECOSYSTEMS A living organism interacts with its environment •ABIOTIC • BIOTIC (‘non-living’) factors (‘living’) factors e.g. • Predators Physical Climatic • Food -Oxygen and - temperature • Mates Carbon dioxide - humidity Concentration -Light intensity -Water availability RM/jks/jun2004

19. An ecosystem is all the living A community is all of organisms and the the population of living non-living factors in organisms in one area. a particular part of The community is the the environment biotic environment. A habitat is a part Air, water and soil of the environment make up the abiotic that can provide environment. food, shelter and a breeding site for a living organism (e.g. a patch of grassland) A population is all of the members of the same species in a particular area. RM/jks/jun2004

20. KITAR SEMULAJADI • KITAR KARBON • KITAR NITROGEN • KITAR HIDROLOGI RM/jks/jun2004

21. KITAR KARBON RM/jks/jun2004

22. PEMINDAHAN TENAGA DALAM RANTAI MAKANAN & SIRATAN MAKANAN RM/jks/jun2004

23. KITAR NITROGEN RM/jks/jun2004

24. KITAR HIDROLOGI RM/jks/jun2004

25. 3.0 ISU ALAM SEKITAR 3.1 JENIS ISU 1. PERTAMBAHAN PENDUDUK 2. PELUPUSAN SPESIS FLORA DAN FAUNA 3. PENEBANGAN HUTAN 4. PENGHAPUSAN PAYA 5. PENINGKATAN GURUN 6. HAKISAN TANAH 7. PENCEMARAN UDARA, 8. PENCEMARAN AIR 9. PENCEMARAN BUNYI 10.

PENCEMARAN TANAH 11. PEMANASAN BUMI / KESAN RUMAH HIJAU 12. KEKURANGAN BEKALAN SUMBER API, GALIAN DAN AIR 13. PEMENDAPAN ASID DI PERMUKAAN BUMI 14. PENIPISAN LAPISAN OZON RM/jks/jun2004

26. FIRMAN ALLAH SWT “ TELAH NAMPAK KEROSAKAN DI DARATAN DAN DI LAUTAN DISEBABKAN OLEH PERBUATAN TANGAN MANUSIA, SUPAYA ALLAH MERASAKAN KEPADA MEREKA SEBAHAGIAN DARI (AKIBAT) PERBUATAN MEREKA, AGAR MEREKA KEMBALI (KE JALAN YANG BENAR)” (Maksud ayat al-Quran, surah ar - Ruum-41) RM/jks/jun2004

27. 1.Pertambahan penduduk 2000 RM/jks/jun2004

28. 2.pelupusan spesis flora dan fauna (Flora & Fauna depletion) RM/jks/jun2004

29. 3. Penebangan hutan RM/jks/jun2004

30. 4.penghapusan paya (Reduction of swamp) RM/jks/jun2004

31. 5. Peningkatan gurun RM/jks/jun2004

32. 6.Hakisan tanah RM/jks/jun2004

33. 7.PENCEMARAN UDARA, AIR, BUNYI DAN DARAT INDUSTRI PENGANGKUTAN RM/jks/jun2004

34. PENCEMAR SEMULAJADI RM/jks/jun2004

35. DOMESTIK RM/jks/jun2004

36. KENDERAAN BERMOTORKILANG PERINDUSTRIAN PUNCA UTAMA KEGUNAAN BAHAN AGROKIMIA INORGANIKPENJANAAN KUASA ELEKTRIK PEMBAKARAN RM/jks/jun2004

37. RM/jks/jun2004

38. ADA 3 MASALAH UTAMA DENGAN ATMOSFERA BUMI IAITU: • KESAN RUMAH HIJAU • PERUBAHAN DALAM LAPISAN OZON • PENGHASILAN HUJAN ASID RM/jks/jun2004

39. KESAN RUMAH HIJAU RM/jks/jun2004

40. RM/jks/jun2004

41. CAUSES OF THE INCREASE GREENHOUSE EFFECT Greenhouse gases trap infrared radiation (‘heat) close to the Earth’s surface. Solar radiation is allowed to enter the lower atmosphere but is not allowed to escape. The greenhouse effect is increasing because of raised levels of these greenhouse gases: CARBON DIOXIDE released by combustion of fossil fuels in power station and internal combustion engines (in cars and lorries, for example) METHANE prodused in the guts of ruminants such as cows and in the waterlogged conditions of swamps and in rice fields. CFCs(chloroflurocarbons) from aerosol propellants and refrigerator coolants. RM/jks/jun2004

42. EFFECTS Good and bad results Global warming (raised temperatures closed to the earth’s surface) causes: Greater climate extreme – strong winds, heavier rainfall and unseasonal weather. Mealting of polar ice and changes in density of sea water – raising sea levels and flooding. Evaporation of water from fertile area – deserts form. Pets may spread to new areas But Higher temperatures and more carbon dioxide mean more photosynthesis and more food production. SOLUTIONS To limit the effects of greenhouse gases, human Reduce burning of fossil fuels – explore alternative energy sourcesshould: Replant fprestsReduce cutting of forests for cattle ranching or rice growing RM/jks/jun2004

43. PENIPISAN LAPISAN OZON RM/jks/jun2004

44. THE OZONE LAYER Ultraviolet High-level ozone Low-level ozone Earth’s surface RM/jks/jun2004

45. CAUSES OF THE INCREASED OF LOW-LEVEL OZONE Combustion of fossil fuels produces oxides of nitrogen, e.g. NO2 which react with oxygen: NO2 NO + oxygen radical Oxygen radical (O) + O2 ozone (O3) So, nitrogen oxides actincrease low-level ozone. EFFECTS Low level ozone is dangerous because it: CausesTraps dust and smoke, causing smog as a greenhouse gas (see above) Damages mesophyll in leaves, and soirritation of eyes, throat and lungs reduces yield of crops. SOLUTIONS To reduce formation of low-level ozone, human should: Reduce the burning of fossil fuels and explore alternative sources of energy. RM/jks/jun2004

46. CAUSES OF REDUCED HIGH-LEVEL OZONE Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) used in aerosols, refrigerator coolants and expanded plastics (used as insulating packaging) release chlorine. Chlorine + ozone chlorite + oxygen and each chlorite (CIO) releases more chlorine so that even more high-level ozone is degraded. i.e. CFCs decrease high-level ozone. Holes in the ozone layer HOLE have been detected over antartica and are thought to have been caused by chlorine from long-lived CFCs. RM/jks/jun2004

47. EFFECTS High-level ozone absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation, skin canser, such as the melanoma.so decreased ozone means increased of : sunburn. SOLUTIONS To limit damage to the ozone layer,mutations cataracts humans should: Use fewer CFCs (develop alternatives). CFCs are very long lived, and those already in the atmosphere will take 100 years to degrade. RM/jks/jun2004

48. SOLUTIONS To reduce formation of low-level ozone, human should: Reduce the burning of fossil fuels and explore alternative sources of energy. RM/jks/jun2004

49. PENGHASILAN HUJAN ASID SULFUR DIOKSIDA (SO2) NITROGEN DIOKSIDA (NO2 ) NITROGEN MONOKSIDA (NO2) RM/jks/jun2004

50. SemasaCAUSES Human activities release acidic gases pembakaran bahanapi dalam kenderaan bermotor atau di kilang, nitrogen dan sulfur More oxidationbertindakbalas dengan oksigen menghasilan sebatian oksida. occurs in the clouds. Oxidation is catalysed by ozone and by unburnt hydrocarbon The oxides dissolve in water, and fall as acid rain. Sulphur dioxide +fuels. Menjejaskanair sulphuric and nitrogen oxides + air nitric acids EFFECTS Menyebabkan logam toksikMengancam kemandirian tumbuhan keseimbangan alam. seperti merkuri dan aluminium yang dibebaskan dari tanah melarut-resap ke dalam Mencemarkan sumber air paip. RM/jks/jun2004sungai dan tasik.

51. SUMBER HUJAN ASID RM/jks/jun2004

52. PUNCA UTAMA SO DAN NO RM/jks/jun2004

53. RM/jks/jun2004

54. Pertambahan Penduduk 3.2 Punca Isu Alam Sekitar Budaya dan Etika Politik dan Peperangan Bencana alam Penggunaan teknologi Penguatkuasaan Undang-undang RM/jks/jun2004

55. RM/jks/jun2004

56. PENCEMARAN DARAT RM/jks/jun2004

57. Kepupusan flora dan fauna 3.3 Kesan Isu Alam Sekitar Pengaruh negatif politik dan Degradasi alam dan sumber Kualiti hidup menurun hubungan antarabangsa PUNCA & KESAN ISU ALAM SEKITAR.ppt RM/jks/jun2004

58. Akta undang-undang dan penguatkuasaan 3.4 Menangani Isu Penglibatan Individu RM/jks/jun2004Penglibatan komuniti

59. 4.1 Konsep Pembangunan Lestari • Kesinambungan antara pembangunan dengan kualiti alam sekitar. • Pembangunan yang perlu mengambil kira keperluan generasi akan datang. • Pengelolaan sumber-sumber alam secara bijaksana. RM/jks/jun2004

60. 4.3 Strategi Pembangunan Lestari • Kitar dan guna semula bahan • Konsep 5R (Recycle, Reuse, Repair, Reduce, Rethink) • Penggunaan semula tenaga yang boleh diperbaharui, misalnya tenaga solar, angin dan ombak • Pembangunan ekonomi yang terancang • Pengelolaan kempen cinta alam sekitar • Undang-undang dan Konvensyen Antarabangsa RM/jks/jun2004

61. 4.2 • Kesejahteraan hidup yang berterusan • Peningkatan kualiti hidup manusia RM/jks/jun2004

62. 4.4 Organisasi Kerajaan dan Bukan Kerajaan dan Badan Korporat terhadap Pemuliharaan dan Pemeliharaan Alam Sekitar • Organisasi Kerajaan • Organisasi Bukan Kerajaan(NGO) • Organisasi Badan Korporat RM/jks/jun2004

63. 5.0 Warga Alam Sekitar 5.1 Gaya Hidup Lestari • Amalan 5R sebagai cara hidup • Tidak membazir • Peranan Pengguna.ppt RM/jks/jun2004

64. dalam alam tentang alam sekitar 6.2 Pendekatan Kurikulum untuk alam sekitar RM/jks/jun2004sekitar

65. 5.2 Penglibatan Individu Dalam Usaha Pemeliharaan dan Menyenaraikan Kempen Cinta Alam Sekitar/ Hari Bumi/Pemuliharaan Alam Sekitar Menyertai gotong royong untuk Menyertai kempen kitar semula Kitar Semula Menyokong danmembersihkan kawasan maktab, kampung, sungai dan pantai Menubuhkan Persatuanmenganggotai persatuan/ kelab berasaskan alam sekitar Alam Sekitar di sekolah RM/jks/jun2004

66. 6. Pendidikan Alam Sekitar Merentas Kurikulum 6.1 Konsep Kurikulum Pendekatan Sekolah Secara Menyeluruh (Whole School Approach) Komuniti Sekolah RM/jks/jun2004 Pentadbir Sekolah Ko-kurikulum

67. CIRI-CIRI SEKOLAH LESTARI IDAMAN SEKOLAH PERANCANGAN DAN PENGURUSAN PENGHIJAUAN KEGIATAN KO-KURIKULUM KURIKULUM RM/jks/jun2004

68. 6.3 Penerapan Pendidikan Alam Sekitar dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran P.A.S. RM/jks/jun2004

69. ENTAHLAH Semalam Aku dengar cikgu kata Kalau datang lambat ke sekolah Tak tahu apa yang cikgu ajar Tapi hari ini aku jugak, datang lambat lagi Entahlah……. RM/jks/jun2004

70. Semalam Aku dengar cikgu kata Kalau tak buat latihan Nanti periksa mulut terlopong Tapi hari ini Aku jugak, tak buat kerja Entahlah……. RM/jks/jun2004

71. Semalam Aku dengar cikgu kata Kalau buang sampah merata-rata Harga diri jadi rendah Tapi hari ini Kulit gula-gula aku campak kat tangga Entahlah……. RM/jks/jun2004

72. Semalam Aku dengar cikgu kata Hari ini, aku dengar lagi cikgu kata Esok, aku akan dengar lagi cikgu kata Entahlah……. (TN. HJ. KAMARUZAMAN MOIDUNNY) RM/jks/jun2004

73. Penubuhan Pusat Kitar Semula 6.5 Program Penghijauan Penubuhan Pusat Sumber Penanaman Pelbagai Tumbuhan Penubuhan Pusat Kompos RM/jks/

Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development,

Having met at Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992,

Reaffirming the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted at Stockholm on 16 June 1972, and seeking to build upon it,

With the goal of establishing a new and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation among States, key sectors of societies and people,

Working towards international agreements which respect the interests of all and protect the integrity of the global environmental and developmental system,

Recognizing the integral and interdependent nature of the Earth, our home,

Proclaims that:

Principle 1

Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.

Principle 2

States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national

jurisdiction.

Principle 3

The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental

needs of present and future generations.

Principle 4

In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.

Principle 5

All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order to decrease the disparities in standards of living and

better meet the needs of the majority of the people of the world.

Principle 6

The special situation and needs of developing countries, particularly the least developed and those most environmentally vulnerable, shall be given special priority. International actions in the field of environment and development should also address the interests and needs of all countries.

Principle 7

States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem. In view of the different contributions to global environmental degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities. The developed countries

acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit to sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command.

Principle 8

To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all people, States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and promote appropriate demographic policies.

Principle 9

States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity-building for sustainable development by

improving scientific understanding through exchanges of scientific and technological knowledge, and by enhancing the development, adaptation, diffusion and transfer of technologies, including new and innovative technologies.

Principle 10

Environmental issues are best handled with participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities

in their communities, and the opportunity to participate in decision-making processes. States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely available. Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, including redress and remedy, shall be provided.

Principle 11

States shall enact effective environmental legislation. Environmental standards, management objectives and priorities should reflect the environmental and development context to which they apply. Standards applied by some countries may be inappropriate and of unwarranted economic and social cost to other countries, in particular developing countries.

Principle 12

States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open international economic system that would

lead to economic growth and sustainable development in all countries, to better address the problems of environmental degradation. Trade policy measures for environmental purposes should not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on international trade.

Unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing country should be avoided. Environmental measures addressing transboundary or global environmental problems should, as far as possible, be based on an international consensus.

Principle 13

States shall develop national law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage. States shall also cooperate in an expeditious and more determined manner to develop further international law regarding liability and compensation for adverse effects of

environmental damage caused by activities within their jurisdiction or control to areas beyond their jurisdiction.

Principle 14

States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the relocation and transfer to other States of any activities and substances that cause severe environmental degradation or are found to be harmful to human health.

Principle 15

In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.

Principle 16

National authorities should endeavour to promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting international trade and investment.

Principle 17

Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument, shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority.

Principle 18

States shall immediately notify other States of any natural disasters or other emergencies that are likely to produce sudden harmful effects on the environment of those States. Every effort shall be made by the international community to help States so afflicted.

Principle 19

States shall provide prior and timely notification and relevant information to potentially affected States on activities that may have a significant adverse transboundary environmental effect and shall consult with those States at an early stage and in good faith.

Principle 20

Women have a vital role in environmental management and development. Their full participation is therefore essential to achieve sustainable development.

Principle 21

The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of the world should be mobilized to forge a global partnership in order to achieve sustainable development and ensure a better future for all.

Principle 22

Indigenous people and their communities and other local communities have a vital role in environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional practices. States should recognize and duly support their identity, culture and interests and enable their effective participation in the achievement of sustainable development.

Principle 23

The environment and natural resources of people under oppression, domination and occupation shall be protected.

Principle 24

Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development. States shall therefore respect

international law providing protection for the environment in times of armed conflict and cooperate in its further development, as necessary.

Principle 25

Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and indivisible.

Principle 26

States shall resolve all their environmental disputes peacefully and by appropriate means in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.

Principle 27

States and people shall cooperate in good faith and in a spirit of partnership in the fulfilment of the principles embodied in this Declaration and in the further development of international law in the fieldDeclaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, having met at Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972,having considered the need for a common outlook and for common principles to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and enhancement of the human environment,

Proclaims that:

1. Man is both creature and moulder of his environment, which gives him physical sustenance and affords him the opportunity for intellectual, moral, social and spiritual growth. In the long and tortuous evolution of the human race on this planet a stage has been reached when,

through the rapid acceleration of science and technology, man has acquired the power to transform his environment in countless ways and on an unprecedented scale. Both aspects of man's environment, the natural and the man-made, are essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment of basic human rights the right to life itself.

2. The protection and improvement of the human environment is a major issue which affects the well-being of peoples and economic development throughout the world; it is the urgent desire of the peoples of the whole world and the duty of all Governments.

3. Man has constantly to sum up experience and go on discovering, inventing, creating and advancing. In our time, man's capability to transform his surroundings, if used wisely, can bring to all peoples the benefits of development and the opportunity to enhance the quality of life. Wrongly or heedlessly applied, the same power can do incalculable harm to human beings and the human environment. We see around us growing evidence of man-made harm in many regions of the earth: dangerous levels of pollution in water, air, earth and living beings; major and undesirable disturbances to the ecological balance of the biosphere; destruction and depletion of irreplaceable resources; and gross deficiencies, harmful to the physical, mental and social health of man, in the man-made environment, particularly in the living and working environment.

4. In the developing countries most of the environmental problems are caused by under-development. Millions continue to live far below the minimum levels required for a decent human existence, deprived of adequate food and clothing, shelter and education, health and sanitation. Therefore, the developing countries must direct their efforts to development, bearing in mind their priorities and the need to safeguard and improve the environment. For the same purpose, the industrialized countries should make efforts to reduce the gap themselves and the developing countries. In the industrialized countries, environmental problems are generally related to industrialization and technological development.

5. The natural growth of population continuously presents problems for the preservation of the environment, and adequate policies and measures should be adopted, as appropriate, to face these problems. Of all things in the world, people are the most precious. It is the people that propel social progress, create social wealth, develop science and technology and, through their hard work, continuously transform the human environment. Along with social progress and the advance of production, science and technology, the capability of man to improve the environment increases with each passing day.

6. A point has been reached in history when we must shape our actions throughout the world with a more prudent care for their environmental consequences. Through ignorance or indifference we can do massive and irreversible harm to the earthly environment on which our life and well being depend. Conversely, through fuller knowledge and wiser action, we can achieve for ourselves and our posterity a better life in an environment more in keeping with human needs and hopes. There are broad vistas for the enhancement of environmental quality and the creation of a good life. What is needed is an enthusiastic but calm state of mind and intense but orderly work. For the purpose of attaining freedom in the world of nature, man must use knowledge to build, in collaboration with nature, a better environment. To defend and improve the human environment for present and future generations has become an imperative goal for mankind-a goal to be pursued together with, and in harmony with, the established and fundamental goals of peace and of worldwide economic and social development.

7. To achieve this environmental goal will demand the acceptance of responsibility by citizens and communities and by enterprises and institutions at every level, all sharing equitably in common efforts. Individuals in all walks of life as well as organizations in many fields, by their values and the sum of their actions, will shape the world environment of the future.

Local and national governments will bear the greatest burden for large-scale environmental policy and action within their jurisdictions. International cooperation is also needed in order to raise resources to support the developing countries in carrying out their responsibilities in this field. A growing class of environmental problems, because they are regional or global in extent or because they affect the common international realm, will require extensive cooperation among nations and action by international organizations in the common interest.

The Conference calls upon Governments and peoples to exert common efforts for the preservation and improvement of the human environment, for the benefit of all the people and for their posterity.

Principles

States the common conviction that:

Principle 1

Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations. In this respect, policies promoting or perpetuating apartheid, racial segregation, discrimination, colonial and other forms of oppression and foreign domination stand condemned and must be eliminated.

Principle 2

The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially representative samples of natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management, as appropriate.

Principle 3

The capacity of the earth to produce vital renewable resources must be maintained and, wherever practicable, restored or improved.

Principle 4

Man has a special responsibility to safeguard and wisely manage the heritage of wildlife and its habitat, which are now gravely imperilled by a combination of adverse factors. Nature conservation, including wildlife, must therefore receive importance in planning for economic development.

Principle 5

The non-renewable resources of the earth must be employed in such a way as to guard against the danger of their future exhaustion and to ensure that benefits from such employment are shared by all mankind.

Principle 6

The discharge of toxic substances or of other substances and the release of heat, in such quantities or concentrations as to exceed the capacity of the environment to render them harmless, must be halted in order to ensure that serious or irreversible damage is not inflicted upon ecosystems. The just struggle of the peoples of ill countries against pollution should be supported.

Principle 7

States shall take all possible steps to prevent pollution of the seas by substances that are liable to create hazards to human health, to harm living resources and marine life, to damage amenities or to interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea.

Principle 8

Economic and social development is essential for ensuring a favorable living and working environment for man and for creating conditions on earth that are necessary for the improvement of the quality of life.

Principle 9

Environmental deficiencies generated by the conditions of under-development and natural disasters pose grave problems and can best be remedied by accelerated development through the transfer of substantial quantities of financial and technological assistance as a supplement to the domestic effort of the developing countries and such timely assistance as may be required.

Principle 10

For the developing countries, stability of prices and adequate earnings for primary commodities and raw materials are essential to environmental management, since economic factors as well as ecological processes must be taken into account.

Principle 11

The environmental policies of all States should enhance and not adversely affect the present or future development potential of developing countries, nor should they hamper the attainment

of better living conditions for all, and appropriate steps should be taken by States and international organizations with a view to reaching agreement on meeting the possible national and international economic consequences resulting from the application of environmental measures.

Principle 12

Resources should be made available to preserve and improve the environment, taking into account the circumstances and particular requirements of developing countries and any costs which may emanate- from their incorporating environmental safeguards into their development planning and the need for making available to them, upon their request, additional international technical and financial assistance for this purpose.

Principle 13

In order to achieve a more rational management of resources and thus to improve the environment, States should adopt an integrated and coordinated approach to their development planning so as to ensure that development is compatible with the need to protect and improve environment for the benefit of their population.

Principle 14

Rational planning constitutes an essential tool for reconciling any conflict between the needs of development and the need to protect and improve the environment.

Principle 15

Planning must be applied to human settlements and urbanization with a view to avoiding adverse effects on the environment and obtaining maximum social, economic and environmental benefits for all. In this respect projects which arc designed for colonialist and racist domination must be abandoned.

Principle 16

Demographic policies which are without prejudice to basic human rights and which are deemed appropriate by Governments concerned should be applied in those regions where the rate of population growth or excessive population concentrations are likely to have adverse effects on the environment of the human environment and impede development.

Principle 17

Appropriate national institutions must be entrusted with the task of planning, managing or controlling the 9 environmental resources of States with a view to enhancing environmental quality.

Principle 18

Science and technology, as part of their contribution to economic and social development, must be applied to the identification, avoidance and control of environmental risks and the solution of environmental problems and for the common good of mankind.

Principle 19

Education in environmental matters, for the younger generation as well as adults, giving due consideration to the underprivileged, is essential in order to broaden the basis for an enlightened opinion and responsible conduct by individuals, enterprises and communities in protecting and improving the environment in its full human dimension. It is also essential that

mass media of communications avoid contributing to the deterioration of the environment, but, on the contrary, disseminates information of an educational nature on the need to project and improve the environment in order to enable mal to develop in every respect.

Principle 20

Scientific research and development in the context of environmental problems, both national and multinational, must be promoted in all countries, especially the developing countries. In this connection, the free flow of up-to-date scientific information and transfer of experience must be supported and assisted, to facilitate the solution of environmental problems; environmental technologies should be made available to developing countries on terms which would encourage their wide dissemination without constituting an economic burden on the developing countries.

Principle 21

States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

Principle 22

States shall cooperate to develop further the international law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage caused by activities within the jurisdiction or control of such States to areas beyond their jurisdiction.

Principle 23

Without prejudice to such criteria as may be agreed upon by the international community, or to standards which will have to be determined nationally, it will be essential in all cases to consider the systems of values prevailing in each country, and the extent of the applicability of standards which are valid for the most advanced countries but which may be inappropriate and of unwarranted social cost for the developing countries.

Principle 24

International matters concerning the protection and improvement of the environment should be handled in a cooperative spirit by all countries, big and small, on an equal footing.

Cooperation through multilateral or bilateral arrangements or other appropriate means is essential to effectively control, prevent, reduce and eliminate adverse environmental effects resulting from activities conducted in all spheres, in such a way that due account is taken of the sovereignty and interests of all States.

Principle 25

States shall ensure that international organizations play a coordinated, efficient and dynamic role for the protection and improvement of the environment.

Principle 26

Man and his environment must be spared the effects of nuclear weapons and all other means of mass destruction. States must strive to reach prompt agreement, in the relevant international organs, on the elimination and complete destruction of such weapons.

21st plenary meeting

of sustainable development.

Source: Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 5-16 June 1972