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Anda dikehendaki membuat satu tugasan berpandukan maklumat berikut:

Mengulas DUA artikel mengenai bidang seni atau muzik dan kaitannya dengan kanak-

kanak berkeperluan khas dari sebarang jurnal sama ada jurnal di dalam atau di luar negara.

Melampirkan artikel asal.

Mengulas artikel tersebut dengan menumpukan kepada dapatan dan cadangan kajian dan

mengaitkannya dengan murid berkeperluan khas.

Ulasan Jurnal 1

1.Pengenalan

Seni merupakan salah satu item atau unsur pendidikan yang dapat membantu pelajar-pelajar

berkeperluan khas berkomunikasi secara abstrak dengan individu lain. Seni mempunyai definisi

yang tersendiri iaitu mengikut kamus dewan bahasa edisi ke empat memberi pengertian halus

(kecil, elok), tipis dan halus, enak didengar (suara), comel (bentuk badan). Seni terbahagi kepada

tiga iaitu seni visual, seni pergerakan dan seni audio, sejajar dengan itu jurnal yang akan saya ulas

adalah melibatkan bidang seni audio. Butir-butir Jurnal tersebut adalah seperti yang diberikan di

bawah.

Nama Jurnal : International Journal Of Special Education( Vol 25 No1)

Tajuk artikel : Communication Improvement Through Music: The Case of Children

With Developmental Disabilities

Penulis : Vasiliki Krikeli, Anastasios Michalidis & Niovi-Dionysia Klaydianou

Tahun terbitan : 2010

Penerbit : Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greek.

University of Maryland at College Park, United Stated

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2.Kandungan

2.1 Tujuan

Jurnal ini bertujuan menyelidik mengenai keberkesanan penggunaan muzik terhadap

perkembangan kanak-kanak yang bermasalah dari segi perkembangannya. Kajian ini tertumpu

kepada kesan muzik terhadap perkembangan komunikasi kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas, melalui

penggunaan muzik terapai keatas kanak-kanak bermasalah atau mempunyai kecacatan. Menurut

Kissinger & Worley(2008) seperti yang ditulis oleh penulis menyatakan bahawa muzik boleh

menjadi saluran bagi memperbaiki komunikasi yang melibatkan kemahiran taraputik dan juga

pedagogi. Khasnya kepada kanak-kanak dengan masalah autisme dimana muzik merupakan satu

saluran komunikasi altenetif kepada komunikasi berbentuk tradistional. Selain daripada itu jurnal

ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji bagaimana muzik dapat membantu pelajar-pelajar bermasalah dapat

berkomunikasi secara berkesan dan juga dapat menenangkan jiwa dan perasaan serta

mengurangkan tingkah laku yang tidak diingin ketika berkomunikasi. Jurnal ini juga bertujuan

membincangkan teknik atau kaedah penggunaan muzik secara luaran dan juga dalaman terhadap

kanak-kanak khas.Bagaimana muzik dapat menenangkan kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas juga di

kaji dalam jurnal ini. Berdasarkan jurnal ini penulis mensasarkan kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas

yang mempunyai berbagai masalah perkembangan sebagai kumpulan sasaran yang melibatkan

penggunaan muzik terapi. Disiplin-disiplin yang perlu digunakan ketika penggunaan muzik terapi,

pemilihan aktiviti dan juga tindakan susulan yang perlu diberi perhatian terhadap kanak-kanak

berkeperluan khas

2.2 Latar belakang Kajian

Jurnal ini telah ditulis oleh tiga orang penulis dari dua university. Penulis tersebut ialah

Vasiliki Krikeli dan Anastasios Michalidis dari Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greek serta

seorang lagi penulis ialah Niovi-Dionysia Klaydianou dari University of Maryland at College Park,

United Stated. Jurnal yang dihasilkan merupakan kajian yang di buat mengenai bagaimana kesan

muzik dapat meningkatkan kemahiran berkomunikasi kanak-kanak yang mempunyai masalah

dalam perkembangan mereka atau lebih dikenali dengan kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas. Jurnal

yang mempunyai sembilan halaman bercetak, kajian yang dijalankan pada tahun 2010 ini banyak

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menceritakan bagaimana terapi muzik dapat membantu kanak-kanak khas mengawal emosi dan

perasaan serta membantu pelajar berkomunikasi dengan baik. Garapan penggunaan bahasa Inggeris

yang mudah difahami dapat membantu pembaca mengenai kajian yang dibuat. Selain daripada itu

Mereka juga telah meletakan kajian terhadap sebilangan kanak-kanak khas bersama dengan kaedah-

kaedah serta pengajaran dan pembelajaran berpandukan muzik di sekolah dan juga di rumah.

Melalui berbagai-bagai media yang digunakan mereka mensasarkan muzik terapi sebagai saluran

utama untuk membantu kanak-kanak mengurangkan ketidakupayaan kanak-kanak ini dalam

berkomunikasi. Mereka juga menjelaskan bahawa muzik juga mempunyai kuasa yang luar biasa

untuk membantu manusia menenangkan jiwa atau lebih dikenali sebagai terapi, bukan saja kepada

kanak-kanak pendidikan khas malah manusia normal juga akan dapat menenangkan jiwa dengan

mendengar muzik.

2.3 Kaedah Kajian

Penulis telah menggunakan beberapa kaedah kajian, di mana mereka telah membuat

penyelidikan melalui lima buah negara Eropah iaitu Yunani, France, German, Cyprus, dan Itali ke

atas kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas. Dengan menggunakan roda undian mereka memilih 2 buah

sekolah khas secara rawak dengan 20 orang kanak-kanak bagi setiap negeri. ( 10 orang kanak-

kanak bagi setiap sekolah). Kanak-kanak tersebut juga di pilih melalui kriteria seperti melibatkan

diri sekurang-kurangnya satu program muzik terapi dan mempunyai masalah dalam perkembangan.

Sebelum menjalankan penyelidikan penulis memastikan kanak-kanak tidak di pengaruhi oleh

sebarang ubat atau masalah kesihatan yang boleh menjejaskan keputusan pemerhatian terhadap

penyelidikan yang dibuat. Dengan batuan pakar patologi dan pembantu penyelidik ibu bapa di soal

mengenai latar belakang kanak-kanak dan juga sejarah kesihatan mereka. Akhir sekali mereka

menemukan 60 kanak-kanak yang sesuai untuk dijalankan penyelidikan.

Dengan jumlah 40 orang kanak-kanak( 18 lelaki dan 22 perempuan) dari umur 7 hingga 12

tahun dengan sukarela menjadi peserta dalam penyelidikan ini. 26 dari peserta ini mempunyai

masalah down sindrom , 4 dari peserta mengalami masalah ‘fragile X syndrome” dan selebih nya

mengalami autism. Kanak-kanak ini terbahagi kepada 2 kumpulan iaitu A dan B. Kumpulan A

diberikan aktiviti muzik terapi manakala kumpulan B diberikan aktiviti seperti perbincangan,

bermain, bersuka ria, serta menonton television. Selain daripada itu, pengkaji juga menggunakan

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kontrak bersama ibu bapa kanak-kanak mengenai kesan atau keputusan serta aktiviti yang akan

dijalankan. Mereka juga menggunakan pengukuran skala untuk setiap aktiviti serta analisis data dan

juga bacaan denyutan nadi kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas.

2.4 Dapatan Kajian

Melalui kedua-dua aktiviti yang dijalankan ke atas dua kumpulan iaitu A dan B. Pengkaji

mendapat terdapat kesan atau perubahan terhadap peserta kumpulan A dalam aktiviti komunikasi.

Keputusan gerakan nadi juga telah menunjukkan bahawa getaran nadi kanak-kanak akan lebih

perlahan dan tenang ketika menjalani sesi aktiviti muzik terapi berbanding dengan peserta

kumpulan B yang menjalankan aktiviti yang tidak melibatkan muzik, membawa kepada penemuan

bahawa muzik terapi dapat membantu peserta menenangkan fikiran dan emosi lantas dapat

membantu mereka berkomunikasi dengan baik dan sopan terutama peserta yang mempunyai

masalah autism. Selain daripada itu pengkaji juga mendapati peserta yang menjalani aktiviti terapi

muzik lebih berdisiplin dan juga dapat menghormati pembantu penyelidik dan juga pakar terapi.

Peserta-peserta ini juga lebih lancar berkomunikasi apabila selalu menggunakan muzik sebagai

latihan. Pertuturan yang bermasalah semakin berkurang serta kemahiran untuk bersosialisasi juga

meningkat. Didapati juga, peserta yang mempunyai masalah down sindrom telah menunjukkan

peningkatan mereka berkomunikasi dengan peserta lain secara bersungguh-sungguh. Apa yang

dijalankan kepada peserta-peserta ini, ada dapat yang telah ditemui selain daripada meningkatkan

tahap komunikasi terhadap kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas iaitu kawalan emosi mereka di mana

tingkah laku yang ditunjukkan oleh kanak-kanak autism dan sindrom down menunjukkan mereka

lebih tenang dan dapat mengawal emosi dengan baik berbanding dengan sebelum penyelidikan

dijalankan. Selain daripada itu penyelidikan ini juga telah membuktikan dengan menggunakan ujian

analisis data bahawa kanak-kanak bermasalah pembelajaran mempunyai peningkatan terhadap

perkembangan mental seperti sebutan dan juga ingatan. Selain daripada itu, kajian ini juga

mendapat terdapat muzik yang berbentuk sensitif, aktif dan juga muzik tenang dari pandangan

kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas.

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2.5 Cadangan Kajian

Selepas dapatan yang diperoleh daripada penyelidikan ini, penyelidik mencadangkan agar

terapi muzik di aplikasikan kepada kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas dalam meningkatkan kemahiran

berkomunikasi, bersosialisasi dan juga berinteraksi dengan orang lain. Selain daripada itu,

penyelidik menekankan bahawa muzik terapi juga selain meningkatkan kemahiran dalam kategori

metodologi ia dapat membantu meningkatkan tahap kesihatan mental kanak-kanak berkeperluan

khas. Namun begitu penyelidik mengakui terdapat beberap kelemahan kecil di dalam penyelidikan

ini, namun begitu mereka mencadangkan bahawa penyelidikan ini merupakan penyelidikan yang

pertama dan merupakan titik mula penyelidikan mengenai penggunaan muzik dalam meningkatkan

kemahiran berkomunikasi di kalangan kanak-kanak yang mempunyai masalah atau kanak-kanak

berkeperluan khas. Dari keputusan kajian penyelidik mendapati muzik dapat memimpin kanak-

kanak meningkatkan psikologi dan jasmani kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas dari kecil lagi. Begitu

juga dengan perkembangan mental kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas ini akan dapat di tingkatkan

lagi. Penyelidik juga menyifatkan kajian ini sebagai sementara sahaja kesannya kepada kanak-kana

berkeperluan khas, di mana kajian selanjutnya perlu dilakukan untuk mereka yang berkeperluan

khas yang lebih dewasa. Semua peserta pada hari ini juga kan menjadi dewasa maka satu cadangan

kajian semua telah di utarakan oleh penyelidik, namun begitu mereka dapat menemukan dan

memberi bukti kukuh bahawa muzik iaitu salah satu cabang seni dapat membantu kanak-kanak

berkeperluan khas meningkatkan kemahiran berkomunikasi jika dijalankan seperti yang telah di

cadangkan oleh penyelidik. Menggunakan kaedah yang telah diberikan secara berkemampuan

dalam pendidikan.

3. Ulasan/Pendapat Kajian

Sebelum ulasan lebih lanjut diberikan mengenai kertas kerja ini, lebih sesuai jika saya

menjelaskan sepintas bahasa mengenai pengertian muzik pada umumnya,muzik adalah di ketahui

sebagai satu seni dan juga sains yang menggabungkan bunyi-bunyi vokal atau instrumental

termasuk bunyi-bunyi semulajadi atau rekaan dengan satu cara yang dianggap memuaskan

mengikut estetika,corak pemikiran dan emosi manusia. Seni muzik merupakan satu dari seni hasil

luahan manusia yang menggambarkan identiti dan juga perasaan yang terselindung di sebalik emosi

seseorang yang amat payah dizahirkan dengan perkataan secara langsung dengan seseorang

individu lain, boleh digarapkan bahawa seni muzik adalah cetusan ekspresi perasaan atau fikiran

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yang dihasil dan dikeluarkan secara teratur dan tersusun dalam bentuk bunyi. Dalam dapat yang

diperolehi dari hasil kajian yang di buat penulis cenderung mengatakan bahawa muzik iaitu muzik

terapi akan dapat membantu pelajar-pelajar berkeperluan khas untuk mengurangkan dan menambah

kemahiran berkomunikasi mereka. Dalam dapatan ini juga mereka telah membuktikan bahawa

muzik juga mempunyai berbagai-bagai-bagai jenis alunan yang di terima oleh pelajar-pelajar

berkeperluan khas seperti muzik yang berbentuk sensitif, aktif dan juga muzik tenang. Jelas di sini

bukan sebarangan muzik yang boleh digunakan pakai dalam muzik terapi bagi meningkatkan

kemahiran berkomunikasi pelajar-pelajar berkeperluan khas. Pemilihan muzik yang sesuai amat

perlu dititik beratkan oleh guru-guru yang ingin mengaplikasikan terapi muzik ini. secara dasarnya

jurnal ini dihasilkan bagi mendedahkan bahawa pelajar-pelajar berkeperluan khas ini merupakan

pelajar-pelajar yang perlu diberi perhatian khusus dan juga perlu mempelbagaikan gaya

pembelajaran mereka agar pengalaman belajar mereka lebih bermakna.

Jurnal ini juga telah menarik minat saya tentang ujian degupan nadi yang digunakan ketika

penyelidikan dibuat. Getaran nadi peserta dibuat apabila sesi terapi dilakukan. Guru juga boleh

mengaplikasikan teknik ini ketika proses terapi dijalankan dengan cara menual iaitu menyentuh

nadi pelajar. Bagi saya rangsangan sentuhan juga akan dapat membantu pelajar menenangkan

emosi mereka terutama pelajar-pelajar yang mempunyai masalah pembelajaran seperti autism.

Selain daripada itu muzik terapi juga amat berguna kepada pelajar-pelajar yang mempunyai

masalah penglihatan kerana bunyi merupakan sumber komunikasi yang penting bagi mereka.

Muzik juga boleh juga digunakan sebagai salah satu mata pelajaran yang merentasi kurikulum.

Dengan muzik pelajar boleh belajar dengan lebih gembira. Guru boleh memasukan elemen muzik

ke dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran mata pelajaran lain seperti matematik, bahasa dan juga

pendidikan islam. Secara tidak langsung jurnal ini telah membuktikan bahawa aktiviti muzik daapt

memberikan peluang kepada pelajar-pelajar tidak kira umur, jantina, atau peringkat perkembangan

untuk melalui pengalaman kreatif yang berorientasikan kejayaan dan dalam suasana yang riang

tanpa tekanan. Plato, seorang ahli falsafah Yunani yang terkenal pula berpendapat

bahawa sahsiah seseorang individu itu amat dipengaruhi oleh seni halus seperti

muzik, sastera, lukisan dan juga ukiran. Dengan itu beliau berpendapat bahawa

akhlak seseorang individu itu boleh diperbaiki jika individu itu didedahkan dengan

muzik dan seni-seni yang lain.

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Selain daripada itu melalui jurnal ini, didapati muzik juga dapat meningkatkan

pengajaran dan pembelajaran seperti perkembangan psikomotor, kesedaran sensori,

kemahiran bersosialisasi, membantu meningkatkan tahap kesihatan dengan

pergerakan badan ketika mendengar muzik, perkembangan kognitif, membantu

meningkatkan kecerdasan tubuh badan, membantu meningkatkan tahap konsentrasi,

mengurangkan tingkah laku yang tidak diingini, memupuk sifat saling hormat-

menghormati serta meningkatkan keyakinan diri pelajar-pelajar. Oleh itu seorang guru

perlu mengambi berat mengenai muzik yang berunsur terapi kerana kesan yang

diberikan oleh penulis jurnal ini amat bermanfaat kepada pelajar-pelajar berkeperluan

khas.

Namun begitu jurnal ini hanya mengutarakan hasil kajian mereka yang, akan

memastikan keberkesanannya adalah kita gurur-guru pendidikan khas. Cari dan

aplikasikan muzik ini kepada pelajar-pelajar seperti yang dicadangkan oleh pengkaji.

Melihat akan keberkesanan pengujian yang dilakukan oleh pengkaji matlamat utama

yang akan terhasil adalah peningkatan kemahiran berkomunikasi pelajar-pelajar

berkeperluan khas. Bagi guru gunakan perkara paling asas bagi membimbing pelajar

mengapresiasi seni muzik, dedahkan mereka dengan pengalaman secara langsung

dengan pelbagai unsur-unsur seni muzik seperti irama dan melodi.

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Lampiran Jurnal 1

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 25 No 1 2010

COMMUNICATION IMPROVEMENT THROUGH MUSIC: THE CASE OF CHILDREN WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

Vasiliki Krikeli,

Anastasios Michailidis

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

and

Niovi-Dionysia Klavdianou

University of Maryland at College Park

This paper investigates the effect of music on the communication improvement of children with developmental disabilities. Forty subjects (18 boys and 22 girls) 7-12 years old, were divided into an experimental group (n = 20) which participated in music therapy activities and a control group (n = 20) which was discussing and watching television, both for one hour. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory Scale for children was used to measure state and trait anxiety respectively. In addition, heart rate response to music therapy was monitored for assessing probable music therapy effect. Findings from paired t-tests revealed that the State Anxiety Inventory Scale score was significantly influenced by the music therapy (t=5.36, p<0.001) as well as it was not significantly influenced by the discussing and watching television session (t=1.02, p>0.05: NS). Besides, heart rate alteration analysis revealed that music therapy helps calm young children with developmental disabilities. Consequently, music therapy could lead not only to significant improvements in young CWDD’s psychological and physical well-being but also could produce mental benefits, and should constitute a part of therapeutically programs that aim both to the improvement of young CWDD’s psychological state and quality of life.

By all odds, music has the power to adjust and channel the collective consciousness of massive groups of people and no one can easily underestimate that music is one of the most prominent relaxing and entertaining activities. It is amazing to notice that, even in the days of philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, they had a profound understanding and respect for the tremendous influence that music can have on its listeners. Plato, for example, observed the effect that music had on society and made this thought provoking statement When the modes of music change, the fundamental laws of the state change (Jowett, 1888, p.4) while Aristotle's view was that Music has the power to form character (Sinclair & Saunders, 1981, p. 13).

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Nowadays, some of the above theories of yesterday may seem somewhat exaggerated. However, as one continues studying, the logic of old great thinkers may start to make plenty of sense today. For example, as Kissinger & Worley (2008) explain, music can be employed as a communication improvement channel for therapeutic or pedagogic reasons, especially for children with developmental disabilities (CWDD). In particular, for children with autism (CWA), music offers a potentially alternative to traditional communication channels.

Music therapy has been defined as a form of psychotherapeutic treatment where the therapeutic relationship is used to decrease psychic problems, conflicts and disturbances of the client (Schalkwijk, 1994, p. 5) or as a systematic process of intervention wherein the therapist helps the client to promote health, using music experiences and the relationships developing through themas dynamic forces of change (Bruscia, 1998, p. 13). Therefore, music may fill an important gap working as a special type of psychotherapy where forms of musical interaction and communication are used alongside verbal communication.

Several systematic reviews and meta-analyses have been conducted to examine the effects of music therapy in the field of mental health or communication improvement of CWDD (Dileo & Bradt, 2005; Gold, Heldal, et al., 2005; Gold, Voracek, & Wigram, 2004; Gold, Wigram, & Elefant, 2006; Koger, Chapin, & Brotons, 1999; Maratos, Gold, Wang, & Crawford, 2008; Pesek, 2007; Silverman, 2003; Vink, Birks, Bruinsma, & Scholten, 2003). Many of these reviews and studies have found promising results; however, the quality of the included studies varied. As well as, promising results, applying rigorous study selection criteria, have been found in a recent study focused on the feasibility of using the concert harp as a communication channel for CWA (Kissinger & Worley, 2008).

In psychotherapeutic methods such as music therapy, the term dose or dosage clearly must be understood metaphorically, not literally. In this direction, Howard, Kopta, Krause, & Orlinsky (1986) have argued that the number of music therapy sessions has been widely accepted as a measure of dose opening a discussion on whether the dose relationship in music therapy is linear, or whether the first sessions have a greater influence than subsequent sessions. In addition, the same paper sustains that although a therapy model's proposed active ingredients (such as interpretations, empathic reflections, etc.) might be considered as the most theoretically coherent unit of treatment, these are not easy to measure. However, the number of therapy sessions a patient has received is most likely correlated to a patient's exposure to those ingredients and can therefore be used as a readily available proxy measure.

To date, this discussion is still ongoing, and therefore the present study aims at examining both possibilities. In addition, the purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of music therapy on the communication improvement of CWDD by measuring the heart rate not only ex-ante and ex-post the music therapy session, but also in the middle of it. On the other hand, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for children (STAIC; Spielberger et al., 1973) was used, for the measurement of subjects’ anxiety. All subjects, from both groups, completed the STAIC scale, alone or with their parents’ collaboration. For trait anxiety subscale once, just about twenty minutes before the music therapy or watching television session and for the state anxiety subscale twice, just about twenty minutes before and just after the above procedure.

Method

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Sample

CWDD from five different European countries (Greece, France, Germany, Cyprus and Italy) were examined. Using a lottery-wheel, we randomly selected two special schools and 20 children (subjects) from each country (ten form each school) who fulfilled the inclusion criteria such as participating only in one music therapy program and having developmental disabilities. Afterwards, communication was made with each one of the selected subjects with regard to the research aims. In addition, a written informed consent was obtained from the parents of each child in order to participate in the research. Before the beginning of the research it could be certified that all the children do not suffer from any unusual disease and that they do not take any unusual medication. Additionally, their parents asked to answer a questionnaire about their personal medical history and any special health problem, while a research assistant and a special pathologist were present in order to give any extra clarifications. Finally, 60 subjects who were found to fulfil the exclusion criteria that is parental agreement, unusual health problems, unusual medication and extra participation in other research programs, were excluded from the research.

A total number of 40 children (18 boys and 22 girls), ranging from 7 to 12 years of age (mean=9.8 and standard deviation=1.7), volunteered to participate in the research. All of the subjects had developmental disabilities. In particular, 26 of them had Down syndrome, four had Fragile X syndrome and the rest had Autism Spectrum disorders. They were, then, divided into an experimental group; (A) which participated in music therapy activities (MT) and a control group (B) which was discussing, playing, having fun, enjoying them-selves or watching television (WT). However, the control group was matched in all respects with the experimental one except for the participation in the MT program, which is the factor, who has been willing to investigate.

Procedure

Before the beginning of the research, a presentation of the main aims and a brief description of the general requirements were given to the parents of the selected children. In addition, psychological instruments and instructions were presented and explained in detail for each one of them. Moreover, an approval for the conduct of the research was given from the committee of each institute, where the children were members, after the aims and the design of the research were described and after the certification that the procedures were in agreement with the ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association, 2000).

Then, the subjects of the group A participated in a MT program while the subjects of the group B were asked to stay in a separate room, free to discuss with each other, play or watch television. The duration of the above procedure was sixty minutes for both groups and repeated five times in total during a two months period.

Scales of measurement

The STAIC was used, for the measurement of anxiety. It is comprised of separate, self-report scales for measuring two distinct anxiety concepts: state anxiety (S-Anxiety) and trait anxiety (T-Anxiety). Both S-Anxiety scale (SAIC) and T-Anxiety scale (TAIC) consist of twenty statements, each, that describe how respondents feel right now, at this very moment, and how respondents usually feel, respectively. The STAIC is similar in conception and structure to the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), which provides measures of anxiety for adolescents and adults (Spielberger et al.,

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1970). Moreover, the STAIC was administered both to the children and parents prior to their completing a novel nonverbal task.

All subjects, from both A and B groups, completed the 40-item scale, alone or with their parents’ collaboration. For trait anxiety subscale once, just about twenty minutes before the MT or WT session and for the state anxiety subscale twice, just about twenty minutes before and after the above procedure. Children respond to each item on a three-point rating scale, checking one of three alternatives that describes him or her best or indicates frequency of occurrence. The score of each subject ranges from 20 to 60 degrees according to the above three-point rating subscale. Children generally require eight to twelve minutes to complete each subscale, and less than twenty minutes to complete both.

In addition, heart rate (HR) response to MT was monitored for assessing probable MT effect. So, just before the MT session the special pathologist measured the subjects’ baseline HR during two ten-second periods. Besides, the HR measurement repeated twice, in the middle of the MT session and just after the termination of the procedure.

Data analysis

SPSS V.16 for Windows was employed for both descriptive and multivariate statistical analysis of the dataset. Descriptive statistics was used in order to compare the MT effect between groups including means, standard deviations, paired t-tests and non-parametric tests. In particular, the non-parametric Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to evaluate the normal distribution of the sample and the paired t-test was used to evaluate significant differences between measurements, that is before and after the MT or the WT session, while the independent groups’ t-test was used to evaluate significant differences between groups. According to the similar literature the level of significance was set to p<0.05 (Mavrovouniotis et al., 2009).

Multivariate statistical analysis of the groups’ A dataset was used in order to classify the subjects and to determine possible relations between MT effect and personal or other characteristics of groups’ A subjects. In particular, two-step cluster analysis (SPSS, 2007) was used to classify the subjects in discernible clusters in order to explore the reasons of different levels of SAIC scale measurement and different HR response to MT and a categorical regression model (Kooij & Meulman, 1997) was estimated to determine the relation between subjects’ characteristics and STAIC scale measurement or HR. Finally, Reliability analysis (Bohmstedt, 1970; SPSS, 2007) was used to determine the extent to which the items are related to each other to get an overall index of the internal consistency of the scale as a whole, and to identify items that had to be excluded from the scale. Figure 1 (next page) presents the general methodological framework of data collection, statistical analysis and obtained results.

Although, the number of subjects is too small, for multivariate statistical models, the results indicate great attributive values. Therefore the explanation of the clustering, in combination with the relative importance measures and descriptive statistics, can prove extremely valuable.

11

Figure 1.

General methodological framework

Results

Figure 2 presents the minimum, maximum and mean values of all measurements of group A subjects’ HR just before the MT session, as well after 30 and 60 minutes respectively. Findings from HR alteration analysis revealed that MT helps calm young children with mental retardation. More specifically, 30 minutes after the beginning of the MT the HR mean value decreased from 105.7 bps to 101.9 bps and just after the end of the session decreased more to 100.1 bps. A very interesting point of this observation is that the major part of the HR decrease (67.85%) realized at the first half-hour of the session suggesting that the dose relationship in music therapy is not absolutely linear.

12

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

just before music therapy after 30min just after music therapy

HR

be

ats

pe

r m

in (

bp

m)

minimum mean maximum

Figure 2.

HR alteration during music therapy session (group A)

Descriptive statistics for each STAIC measure assessed prior to and following the MT and WT sessions and the significance of any demonstrated change are shown in Figure 3. In regard to SAIC, it is obvious that, it was observed a larger decrease in the mean value after the MT session (M=-2.44, SD=3.48) than after the WT one (M=-0.31, SD=1.98). On the other hand, both SAIC and TAIC factors present similar mean values between groups indicating that the control group was very well matched in all respects with the experimental one. Moreover, from paired t-tests, it was found out that SAIC score was significantly influenced by the MT (t=5.36, p<0.001) as well as it was not significantly influenced by the WT session (t=1.02, p>0.05: NS).

31.3831.2829.56

33.11

31.07

27.12

-0.31-2.44

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

SAIC (group A) TAIC (group A) SAIC (group B) TAIC (group B)

Before music therapy After music tehrapy Change

Figure 3.

Alterations to SAIC factors and TAIC mean values for both groups

13

The two-step cluster analysis extracted automatically the optimal solution of three clusters. The majority of the subjects (10 or 50%) were included in the second cluster while 6 (30%) and 4 (20%) of them included in the first and third cluster respectively. Regarding the distribution of observations in the above clusters, it is shown in Table 1, that mainly female children with Autism Spectrum disorders

Table 1.Distribution of observations each cluster (frequencies and percentages)

Continuous variables Clusters1st (6, 30%) 2nd (10, 50%) 3rd (4, 20%)

1. Down syndrome 1 (16.7%) 10 (100.0%) 2 (50.0%)2. Fragile X syndrome 2 (50.0%)

3. Autism Spectrum disorders 5 (83.3%)

4. Male 1 (16.7%) 7 (70.0%) 1 (25.0%)

5. Female 5 (83.3%) 3 (30.0%) 3 (75.0%)

6. SAIC decrease 6 (100.0%) 7 (70.0%) 1 (25.0%)

7. HR decrease 6 (100.0%) 4 (40.0%) 2 (50.0%)

8. SAIC increase 3 (30.0%) 3 (75.0%)

9. HR increase 6 (60.0%) 2 (50.0%)

10. Communication Improvement (YES)* 6 (100.0%) 10 (100.0%) 2 (50.0%)

11. Communication Improvement (NO)* 2 (50.0%)

12. TAIC mean value (>28) 2 (20.0%) 4 (100.0%)

13. TAIC mean value (<28) 6 (100.0%) 8 (80.0%)* Subjective estimations of the research assistant

constitute the first cluster. It is important to point out that all the SAIC and HR mean values, related to the subjects of first cluster, decreased just after the MT session indicating the positive effect of MT on the children with Autism Spectrum disorders. As well as, according to the research assistant estimations, all the subjects of the first cluster improved their communication ability after the MT session. On the other hand, female children with Down syndrome or Fragile X syndrome constitute the third cluster. All the subjects of this cluster presented large TAIC values (>28) while the majority of their SAIC and HR mean values increased after the MT session indicating the negative effect of MT on the children of the third cluster. Finally, the second cluster mainly includes male children with Down syndrome who affected rather positive regarding their SAIC change and rather negative regarding their HR change. In tabloid form, we could describe the subjects of the first cluster as music sensitive, of the second cluster as rather music sensitive and of the third clusters as music reactive.

Reliability analysis (Bohmstedt, 1970; SPSS, 2007) was then employed in order to determine the extent to which the eight continuous variables of Table 2 are related to each other and to investigate the reliability of the selected scales. The value of Cronbach’s alpha (α) reliability coefficients (SPSS, 2007) were found equal to 0.79 for the SAIC scale measurement and 0.82 for the HR change scale. So, the selected scales are reliable as the related coefficients exceed the constant value (>0.70) suggested by Bohmstedt (1970). In addition, Friedman two-way analysis of variance, with x2=2,118 (α=0.00) and Hotelling’s T2=1,186 (F=40.24 & α=0.00), indicated the significance in differences of item means. Having accepted the consistency of the eight items, the average rankings for each subject were used as the

14

numerical values of the dependent variable SAIC or HR decrease which along with the categories of eight independent variables are shown in Table 2.

Table 2.

Selected independent variables

Independent variables Type Categories

1. Trait anxiety value Ordinal 1=over 28, 2=under 28

2. Country Nominal 1=Greece, 2=France, 3=Germany, 4=Cyprus, 5=Italy

3. Gender Nominal 1=male, 2=female

4. Age Ordinal 1=under 8, 2=9-10, 3=over 11

5. IQ value Ordinal 1=under 24, 2=25-39, 3=40-54, 4=55-69, 5=over 70

6. Communication Improvement Ordinal 1=no, 2=rather no, 3=neither yes nor no, 4=rather yes, 5=yes

7. Special education Ordinal 1=2 or less years, 2=3-4 years, 3=5 or more years

8. Developmental Disability Nominal1=Down syndrome, 2=Fragile X syndrome, 3=Autism Spectrum

disorders

Then, investigating further the dependent variable SAIC or HR decrease in order to find out how SAIC or HR mean values influenced by personal characteristics of each clusters’ subjects we employed the categorical regression model. Categorical regression (Kooij & Meulman, 1997) was used to handle the optimally transformed categorical variables. It yielded R2 values ranging from 0.756 (1st cluster) to 0.868 (3rd cluster) indicating moderate relation between the SAIC or HR decrease and the group of selected predictors (Table 3). However, since R2>0.70, it is indicated that more than 70% from (75.6% to 86.8%) of the variance in the SAIC or HR decrease rankings is explained by the regression of the optimally transformed variables used. The F statistic values from (8.16 to 8.28) with corresponding α=0.00 indicates that this model is always performing well.

Table 3.Relative Importance Measures

ClusterN R 2 Relative Importance Measures

Total Explanation

1st 6 0.756 Communication Improvement

(0.584)

Developmental Disability (0.226)

Gender

(0.125)(93.5%)

2nd 10 0.770 Developmental Disability

(0.632)

Communication Improvement

(0.156)

Trait anxiety value

(0.118)(90.6%)

3rd 4 0.868 Trait anxiety value (0.512)

Developmental Disability (0.236)

Gender

(0.103)(85.1%)

Dependent variable: SAIC or HR decrease

15

The relative importance measures (Pratt, 1987) of the independent variables show that the most influential factors predicting SAIC or HR decrease in the first cluster correspond to Communication improvement (accounting for 58.4%), followed by Developmental Disability (22.6%), and Gender (12.5%). Respectively, the relative importance measures of the independent variables, which are reported in the second cluster, are higher for the variables of Developmental Disability, Communication Improvement and Trait anxiety value. Finally, the relative importance of the above independent variables in the third cluster is presented high for the variables of Trait anxiety value, Developmental Disability and Gender. The total percentage of the SAIC or HR decrease which is explained by the estimated three independent variables, in each cluster, is calculated in the last column of Table 3.  In particular, the additive importance of estimated independent variables accounts for about 93.5%, 90.6% and 85.1% for the first, second and third clusters respectively.

Discussion

In recent years, MT offers a potentially viable alternative to traditional communication channels for CWDD and especially for CWA (Kissinger & Worley, 2008). In the context of treatment options for CWDD, MT may fill an important gap, which traditional therapies do not fill. Previous clinical reports (Rolvsjord, 2001; Solli, 2008) as well as research studies (Hannibal, 2005; Hanser & Thompson, 1994; Meschede, Bender, & Pfeiffer, 1983) have reported that MT has helped some patients and especially children who did not benefit from exclusively verbal psychotherapy. Many of these have found promising results; however, the quality of the included studies varied.

In this paper an indicatory dataset, centralized from 40 typical subjects, have been analyzed using two-step clustering, categorical regression models and descriptive statistics analysis in order to classify the subjects and to determine possible relation between MT and communication improvement of the subjects. The results overall indicate that the MT process improved the communication ability of CWDD.

More specifically, we found out that there is a strong statistical relation between communication improvement and SAIC or HR decrease, for CWA and for children with Down syndrome (CWDS), indicating that communication improvement for the majority of CWDD can be well explained through the analysis of the SAIC or HR decrease dependent variable. In this direction, HR alteration analysis revealed that MT helps calm young CWDD. In addition, the major part of the HR decrease realized at the first half-hour of the MT session suggesting that the dose relationship in music therapy is not linear. A further finding is that SAIC score was significantly influenced by the MT as well as it was not significantly influenced by the WT session.

Regarding the distribution of observations in the clustering procedure, all the subjects of the first and third cluster improved their communication ability, after the MT session, and the majority of them improved their SAIC and HR mean values. Synoptically, we could describe the CWA as music sensitive subjects, the majority (77%) of the CWDS as rather music sensitive subjects and the rest of the CWDD as music reactive subjects.

Moreover, the relative importance measures of the independent variables show that the most influential factors predicting SAIC or HR decrease correspond to Communication improvement, Developmental Disability and Trait Anxiety value. More specifically, in the first cluster, the decrease of SAIC or HR values explained mainly by the Communication improvement of the subjects. In addition, in the second and third cluster, the decrease of SAIC or HR values explained by the Down syndrome and the TAIC mean values (>28) of the subjects, respectively.

16

From a methodological point of view the contribution of this paper provided an application of modern multivariate methodologies in the field of special education. In particular, although several articles have been conducted to examine the effects of music therapy our study presents a first application of categorical methodologies in the field of mental health. The main benefit of employing the above methodologies is that they can handle optimally both continuous and categorical variables as well as attributes (Michailidis, 2007). Thus, a combination of categorical regression model with a two-step cluster analysis can be very useful, in the examination of communication improvement of CWDD, as the categorical variables of Table 2 can be better accommodated (Michailidis, 2007).

Consequently, this study provides interesting and initial observations as well as it demonstrates verifiability. However, as a first systematic attempt to assess the effect of MT on the communication improvement of CWDD, our study was limited to a rather small sample and a rather restrained amount of time for the observations. Therefore, due to the small number of subjects (sample) and due to the indefinable number of CWDD (population) our study rather lacks generalizability. Nevertheless, the observations made in this study provide a beginning for further research, which could extend the investigation to more representative sample.

In conclusion, MT could lead to significant improvements in young CWDD’s psychological and physical well-being. In addition, the participation of CWDD in MT programs could produce not only psychological and physical but also mental benefits, and should constitute a part of therapeutically programs that aim both to the improvement of young CWDD’s psychological state and quality of life. However, these observations about the value of MT are preliminary. Although there have been indications for the positive effects these cannot be generalized to assess long-term participation in a MT program. In order to support these observations further validation research is necessary.

References

Bruscia, K. E. (1998). Defining music therapy. (2nd ed.) Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers.

Bohmstedt, G. W. (1970). Reliability and validity assessment in attitude measurement. In Attitude Measurement. (ed. Summers, G. F.) Chicago: Rand-McNally & Co.

Dileo, C., & Bradt, J. (2005). Medical music therapy: A meta-analysis. Cherry Hill: Jeffrey Books.

Gold, C., Heldal, T. O., Dahle, T., & Wigram, T. (2005). Music therapy for schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like illnesses. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2.

Gold, C., Voracek, M., & Wigram, T. (2004). Effects of music therapy for children and adolescents with psychopathology: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 45(6), 1054-1063.

Gold, C., Wigram, T., & Elefant, C. (2006). Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2.

Hannibal, N. (2005). Beskrivelse av patientpopulationen i klinisk musikterapi på fem psykiatriske institutioner i Danmark i perioden August 2003-Juli 2004 [Description of the patient population in clinical music therapy in five psychiatric institutions in Denmark, August 2003-July 2004]. In Ochsner Ridder, H. M., Nygaard Pedersen, I., &

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Hannibal, N. (Eds.), Musikterapi i psykiatrien (64-75). Aalborg, Denmark: Musikterapiklinikken, Aalborg Psykiatriske Sygehus, Aalborg Universitet.

Hanser, S. B., & Thompson, L. W. (1994). Effects of a music therapy strategy on depressed older adults. Journals of Gerontology, 49(6), 265-269.

Howard, K. I., Kopta, S. M., Krause, M. S., & Orlinsky, D. E. (1986). The dose-effect relationship in psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 41(2), 159-164.

Jowett, B. (1888). The Republic of Plato. (Translated by Benjamin Jowett) Oxford: Oxford Clarendon Press.

Kissinger, L., & Worley, D. W. (2008). Using the Harp as a Communication Channel with Children with Autism. International Journal of Special Education, 23(3), 149-156.

Koger, S. M., Chapin, K., & Brotons, M. (1999). Is music therapy an effective intervention for dementia? A meta-analytic review of literature. Journal of Music Therapy, 36(1), 2-15.

Kooij, Van der, A. J., & Meulman, J. J (1997). MURALS: multiple regression and optimal scaling using alternating least squares. In Advances in Statistical Software. (ed.. Bandilla, W., & Faulbaum, F.) Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius.

Maratos, A., Gold, C., Wang, X., & Crawford, M. (2008). Music therapy for depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1.

Mavrovouniotis, F. H., Argiriadou, E. A., & Papaioannou, C. S. (2009). Greek traditional dances and quality of old people’s life. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, doi: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2008.11.05.

Meschede, H. G., Bender, W., & Pfeiffer, H. (1983). Musiktherapie mit psychiatrischen Problempatienten [Music therapy with psychiatric problem patients]. Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik, Medizinische Psychologie, 33(3), 101-106.

Michailidis, A. (2007). Agricultural extension services in mountain areas of Greece. Journal of International Agricultural Extension and Education, 14(1), 71-80.

Pesek, U. (2007). Musiktherapiewirkung: Eine Meta-Analyse [Effects of music therapy: A meta-analysis]. Musiktherapeutische Umschau, 28(2), 110-135.

Pratt, J. W. (1987). Dividing the indivisible: using simple symmetry to partition variance explained. In Proceedings of the second International Conference in Statistics. (ed. Pukkika, T., & Puntanen, S.) Tampere: University of Tampere.

Rolvsjord, R. (2001). Sophie learns to play her songs of tears: A case study exploring the dialectics between didactic and psychotherapeutic music therapy practices. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 10(1), 77-85.

Schalkwijk, F. W. (1994). Music and People with Developmental Disabilities: Music Therapy, Remedial Music Making and Musical Activities. (Translated by Andrew James) London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Silverman, M. J. (2003). The influence of music on the symptoms of psychosis: A meta-analysis. Journal of Music Therapy, 40(1), 27-40.

Sinclair, T. A., & Saunders, T. J. (1981). The Politics. (Translated by Sinclair, T. A., Revised by Saunders, T. J.) London: Penguin.

Solli, H. P. (2008). Improvisational use of popular music for a man with schizophrenia. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 17(1), 67-77.

18

Ulasan Jurnal 2

1.Pengenalan

Pendidikan seni merupakan salah satu daripada kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran

pelajar-pelajar pendidikan khas. Banyak kajian dan dapatan telah dipelopori oleh para pengkaji

mengkaji sejauh mana keberkesanan atau kaitan seni di dalam pendidikan khususnya pendidikan

khas. Seni menurut buku Fine art in Islamic civilization (1981),pemikir islam iaitu imam Al-

Ghazali memperkatakan bahawa seni itu indah, melalui pandangan kecantikan dan keindahan,

manakala Herbert Read mengatakan seni adalah penghasilan rupa bentuk yang menimbulkan

keceriaan , keseronokan dan kesenangan estetik . Jelas sekali bahawa seni merupakan salah satu

kaedah menarik minat pelajar untuk belajar dengan perasaan gembira di samping dapat melazimkan

perasaan yang tidak dapat dizahirkan dengan perkataan, ini di perkukuhkan dengan penyataan

Frank Cizek bahawa terdapat daya kreatif yang hebat dalam diri kanak-kanak yang memerlukan

jalan keluar untuk menyatakan ekspresi diri. Seni dalam Kurikulum Pendidikan Khas Bermasalah

Pembelajaran dibahagikan kepada beberapa komponen iaitu seni visual termasuk kraf tangan,

muzik, gerakan dan drama. Dalam satu kajian jurnal yang dijalankan oleh beberapa orang pengkaji

telah membuat ulasan mengenai sejauh manakah dapatan kajian beberapa orang penulis yang

mendapati seni drama dapat membantu kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas meningkatkan kemahiran

emosi untuk bergaul atau bersosialisasi. Berikut adalah butir-butir mengenai jurnal yang telah saya

baca dan akan saya ulas mengenai kajian jurnal tersebut.

Nama Jurnal : International Journal Of Special Education( Vol 22 No1)

Tajuk artikel : Drama Techniques For The Enhancement Of Social-Emotional

Development In People With Special Needs: Review Of Research

Penulis : D.Jinal-Snape & E.Vettraino

Tahun terbitan : 2007

Penerbit : University of Dundee, Scotland, UK.

2. Kandungan

19

2.1 Tujuan

Jurnal yang di tulis oleh D.Jinal-Snape & E.Vettraino adalah bertujuan untuk memperbaiki

serta mencadangkan bagaimana untuk memantapkan lagi kajian-kajian yang telah dijalankan oleh

penulis-penulis lain mengenai seni drama yang digunakan dalam proses perkembangan sosial emosi

kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas. Dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh D.Jinal-Snape & E.Vettraino

mereka mendapati hanya lapan pengkaji yang berjaya mengemukakan bukti bahawa teknik lakonan

mempunyai potensi untuk meningkatkan emosi bersosialisasi pelajar pendidikan khas secara

efektif. Namun begitu kajian yang dikemukakan tidak dijalankan secara terperinci dan menyeluruh,

D.Jinal-Snape & E.Vettraino mendapati pengkaji-pengkaji ini juga tidak menyertakan bukti-bukti

yang kukuh bagi menyokong dapatan kajian mereka, berdasarkan kelemahan-kelemahan yang

diperoleh maka dua orang penulis ini, D.Jinal-Snape & E. Vettraino telah membuat satu kajian yang

terperinci dan sistematik untuk tindakan masa hadapan bagi memperkukuhkan lagi hujahan mereka

bahawa penggunaan teknik drama akan dapat meningkatkan emosi bersosialisasi di kalangan

pelajar berkeperluan khas.

2.2 Latar belakang kajian

Jurnal ini mengkaji mengenai kajian semula keberkesanan penggunaan teknik drama dalam

meningkatkan perkembangan sosial emosi kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas. Kajian ini di tulis oleh

dua orang penulis iaitu D.jinal-Snape & E.Vettraino dari University of Dundee, Scotland. Mereka

melihat drama lebih kepada satu proses membantu perkembangan daripada pertunjukan. Oleh itu

satu kajian dibuat setelah mendapati beberapa kekurangan yang terdapat di dalam kajian-kajian

sebelumnya. Selain daripada itu mereka memperkatakan tentang pandangan Peter (2000) merujuk

kepada drama yang membolehkan kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas meningkatkan keyakinan diri

dengan sentuhan dari hati ke hati. Selain daripada itu kajian ini banyak memfokuskan kepada teknik

drama yang mampu mengubah dan meningkatkan sosial emosi serta mengurangkan rasa rendah diri

kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas. Kajian yang dilakukan kepada kanak-kanak atau pelajar-pelajar

berkeperluan khas di sekitar United Kingdom ini menunjukkan bagaimana keberkesanan

penggunaan teknik drama dalam meningkatkan sosial emosi mereka.

20

2.3 Kaedah Kajian

Beberapa kaedah kajian telah digunakan di dalam penulisan jurnal ini. Memandangkan

penulis membuat kajian semula penulisan penulis-penulis lain, maka penggunaan kaedah terbahagi

kepada dua iaitu dari segi pencarian jurnal dan juga pelbagai strategi drama. Bagi pencarian jurnal

penulis menggunakan kaedah carian melibatkan data maklumat daripada Educational Resources

Information Centre(ERIC) termasuk Resources in Education (RIE) dan Current Index to Journals in

Education (CIJE) serta British Education Index. Bagi kajian yang melibatkan teknik drama penulis

mendapat terdapat 23 strategi di mana 12 daripadanya digunakan kepada kanak-kanak berkeperluan

khas. Di antara 12 strategi tersebut ialah main peranan, drama psikologi, drama sosial, teater

berforum, drama berbentuk isu, drama politik, drama berbentuk terapi , drama kemahiran bersosial,

teater teraputik, drama kemasyarakatan dan drama sahaja tanpa sebarang unsur. Kesemua strategi

ini telah diperoleh daripada enam belas jurnal yang telah di baca dengan teliti oleh kedua-dua

penulis bagi mendapatkan kesahihan yang boleh di percayai. Daripada bukti-bukti yang diperolehi

dari enam belas jurnal hanya lapan jurnal sahaja yang dapat menunjukkan kesahihan dalam

mengutarakan pendapat dan juga kajian yang menunjukkan teknik drama dapat meningkatkan

sosial emosi kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas. Kelapan-lapan penulisan jurnal tersebut telah

menemukan pelbagai jenis ketidakupayaan kanak dan juga beberapa jurnal drama seperti terencat

akal, pertubuhan kecacatan, jurnal kelemahan visual dan masalah penglihatan, kajian drama

berbentuk pendidikan dan juga jurnal teater remaja. Bagi penulis tarikan antara kesemua kaedah

yang digunakan hanya satu jurnal sahaja yang menggunakan rujukan yang berlain daripada lapan

lagi jurnal. Selain daripada itu kedua-dua penulis juga menggunakan prosedur dan pelbagai teknik

pengumpulan untuk mendapatkan maklumat mengenai drama, yang paling kerap digunakan ialah

pencerapan. Data analisis yang dijalankan dapat menunjukkan laporan secara terperinci . Jangka

masa sesuatu projek drama kepelbagaian intervensi dijalankan empat hari untuk satu tahun

akademik.

2.4 Dapatan Kajian

21

Dapatan kajian ini menjurus kepada kelemahan bukti-bukti yang diberikan oleh penulis-

penulis mengenai keberkesanan penggunaan teknik drama dalam meningkatkan sosial emosi kanak-

kanak berkeperluan khas. Penulis juga mendapati kajian yang dibuat oleh mereka tidak secara

menyeluruh. Dalam lapan kertas kerja yang di kaji terdapat teknik-teknik yang digunakan terlalu

lemah dan goyah untuk dinilai, malas contoh-contoh yang diberikan juga tidak menunjukkan

keberkesanan penggunaan teknik drama tersebut. Namun begitu, penulis menemui kaedah yang

dapat menyokong semua dapat yang telah diperolehi dari penulis-penulis sebelumnya. Penulis

mencadangkan agar kriteria pemilihan dibuat dengan lebih terperinci. Pemilihan tingkah laku yang

ingin dibuat perlulah diteliti terlebih dahulu sebelum membuat sebarang kajian serta lebihkan

kepada sasaran secara individu berbanding meletakan secara berkumpulan. Penulis juga

mengandaikan bahawa dua orang individu yang mempunyai kekurangan yang khusus akan

memberikan tindak balas kelakuan yang sama kepada drama yang ditonton atau dihayati.

Diandaikan juga bahawa pelajar-pelajar yang mempunyai kecacatan dari segi sosial emosi amat

sukar untuk menerima arahan daripada orang yang tidak mereka kenali. Penulis memberi cadangan

bahawa kajian perlu disertai oleh ibu bapa atau mereka yang rapat dengan kanak-kanak tersebut

supaya mereka bersama-sama dapat merealisasikan perasaan melalui teknik-teknik drama yang

disertai tanpa sebarang gangguan atau halangan agar kajian yang dijalankan mempunyai kesahihan

yang boleh diguna pakai. Kebanyakan cadangan yang dikemukakan mempunyai kekurangan

mengenai jangka masa kajian, kumpulan kajian, masalah yang dihadapi oleh peserta kajian. Teknik

drama yang digunakan juga tidak menyeluruh dan pelbagai.

2.5 Cadangan Kajian

Selain daripada itu kedua-dua penulis juga mencadangkan kajian yang dibuat perlulah

digarap secara profesional dengan menyatakan atau mengelas kumpulan umur dan jenis kecacatan,

bahagian-bahagian kumpulan( saiz, kebolehan dan sebagainya), strategi intervensi(frekuensi,

tempoh masa, dan bilangan sesi), hasil ( kesan positif, kesan negatif dan tingkah laku yang tidak

berkesan), sebarang strategi lengkap, kesimpulan dan penyelenggaraan. Selain daripada itu

informasi mengenai polisi perlu di buat termasuk drama dalam kurikulum serta latihan dalam drama

untuk pakar pendidikan khas. Terdapat pelbagai jenis teknik drama yang perlu digunakan, pelbagai

bentuk, pemboleh ubah dengan hubung kait yang tepat di antara kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas.

22

Penulis juga mendapati jika teknik drama di gunakan secara betul dan melibatkan semua golong

masyarakat di sekeliling kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas, maka kemahiran sosial emosi mereka

akan dapat dipertingkatkan lagi. Kajian ini juga sedikit sebanyak akan memberi impak kepada

peruntukan kandungan kurikulum sekolah yang memerlukan teknik drama digunakan. Selain

daripada itu penulis menyifatkan kajian-kajian perlulah di jalankan dengan lebih teliti dan di susuli

dengan bukti yang kukuh. Terdapat beberapa frekuensi yang masih lagi lopong dalam kajian

sebelum ini seperti kumpulan sasaran yang perlu lebih jelas serta kumpulan kanak-kanak

berkeperluan khas sama ada mempunyai kecacatan seperti buta, pekak, bisu atau bermasalah

pembelajaran. Teknik-teknik drama juga perlulah dipelbagaikan dalam kajian yang akan datang

agar sosial emosi kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas ini dapat diperoleh dengan lebih tepat.

Memandangkan drama merupakan salah satu teknik yang dapat meningkatkan kemahiran sosial

emosi kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas maka penulis merasakan satu khilaf yang tidak sepatutnya di

tinggalkan oleh pengkaji sebelum ini

3. Pendapat/Ulasan

Berdasarkan jurnal yang telah saya baca saya dapati, penulis meninjau kembali

kajian-kajian yang telah dibuat oleh pengkaji-pengkaji lain mengenai keberkesanan teknik drama

dalam perkembangan sosial emosi kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas. Penulis mendapati beberapa

kelemahan yang terdapat dalam kajian mereka. Walaupun begitu penulis masih lagi memfokuskan

terhadap dapatan bahawa teknik drama dapat membantu kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas

meningkatkan perkembangan sosial emosi kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas. Bagaimana, siapa, di

mana, bila, dan jangka masa kajian telah dipersoalkan oleh penulis terhadap kajian-kajian

sebelumnya. Kenapa lontaran persoalan yang timbul diutarakan oleh penulis, ini sebenarnya kerana

penulis mendapati kesan penggunaan teknik drama amat berguna kepada kanak-kanak berkeperluan

khas seperti yang dinyatakan oleh Howard Gadner  terdapat lapan kecerdasan dalam diri individu

iaitu kecerdasan verbal-lingusitik, kecerdasan logik-matematik, kecerdasan visual-ruang,

kecerdasan kinestetik, kecerdasan muzik, kecerdasan interpersonal, kecerdasan intrapersonal dan

kecerdasan naturalis maka dari teori ini penggunaan teknik drama kepada kanak-kanak

berkeperluan khas amat bersesuaian.

Dengan fitrah kelahiran mereka yang dilahirkan dengan kekurangan, mendambarkan kita

sebagai guru mempelbagaikan aktiviti pengajaran agar ia akan menjadi lebih menarik dan

23

menyenangkan mereka belajar, salah satu teknik yang di kaji oleh penulis ialah teknik drama.

Daripada dapatan ini, drama juga dikatakan dapat membantu kanak-kanak bersosialisasi dan juga

mengurangkan tekanan emosi dengan cara perkembangan idea-idea untuk penghayatan pada kanak-

kanak secara spontan melalui imaginasi yang diilhamkan daripada sumber-sumber ekspresif alam

nyata atau alam khayalan seperti meniru watak dan imaginasi. Melalui dapatan kajain ini,

membuktikan bahawa pegerakan dan penghayatan watak dari sumber-sumber mudah dapat

memberikan pengalaman yang diperlukan untuk membantu perkembangan potensi dalam diri

kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas mendapat peluang menggunakan daya imaginasi untuk memberi

gambaran seperti burung berterbangan, ikan berenang, awan berarak dan sebagainya. Melangkau

keupayaan diri dalam gerak merupakan sumbangan daripada imaginasi kanak-kanak khas ketika

melakonkan drama, ini kerana pergerakan melambangkan perasaan mereka oleh sebab itu penulis

mengakui bahawa teknik drama dapat meningkatkan perkembangan sosial emosi kanak-kanak

berkeperluan khas. Selain daripada itu teater boneka juga dapat menarik minta kanak-kanak

berkomunikasi sesama mereka, di sini saja didapati satu bentuk komunikasi telah terbentuk.

Dengan persoalan yang diutarakan oleh penulis, bagi saya kajian semula ini akan dapat membantu

guru-guru bersama-sama menilai apa yang perlu diberi perhatian ketika mengaplikasikan teknik

drama kepada kanak-kanak berkeperluan khas.

Lampiran Jurnal 2

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 22 No1 2007

24

DRAMA TECHNIQUES FOR THE ENHANCEMENT OF SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PEOPLE WITH SPECIAL NEEDS:

REVIEW OF RESEARCH

D. Jindal-Snape&

E. VettrainoUniversity of Dundee

A systematic review was conducted of the research into the use of drama techniques to enhance social-emotional development of people with special needs. Only eight studies that were conducted in the period 1990-2005 met the criteria for inclusion in this review. The conclusions of the review were that there are indications that the dramatic processes have the potential to be effective in enhancing social-emotional development of people with special needs. However, the authors have not provided enough evidence to substantiate their claims. Further, there were several limitations in the studies, indicating the need for further research if the full potential of drama techniques is to be realized. On the basis of this analysis, this paper presents recommendations for future systematic and rigorous research in this area.

A number of drama practitioners and academics have looked at various ways in which drama can be used as an effective approach to enhancing a range of aspects of individuals’ development. In this paper, the focus is on drama as a process rather than drama as a performance (i.e., Theatre). Further, it should be noted that there are several theatre and drama groups (in the U.K. such as the Lawnmower Company, Theatre Workshop) which are engaging in exciting projects with people with special needs. This paper is not focusing on the work done by any particular individual or company. It is a review of papers that have set themselves clearly as research papers. Peter (2000a, 2000b) refers to the ways in which drama can help to develop self-advocacy and empowerment in individuals. She also linked the personal engagement that can be achieved through dramatic activities to the ways in which an individual can develop constructs of the social world and therefore the ways in which drama can be used to encourage effective and appropriate emotional responses in social interaction situations. Slade (1998), a pioneer of drama for children and of drama as a tool for change, also highlighted the contribution that dramatic and theatre forms can make to the development of the social self.

In addition, the sharing of experiences through processes such as story-telling and exploration of narrative has been identified by theorists as effective ways of developing dramatic action. Hampshire (1996) suggested that story-telling in group activities was highly effective in stimulating the generation of ideas and leading to social interaction. Schnapp and Olsen (2003) perceived storytelling, as a process in drama, of benefit when developing verbal and cognitive dexterity as well as gaining confidence in understanding socialization and cultural norms.

Further, drama specialists have discussed the ability of drama to offer social play opportunities, where children could explore solutions to various social problems that were played out (Hampshire, 1996; Slade, 1998; Kempe, 1991; Peter, 2000a, 2000b, 2003). Slade (1998) discussed the concept of cathartic responses generated through the playing out of a situation in order to understand it, claiming that through exploring difficult experiences in drama an individual could be purged of them and therefore not affected by them in later life. The playing out of situations was also discussed by Peter (2000a, 2000b) in relation to understanding social interaction and the emotional impact of actions upon others. Slade (1998) discussed the use of imaginative play, in particular projected and personal play, and indicated that this

25

type of drama intervention formed the basis of more complex role-play leading eventually to theatre skills in secondary school-aged children. Kempe (1991) also discussed the importance of role-play and mime as active experiences, drawing (encouraging) the children in to the process. Kempe (1991) explored the nature of working through problems in order to offer solutions in dramatic form, making explicit the link he perceived between what the fictional situation in the drama represented and what the children themselves experience in reality.

Peter (2003) concluded that a play-drama intervention (the strategy she employed when working with early years children and the development of storytelling and narrative) could enable children with language difficulties to bridge the gap between their lack of play experience and their potential for play, thereby exposing them to socialization opportunities that previously would have been denied due to their limited linguistic abilities. She (2000a) also posits the idea that different contexts within drama would offer a range of different communication possibilities, enabling participants to develop a greater self-awareness.

Implicit in Slade’s (1998) discussion was the concept of drama as a life long experience rather than being a specific intervention. Slade is not alone in considering that engagement in drama can lead to a long term learning experience. In Peter’s (2000a, 2000b) discussions about drama offering opportunities to repeat interventions in order to develop skills in suspending disbelief, committing to the pretence, there is an implied element of longevity in the perceived benefits of drama for children with learning disabilities; that through the playing out of situations over and over again, learning relating to these situation occurs.

Schnapp and Olsen (2003) perceived communication and the empowering experience of group participation as being fundamental to the effectiveness of drama as an approach to developing self-advocacy. Implicit in their discussion is the assumption that engaging in the process of drama games and exercises involving physical, auditory and verbal elements enabled participants to gain confidence in their own ability. Hampshire (1996), Slade (1998) and Couroucli-Robertson (2001) linked drama with therapeutic intervention – in the case of Hampshire (1996) and Couroucli-Robertson (2001) specifically in relation to working with children with socio-linguistic difficulties, implying possibilities for the teacher’s and therapist’s role in this process.

It can be seen, therefore, that drama techniques have been used in clinical, school and community settings to promote the social and emotional development of people for a number of years. Drama specialists have attributed their effectiveness to story-telling, acting-out, play, group process, etc. However, in a research context, there is a lack of evidence about its effectiveness with only a small number of studies having attempted to evaluate the effects of drama on social and emotional development (Freeman, Sullivan & Fulton, 2003). Klock’s review (1975) found that only 4% of 1,100 reports in the field between 1890 and 1972 reported any empirical research. Kardash and Wright (1987) conducted a meta-analysis of journal articles and dissertations produced between 1965 and 1984. They found that of the fifty seven studies located, only sixteen included data, with only two including sufficient data to make it possible to calculate the effect sizes. Despite this, professionals still make claims about the effectiveness of drama for promoting social-emotional development.

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Similarly, as mentioned above, there are suggestions that drama can be effectively used for the social-emotional development of people with special needs (e.g., Hampshire, 1996; Peter, 2003; Schnapp & Olsen, 2003). Indeed text books have been written discussing drama techniques for people with special needs (e.g., Peter, 1995; Cattanach, 1996). However, the dearth of evidence about the effectiveness of drama raises the question whether it is ethical to engage people in interventions that are lacking an evidence base. Also, it raises the issue of whether scarce resources should be invested in something that there is no evidence to suggest meets its objectives. Therefore, it becomes vital to look closely at these claims and the evidence behind them when using drama with people with special needs.

With this purpose, this paper reviews the literature from 1990 to 2005 on the use of drama techniques to promote the social-emotional development of people with special needs. It then presents recommendations for researchers and practitioners.

In this paper, the term Drama Techniques refers to any dramatic activity designed to promote the development of participants. Social-Emotional Development relates to aspects of development that have an impact on a person’s socialization and emotional well-being. The term Special Needs refers to any disability or disabling condition that may have an impact on that person’s social-emotional development.

Search Strategy

The following databases were searched for references as the authors were mainly interested in the educational implications.

1. Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC) including,

Resources in Education (RIE)

Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE)

2. British Education Index

The search was restricted to English-language publications from 1990 to 2005. Non-research based publications were not excluded from the initial search, and many were reviewed for background information and as potential sources for further references. However, this review has been restricted to primary reports of research design and data, as the purpose is to gather evidence related to effectiveness, and to determine the reliability and validity of the data.

Variations of the following search strategy were used in combination (1 to 12 with 13 to 23):1. Role Play 13 Emotional Development2. Psychodrama 14 Social Development3. Social Drama 15 Social Interaction4. Forum Theatre 16 Social Competence5. Theatre of the Oppressed 17 Communication6. Issue based Drama 18 Challenging Behaviour/Behavior7. Political Drama 19 Self-esteem8. Dramatherapy 20 Self-efficacy

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9. Theatre Social Skills 21 Social Skills10. Therapeutic Theatre 22 Social Interaction11. Community Drama 23 Inclusion12. Drama

All the identified papers were initially manually sorted to eliminate the more obviously irrelevant studies. Sixty seven records were generated. Only twenty of these made a reference to people with special needs, with only thirteen promoting social-emotional development of people with special needs. Another three papers were found through manual search in the references of two of the manually sorted papers (It is to be noted that manual search was conducted in all cases). All sixteen were read by the two authors carefully to ensure reader-reliability. On the basis of evidence of either research design or data, eight papers were finally selected.

Results

The eight papers that met the criteria for inclusion were published in a variety of special needs and drama journals, such as Mental Retardation, Disability & Society, Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, Research in Drama Education, Youth Theatre Journal, as well as Critical Social Policy. Interestingly, only one paper referred to another author’s paper included in this review. Both papers were published in the same journal. All eight papers claimed that drama was effective in enhancing social-emotional development. Interestingly none of the papers cited drama interventions that did not work or were inappropriate for certain groups/individuals.

The eight papers were analyzed in relation to: Variable related to social-emotional development, Sample size, Data collection techniques, Data analysis, Generalization across settings, individuals and behaviors, Maintenance over time, Nature of special need, Age group of sample, Duration of intervention/drama sessions/project (Tables 1 & 2 below).

Sample

The age group for most studies was 6 to 12 years; with one study with 13 to 18 year old, and one with 14 to 15 year olds. Two papers did not specify the age group, however an assumption can be made that they were with young adults (Price & Barron, 1999; Goodley, 2000). The age range did not come as a surprise as the search was conducted in journals with an Education focus. There was often a huge age range within a particular study, for example the age range in one paper was 6 to 12 years. The age range raises several issues, for example, about the suitability of the same drama technique/s for a 6 and 12 year old.

Table 1Study details – Part 1

Author/s

(Year)

Special

Need

Age

Group

Sample

size

Variables Duration Data

Collection

Bieber-Schut

(1991)

‘Visual

Impairment’

13-18 years 12

(6 m & 6 f)

Social Skills 4 consecutive days

Pre-post test,

Social skills inventory completed by teachers and parents/guardians

Walsh et al. (1991)

‘Social-emotional and cognitive

Study 1

Grades 7 & 8

Study 1

Experimental group:

Peer Interaction Skills, Confidence,

Study 1

11 sessions, approx. 75

Study 1

Assessed all participants at three points employing self,

28

difficulties’ (Canadian)

(Age not specified)

Study 2

6 to 12 years

5 m &7f

Delayed treatment

group: 5 m & 5 f

Study 2

Experimental group: 2 age

groups-

8 Older & 8 Younger

Comparison Group: 2 age

groups- 4 Older & 5 Younger

Social and Emotional Behaviour

minutes

Study 2

Older group 10 sessions, 1 hour long;

Younger group 9

sessions, 1 hour long

parent and homeroom-teacher ratings

Study 2, Pre- & Post-test

Standardised Measures for Self-rating, teacher rating

Parent rating scale adaptation of the teacher rating scale

Beuge

(1993)

‘Emotionally disturbed’

Children with ED 6-8 years,

Group 1 mean age of 9.2 years and group 2 mean age of 9.0 years

Two groups: 7 with ED & 24 without ED and a

comparison group of 23 without ED

The first group was

subsequently divided

into 8 groups of 3 without ED and one

with ED

Self-concept, Attitudes of others

32 half hour weekly sessions throughout the course of one school year

Experimental study, ethnographic auditors, participant observation, interviews, quantitative scales to measure attitude and self-concept (pre-post)

Miller et al.

(1993)

‘Mental Retardaion’

Experimental goup mean age of 10.91 years, Contrast group mean age of 11.25 years

Two groups: a total of 8

‘special’ and 16 ‘regular’ education students

Social skills, & competence, social interaction between and towards peers, perceived quality of friendship

12 sessions of 40 to 50 minute duration over 3 months

Two group design, experimental contrast, observation, forced choice measure, pr-post test

Widdows

(1996)

‘Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties’

14-15 years 20 Social skills 3 x 55 min ‘lessons’ per week for 1 academic

Student record of achieve-ment, action research, triangu-lated case study, observation (author and another), research

29

year diary, interviews

De la Cruz et al.

(1998)

‘Learning Disabilities’

Experimental group: 6-11

years

Comparison Group:

7-12 years

35

Experimental group: 16 m

and 5 f- further divided

according to LD

instruction group of

primary -(8) and

intermediate- level (13)

for separate drama

sessions

Comparison Group:

10 m and 4 f

Social skills, oral expressive and receptive language skills

2 week pre test, twelve 40 minute sessions, 2 week post test

Pre and post tests, experi-mental comp. group, standard tests for lang. and SS, 16 item rating scale SLS, structured interviews

Price & Barron

(1999)

‘Learning Disabilities’

Not mentioned

(assumption young adults)

8 in the drama group,

10 in survey

and others,

25 interviewed

in the 1st

pilot

Social skills and

practicalities of a project

10 week project: video produced

Participant observation, direct observation, field notes, tapes, still photos, videos, 2 small scale interview surveys

Goodley

(2000)

‘Learning Difficulties’

Not mentioned (assumption adults)

Core group of 14, ten

others interviewed

Self-advocacy 3 months project: video produced

Ethno-graphic study, observation, informal interviews

Table 2Study details – Part 2

Author/s

(Year)

Data

Analysis

Effect Size Generalization Mainte-nance

Bieber-Schut

(1991)

Wilcoxon Matched Pairs Test of Significance

z-score of

-2.52, p<.01

Not mentioned

However, parents/guardians completing the inventory can be seen as such due to different

Not measured

30

setting and individuals

Walsh et al. (1991)

Study 1

t-test

Study 2

ANOVA

Study 1

significant difference on Pupil Interaction Scale Conflict only in favour of experimental group

t(19)= -1.59,

p=.0645

On Parents-Child Behavior Rating Scale Problems, significant difference in favour of comparison group

t(19)=-1.50,

p=.075

Study 2

On Pupil Interaction Scale Conflict items, significant difference in favour of experimental group

F(1,22)=4.82,p<.05

On Inventory of Personal, Social, and Learning Skills on Problems and Strengths experimental group significantly exceeded comparison group

F(1,22)=5.48,

p<.05

Not mentioned

However, parents’ rating could be seen as such due to different setting and individuals

Had the opportunity but formal data not collected

Beuge

(1993)

t-test of pre-post scores

t(22,23)=2.14 in favour of experimental group with regards to attitudes toward “handicapped children”

pretest to post-test scores show significant equal gains for both groups (mean effect size 4.13) with p<.005 for comparison and p<.024 for experimental group

Not measured Not measured

Miller et al.

(1993)

Analysis of observational data, inter-rater reliability

On two measures nonsignificant difference

On student with special need is

Not measured Not measured

31

target for positive

Social interaction, significant difference in favour of drama condition

(mean=.16, SD=.13)

Cooperative games condition

(mean=.06, SD=.08)

p=.046

no significant difference between pre- and post-test scores or overall scores for drama or cooperative games

Widdows

(1996)

Obs. Analysis, interview analysis, qualitative, powerful moments and flash points

Positive moments

Module1=

1 to Module 6= 29

Negative moments

Module 1=15 to Module 6=zero

Not measured Not measured

De la Cruz et al.

(1998)

Two way ANOVA, mean differ-ences, t-test

For the experimental group there were:

Significant gains in mean WMS social skills, F(1,33)=

14.82, p<.01

significant social skills gains in mean SLS scores, F(1,33)=

22.97, p<.0001

significant oral expressive language gains on TOLD-2 scores, F(1, 33)=4.88, p<.05

no significant gains in oral receptive language skills

Not measured 8 weeks later all tests were re-administered

Price & Barron

(1999)

Not mentioned Not applicable Not measured Not measured

Goodley

(2000)

Not mentioned Not applicable Not measured Not measured

32

Beuge (1993) did not explain why there was a big difference in the age groups of children who were emotionally disturbed and normal (source author’s words) {mean age of 7.4 and 9.2 respectively}; and whether that could have had an impact on the results. Similarly, de la Cruz, Lian and Morreau (1998) have provided no rationale for including participants ranging in age from 6 to 11 years in the experimental group and 7 to 12 years in the control group. Not only the range within one group was large, there was a difference in the age groups in between the two groups. This raises questions about the reliability and applicability of their findings.

Most papers did not provide a rationale for the sample size, which varied from twelve to thirty five. Further, in Beuge (1993) there is confusion about the sample size, as she mentions that seven emotionally disturbed and twenty four normal students were in the experimental group. She then says that from session 11 onwards, the students were divided into eight groups of four children each; three normal and one who was emotionally disturbed. It is not clear how seven emotionally disturbed students were then put into eight groups.

Price and Barron’s (1999) study is very confusing in establishing the sample size. They initially talk about eight people self-selecting themselves for a drama club, ten participating in a survey and further twenty five being interviewed. It is not clear whether the original eight people were interviewed at any stage. Similarly, Widdows (1996) study is about the impact of drama on students with emotional and behavioral difficulties, however, she mentions that at least six of these (twenty in the sample) could be termed as having EBD (p.6). Further, she says that 40% of the students in that school had special needs. Therefore, the nature of the participants is not clear.

With regard to the nature of special need, there was one study with children with visual impairment, two with emotional and behavioral difficulties (although one author used the term emotionally disturbed and the other emotional and behavioural difficulties), and four with learning disabilities (although different terms were used), and one that had children with social-emotional and cognitive difficulties (source authors’ words). Disability/Special need was not defined in all the papers. Again, different terms were used by different authors potentially for the same special need. Apart from Bieber-Schut (1991), the intensity or the spectrum of the disability was not documented. None of the studies focused on motor disabilities, autism, complex and profound disabilities, etc.

Sampling strategies were not always documented. Again, no rationale was given for choosing a particular age group or sample. For example, Miller, Rynders and Schleien (1993) documented that students from special education closed classes were assigned to either the experimental (4 students) or contrast condition (4 students) from a pool of potential participants. Although these participants, their teachers and parents had a chance to select the condition/group they wanted to be in, no rationale apart from balancing gender and race was given. Similarly, Bieber-Schut (1991) did not provide a rationale for choosing the participants, apart from the obvious selection on the basis of gender (six boys and six girls). However, Walsh et al. (1993) provided a clear rationale for why and how the participants were selected in their study, and they also described the criteria for inclusion in the groups. Widdows (1996) included all students who chose drama as one of the curricular areas.

Variable/s

Five papers focused on social skills as outcome targets, with others (including two of these five), focusing on self-concept, social competence, social interaction, oral language skills, confidence and self-advocacy. Several, loose

33

variables were used which were not defined by the authors. A couple of authors (e.g., Widdows, 1996) split the variables into tangible behaviors. However, the behaviors were not defined.

Again, apart from casual remarks such as self-esteem of people with EBD can be low, surprisingly there was no significant association between the nature of special need and the aspect of social-emotional development that was targeted. Even then, those aspects of social-emotional development were not specifically targeted. Of course, a particular individual’s particular social-emotional development needs were never mentioned.

Techniques and duration of drama

Techniques were described well in some but not at all in the others hence the ease of replication is highly questionable in some studies. Although Walsh, Kosidoy and Swanson (1991) hinted at the creative drama element of the intervention, they did not describe the techniques used. Beuge (1993) named the techniques that were used however the techniques were not described in detail. Bieber-Schut (1991) mentioned what was done in the sessions but links with drama seemed to have come only through some role play and the improvisation after the intervention. Miller et al. (1993) described the structure of the session in detail. They also mentioned the source book and papers for the techniques used by them. De la Cruz et al. (1998) gave a very good example of a drama lesson. Price and Barron (1999) provided some good examples of the drama sessions. Goodley (2000) gave a very good detailed description of the scenarios.

All studies made a strong case for using drama techniques to enhance social-emotional development. However, most studies made no links between a specific drama technique and the nature of disability or the needs of the individuals. Miller et al. (1993) did refer to two other studies (one unpublished) where similar techniques had been used effectively with children who were of a similar age and also had mental retardation (source authors’ words). Widdows (1996) rationale was that special needs practitioners in that geographical area said that the curriculum influences the behavior and imaginative ways of working with EBD children should be found. She said that drama was her preferred approach. She also provided some rationale for the techniques and scenarios.

It is not clear from the literature how frequent or for what duration the drama interventions are required in order to have an effect. Some studies conducted the intervention for a short time but have claimed success of the intervention. For example, Bieber-Schut (1991) implemented the techniques over four days. Other studies were of medium term, like Walsh et al. (1991), in Study 1 conducted eleven 75 minute sessions and in Study 2 approximately ten 60 minute sessions, Price and Barron (1999) talk about ten weekly sessions and de la Cruz et al. (1998) conducted twelve 40 minute sessions. The intervention in Miller et al. (1993) study was over a three month period with the experimental and control groups meeting weekly for a total of twelve sessions per group. Similarly, the drama project in Goodley (2000) was over a three month period, with three hour weekly sessions. Some conducted it over a longer period, for example Beuge (1993) implemented the techniques over a school year with thirty two half-hour weekly sessions. Widdows (1996) implemented drama over the duration of an academic year with three 55 minute drama lessons per week as part of the curriculum.

Data collection and analysis

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Various data collection techniques and procedures were used, the most common one being observation. Four studies used two-group designs, experimental and control (the term used varied). Apart from two studies, data analysis measures were reported in detail. The duration of the projects and drama interventions varied from four days to one academic year. None of the studies explored generalization of intervention gains to untrained settings, individuals or behaviors. Walsh et al.’s study (1991) included parents’ ratings, and Bieber-Schut (1991) asked parents/guardians to complete a Social Skills Inventory. Two papers documented that action research (Price & Barron, 1999) and ethnographic research (Goodley, 2000) was undertaken. However, these papers did not document their research design explicitly. Therefore, it is difficult to gauge the level of evidence behind their claims about drama techniques being effective. The remaining six studies, conducted by Bieber-Schut (1991); Walsh et al. (1991); Beuge (1993); Miller et al. (1993); Widdows (1996); de la Cruz et al. (1998), documented their research design. However, the degree of rigor varied considerably. Of these six, three adopted quantitative and qualitative measures of data collection and analysis (Beuge, 1993; Miller et al., 1993, de la Cruz et al., 1998), two only quantitative (Bieber-Schut, 1991; Walsh et al., 1991) and one only qualitative (Widdows, 1996). Most studies gave results for the entire group rather than for individuals within the group, with the exception of Miller et al. (1993) who briefly mention the impact on individuals and Walsh et al. (1991). As can be seen in Table 1, Walsh et al. (1991) reported two studies in their paper. Both studies used an experimental, two-group design. They applied t-test in the first and ANOVA in the second study. The results of the second study better demonstrated the effectiveness of drama. However, they did not discuss the reasons behind this. In both studies, most of the individual students had at least some improvements after the introduction of drama. Observation was undertaken in both the studies; however, the data was not reported. The authors concluded tentatively that drama can be effective, but suggested that there was a need for further studies with improved methodologies.

Beuge (1993) undertook statistical and qualitative analysis of the effectiveness of drama techniques in changing attitudes of/towards children who are emotionally disturbed, their self-concept and social skills. She mentions that the attitudes of the normal students in the experimental group improved considerably towards students who were emotionally disturbed. However, it is not clear whether this change is due to drama or the close contact they had with them for an entire school year. Similarly it is not clear whether the control group had any contact at all with students who were emotionally disturbed. Further, it is not clear how this group’s attitudes were measured.

Miller et al. (1993) used a two-group design. There was no statistically significant difference between the two groups before starting the interventions. After the intervention, no significant differences were found between the two groups on interaction between children from special schools and children from special school initiating positive interaction towards students from regular schools. However, the authors reported a marked difference between the two groups on children from special schools being the target of positive social interaction from peers, with it being higher in the drama condition. There were no significant differences between pre- and post-test scores or between overall scores for drama or co-operative games on the forced-choice measure developed by the authors. However, these authors go on to suggest that looking at individual’s data there were some differences in favor of the drama group. They concluded that both techniques were effective despite statistical analysis suggesting otherwise. They report that anecdotal records through teacher evaluations of behavioral change were uniformly positive over both conditions. This raises issues as to, first, whether there is enough evidence to suggest that drama was effective. Second, the issue is whether statistical analysis was the best way to look at the changes, given the sample was so small.

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Using nonparametric statistical analysis, Bieber-Schut (1991) demonstrated statistical significance as to the positive impact of drama. The sample was very small (twelve) with only nine students’ pre- and post-tests completed. Only two of the control group students completed the pre- and post-test. Additionally, the results were based on a four day intervention. Also, as Bieber-Schut herself points out, the effectiveness might be due to the co-operative group setting rather than the drama techniques.

Widdows (1996) undertook a qualitative study covering one academic year divided into six modules. She effectively quantified some of the qualitative data as frequency of powerful moments (positive interactions) and flashpoints (negative interactions) per series of sessions (modules). By the end of the academic year, powerful moments had increased from one in Module 1 to twenty nine in Module 6. Flashpoints had decreased from fifteen in Module 1 to zero in Module 6. She documented through other qualitative data that drama was effective in modifying positively the behavior of children with Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties (source author’s words). However, as mentioned earlier, she did not document the data of the six with EBD and the rest of the group separately. An assumption can be made that in the latter stages students with EBD were not displaying challenging behavior. However, there is no way of ascertaining who was displaying such behavior in the initial stages. Further, she did not document the co-efficient of inter-rater reliability or indeed if it was calculated.

De la Cruz et al. (1998) conducted a primarily quantitative study, with some qualitative data. This study demonstrated statistically (using standardized measures) that children with Learning Disabilities (source authors’ words) can improve and, more importantly, maintain social and oral expressive language skills. Similar to Miller et al. (1993), they also created an instrument specific to their research and sample. They documented significant gains in the mean Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment (WMS) social skills scores of the drama group and even greater social skill gains in mean Social and Oral Language Skills (SLS). However, as mentioned earlier, the wide age range raises questions regarding the validity of their results. In Price and Barron’s (1999) study it is difficult to distinguish between the data collection during setting up the pilot project (drama club and night club project) and eventually for looking at the success of the project. They mention that out of twenty five, twenty recorded that they were enthusiastic. However, it is difficult to link this with the effectiveness of the drama techniques used to encourage their participation in the project, as only eight had been part of the drama club. It is also not clear whether these eight were among the twenty five interviewed.

Generalization and Maintenance

In two studies (Bieber-Schut, 1991; Walsh et al., 1991) an assumption could be made of generalization possibly occurring across settings and individuals, however this was not documented. Maintenance over time was considered in only one study (de la Cruz et al., 1998). Walsh et al. (1991) reported that at the reunion of the drama group after three weeks there was evidence of improvements in behavior. However, as pointed out by these authors themselves, formal data was not collected. They have recommended longer term interventions with appropriate follow-up and changes in teachers’ techniques to enhance generalization and maintenance.

Discussion And Implications

There has been an indication that drama has the legitimate promise (Walsh et al., 1991, 163) of being effective for people with special needs. Although all the papers reviewed add to the body of knowledge around this and the strategies that can be used, most author/s have not provided enough evidence to substantiate their claims. The

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analysis of the eight papers indicates some good practice but also several gaps. Of the eight papers, only six documented research design. Even with these, questions can be raised on the grounds of statistical analysis of data from a small sample; statistical measures not showing significant difference; no documentation of effect size; short time scales; and lack of reporting of inter-rater reliability, data for individuals and data for control group. As most of the quantitative research studies used pre- and post-test measures, it is difficult to determine that the positive change in behavior is as a result of drama techniques and not any other factors such as group work. Any other factors that might have changed during the project/intervention period are also difficult, if not impossible, to capture in the pre- and post-test studies. These factors might be quite important in determining the success of that and future interventions. Studies using qualitative measures were able to make stronger claims about the effectiveness of drama, which it could be argued, might be due to the researcher subjectivity.

Similarly, the wide age range also raises concerns about the validity of the results. It also raises issues to do with the suitability of the same drama technique, used in the same setting and the same moment in time, for people varying in age from, for example, 6 to 12 years of age. Lack of a sampling strategy, rationale behind choosing an individual or a particular age group raises questions regarding fore-planning of these studies. It also imposes serious limitations on replication of the studies.

Further, no rationale was presented for the choice of particular aspects of social-emotional development for research participants. It is acknowledged that as these were predominantly practice settings, it might have been difficult to choose or control all the variables. However, the chosen variables should have been defined clearly. Targeted variables/behaviors need to be selected carefully and for each individual rather than putting all individuals in a group together, and assuming that two individuals with a particular disability will respond to drama in a similar manner.

Most of the studies have documented the effectiveness of drama techniques at that moment in time and in the training/workshop/intervention setting. No study addressed the issue of generalization of positive behavior across a different setting (e.g., home, community setting), people other than in the drama setting, or other untargeted behaviors. With two studies, an assumption can be made about possible generalization. One study effectively demonstrated maintenance over an eight week period. However, even this is not long enough to demonstrate the effectiveness of a technique. No other study examined maintenance. Unless the studies can demonstrate that drama is not only effective in promoting social-emotional development but also in generalizing and maintaining it, the effectiveness is very short-term and it imposes severe limitations on the research (Stokes & Baer, 1977).

Further, it is not enough to look only at the effectiveness of drama. There is a need to understand its limitations and constraints as well. It is vital to make sure that a particular drama technique does not have a damaging effect on a particular individual. None of the papers document any consideration regarding what might be a suitable/not suitable technique for an individual. Nor do they document any arrangements that they put in place to ensure that drama was not having a detrimental effect on any individual. It is important to compare different techniques for different individuals and see what changes need to be made to the technique specific to that individual’s needs. As the data for the individuals was not reported, it is not possible to see what particular aspect of drama worked well for whom. Further, it is vital to report techniques that did not work with certain individuals or groups. Also, it raises the issue of whether the authors were primarily trained in drama or special education, or in some cases were they researchers with no formal training in either? For example, would it be best to have somebody leading the sessions as in the de la

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Cruz et al. (1998) study where the drama sessions were facilitated by the speech and language pathologist who had completed courses in theatre and used drama activities in instructions.

As mentioned earlier, only one paper referred to another author’s paper included in this review (and that also from the same journal). This gives cause for concern as it implies that professionals are not making an attempt to learn from each others work. It is important for professionals to consider related research literature before conducting any research. This also leads to a lack of strong theoretical underpinning for research in drama education and vice versa.

The research needs to be more rigorously conducted. As pointed out by Walsh et al. (1991), it can be difficult to pursue studies with stringent controls. They suggest that multiple perspectives and qualitative findings are very important. Interestingly, the participants’ perspectives were not always sought or presented. The studies in this review that demonstrated the effectiveness best were the ones that had used Observation. Similarly, development of context specific measures seemed to be more appropriate than the standardized measures. Pre- and post-test designs were unable to show clearly what worked and why. They were unable to show whether the social-emotional development was as a result of drama techniques or other factors related to the individual/group. Again, studies failed to show whether the positive effects of drama could be transferred to other, non-trained settings or not. Similarly it is not known whether the positive effects were limited to peers in the drama sessions or whether the individuals were able to interact better with other peers as well. Further, apart from one study, there is no evidence to suggest that the effectiveness was maintained over time. Whether the researchers are primarily drama professionals or professionals working with people with special needs, they need to look at ways of collecting data in a more planned and systematic manner.

Two studies developed instruments to measure the skills developed in that context, with one adapting a standardized teacher measure (Child Behavior Rating Scale) for parents. The context specific instruments seemed to be more appropriate for collecting data from a particular target group. However, further consideration needs to be given to designing instruments that might be specific for each individual and their targeted social skills/aspect of social competence. Again, for studies using observations, it is important that the observation checklist has behaviors explicitly stated. Also, bigger constructs should be broken into measurable components. For example, conversation skill could be further categorized into initiating conversation, responding, listening, etc. To observe the social-emotional development of a person it is important to do that over at least a few weeks. To look at the effectiveness of different techniques, as well as generalization and maintenance, a multiple baseline design could be used (Robson, 2002). The drama session could be conducted in a group with every individual/some individuals being observed. Research Design needs to be presented clearly to make the claims more credible, allowing the reader to make his/her own judgment, and for ease of replication. Research in this area should ideally inform the professionals about the most appropriate drama technique for specific age groups and special needs, group composition (size, ability, etc.), intervention strategy (frequency, duration, number of sessions), outputs (positive effects, negative effects and behaviors that are not affected), any complementary strategies, probability of generalization and maintenance. It should inform the policy makers of the need for including drama in the curriculum, training for drama or special education specialists, etc.

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There is heterogeneity in the drama techniques used, research design, variables, special need; with no specific links between them. There is lack of cross-referencing among researchers. This suggests a lack of an established research community in the area of drama for social-emotional development. Indeed there is some evidence and theoretical base to suggest that drama can be used effectively for people with special needs. However, there is a need for a strong evidence base, and more importantly for looking at the effectiveness of drama for individuals rather than assuming that what works for one works for all. The professionals need to consider the importance of conducting more research into this area, as there is still a need to learn more about what strategies work best and in what context. With this knowledge, drama techniques could be used more widely and effectively, and could play a significant role in enhancing the social-emotional development of people with special needs. This might have implications for the school curriculum as well as the content of off-site provision.

References

Beuge, C. (1993) The effect of mainstreaming on attitude and self-concept using drama and social skills training, Youth Theatre Journal, 7, pp. 19-22.

Bieber-Schut, R. (1991) The use of drama to help visually impaired adolescents acquire social skills, Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 85, pp. 340-341.

Cattanach, A. (1996) Drama for people with special needs. London: A & C Black.

Couroucli-Robertson, K. (2001) Brief drama therapy of an immigrant adolescent with a speech impediment, The Arts in Psychotherapy, 28, pp. 289-297.

De la Cruz, R.E., Lian, M.J. & Morreau, L.E. (1998) The effects of creative drama on social and oral language skills of children with learning disabilities, Youth Theatre Journal, 12, pp. 89-95.

Freeman, G.D., Sullivan, K. & Fulton, C.R. (2003) Effects of creative drama on self-concept, social skills and problem behavior, The Journal of Educational Research, 96, pp. 131-138.

Goodley, D. (2000) Acting out the Individual Programme Plan: Performance arts and innovative social policy for and by people with ‘learning difficulties’, Critical Social Policy, 20, pp. 503-532.

Hampshire, A. (1996) The development of socio-linguistic strategies: Implications for children with speech and language impairments, Current Issues in Language and Society, 3, pp. 91-94.

Kardash, C.A.M. & Wright, L. (1987) Does creative drama benefit elementary school students: A meta-analysis, Youth Theatre Journal, 1, pp. 11-18.

Klock, M.F. (1975) Creative drama: A selected and annotated bibliography. Washington, DC: American Theatre Association.

Kempe, A. (1991) Learning both ways, British Journal of Special Education, 18, pp. 137-139.

Miller, H., Rynders, J.E. & Schleien, S.J. (1993) Drama: A medium to enhance social interaction between students with and without mental retardation, Mental Retardation, 31, pp. 228-233.

Peter, M. (1995) Making drama special. London: David Fulton Publishers.

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Peter, M. (2000a) Drama: communicating with people with learning disabilities, Journal of Nursing and Residential Care, 2, pp. 78-82.

Peter, M. (2000b) Developing drama with children with autism, Good Autism Practice, 1, pp. 9-20.

Peter, M. (2003) Drama, narrative and early learning, British Journal of Special Education, 30, pp. 21-27.

Price, D. & Barron, L. (1999) Developing independence: The experience of the Lawnmowers Theatre Company, Disability & Society, 14, pp. 819-829.

Robson, C. (2002) Real World Research: A resource for social scientists and practitioner-researchers, Second edition. Oxford: Blackwells.

Schnapp, L. & Oslen, C. (2003) Teaching self-advocating strategies through drama, Intervention in School and Clinic, 38, pp. 211-219.

Slade, P. (1998) The importance of dramatic play in education and therapy, Child Psychology and Psychiatry Review, 3, pp. 110-112.

Stokes, T.F. & Baer, D.M. (1977) An implicit technology of generalization, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, pp. 349-367.

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