editorial board/sidang editor chief editor/ketua editor...

Journal of Management & Muamalah

Jurnal Pengurusan & Muamalah

eISSN 2180–1681

EDITORIAL BOARD/SIDANG EDITOR

Chief Editor/Ketua Editor

WAN NOR HAZWANI WAN RAMLI

Managing Editor/Editor Pengurusan

MAWAR MURNI YUNUS

EDITORS/EDITOR

MAWAR MURNI YUNUS

NURNADDIA NORDIN

NORZALINA ZAINUDIN

NUR SURIANA AWALUDIN

WAN SHAHDILA SHAH SHAHAR

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD/SIDANG PENASIHAT EDITORIAL

PROF. DATO’ DR. AB. HALIM TAMURI

DR. MOHAMAD SYUKRI ABDUL RAHMAN

DR. NOR HAKIMAH HAJI MOHD NOR

DR. MAWAR MURNI YUNUS

MDM. NORAZLINA RIPAIN

Special thanks to all involved in the publication of this journal.

Sidang Editor merakamkan ucapan jutaan terima kasih kepada semua yang terlibat dalam

menjayakan penerbitan jurnal ini.

Views expressed in this journal are not necessarily reflect views of the editor or publisher.

Authors are fully responsible towards their articles.

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Para penulis bertanggungjawab sepenuhnya terhadap artikel dan tulisannya.

Copyright Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor, 2015

Hak Cipta Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor, 2015

Journal of Management & Muamalah Jurnal Pengurusan & Muamalah

Volume/ Jilid

5 November/ November

2015

Number/ Nombor 2 eISSN 2180–1681

No. Articles/ Artikel

Page/ Halaman

1 Impact of Organisational Factors on Budgetary Slack

(Kesan Faktor Organisasi ke atas Regangan Belanjawan)

Noor Raudhiah Abu Bakar

1 – 17

2 Overview of the role of Financial Development as a form of

Absorptive Capacity in the FDI-Growth Nexus

(Tinjauan Peranan Pembangunan Kewangan sebagai Pemangkin

dalam Hubungan Pelaburan Langsung Asing dan Pertumbuhan

Ekonomi)

Nor Hakimah Haji Mohd Nor

18 – 30

3 Penerimaan Media Sosial sebagai Medium Dakwah dalam

Kalangan Mahasiswa KUIS

(Social Media Acceptance as Medium of Dakwah Among KUIS

Students)

Faradillah Iqmar Omar

31 – 42

4 Isu-isu Penulisan Skrip: Masalah yang Memerlukan Penyelesaian

(Issues in Script Writing: Solution-Needed Problems)

Mohd Daly Daud, Nursyamimi Harun & Md. Rozalafri Johori

43 – 54

5 Needs Analysis and Material Development in English for Specific

Purposes in Relation to English for Islamic Studies

(Analisa Keperluan dan Pembangunan Bahan Pembelajaran

Bahasa Inggeris untuk Pengajian Islam)

Rabiathul Adhabiyyah Sayed Abudhahir, Mahanum Mahdun &

‘Aliyatulmuna Md. Nor

55 – 63

6 Personal Data Protection Act 2010: Taking the First Steps towards

Compliance

(Akta Perlindungan Data Peribadi 2010: Mengambil Langkah

Awal ke arah Pematuhan)

Farah Mohd Shahwahid & Surianom Miskam

64 – 75

Journal of Management & Muamalah, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2015

eISSN 2180-1681

1

IMPACT OF ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS ON BUDGETARY SLACK

(Kesan Faktor Organisasi ke atas Regangan Belanjawan)


Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor

Rozita Amiruddin

Sofiah Md Auzair

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

ABSTRACT

This study examines the impact of organisational factors on budgetary slack among managers

in Malaysia. The organisational factors as identified in prior research are budget participation,

budget emphasis, information asymmetry and power distance. Specifically, this paper focuses

on the influence of these factors either individually or interactively on the occurrence of the

budgetary slack. Data are collected using questionnaire from 83 managers randomly selected

from companies listed in Bursa Saham excluding finance, warrant and loan sector. Factor

analysis results show that there are two dimensions of power distance i.e. supervisor style and

management style. Individual relationships were tested using multiple regression and

interaction relationships used moderated regression. Multiple regression results indicate a

negative and significant relationship between management style and budgetary slack.

Moderated regression results show a significant positive relationship between two way

interaction of budget participation and budget emphasis with budgetary slack, and three way

interaction of budget participation, budget emphasis and information asymmetry with

budgetary slack. As a whole, the results imply that high power distance (management style)

decreases the budgetary slack, while high interaction of budget participation, budget

emphasis, and information asymmetry increases the budgetary slack. These results indicate

that management should choose the right combination of budget participation, budget

emphasis, and information asymmetry, and management style to control budgetary slack. The

findings of this study could assist management of companies to understand the important

factors that influence budgetary slack, which in turn may lead to effective management.

Keywords: Power distance; budgetary slack; budget participation; budget emphasis;

information asymmetry

ABSTRAK

Kajian ini mengkaji kesan faktor organisasi ke atas regangan belanjawan di kalangan

pengurus di Malaysia. Faktor organisasi seperti yang telah dikenalpasti dari kajian lepas

adalah penyertaan belanjawan, penekanan belanjawan, asimetri maklumat dan jarak kuasa.

Khususnya, kajian ini fokus kepada pengaruh faktor-faktor ini secara individu atau secara


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interaksi ke atas kehadiran regangan belanjawan. Kutipan data adalah menggunakan borang

soal-selidik dari 83 pengurus yang dilpilih secara rawak dari syarikat yang disenarai di

Bursa Malaysia tidak termasuk kewangan, waran dan sektor pinjaman. Hasil dari analisis

faktor menunjukkan terdapat dua dimensi jarak kuasa iaitu gaya pengurus dan gaya

pengurusan. Hubungan individu diuji menggunakan regrasi berganda dan hubungan

interaksi pula diuji dengan menggunakan regrasi moderat. Hasil analisis regrasi berganda

menunjukkan hubungan negative yang signifikan antara gaya pengurusan dan regangan

belanjawan. Hasil analisa regrasi moderat menunjukkan hubungan positif yang signifikan

antara interaksi penyertaan belanjawan dan penekanan belanjawan dengan regangan

belanjawan dan antara interaksi penyertaan belanjawan, penekanan belanjawan dan asimetri

maklumat dengan regangan belanjawan. Secara keseluruhan, kajian menunjukkan semakin

tinggi jarak kuasa (gaya pengurusan) mengurangkan regangan belanjawan, sementara

semakin tinggi interaksi penyertaan belanjawan, penekanan belanjawan dan asimetri

maklumat meningkatkan regangan belanjawan. Hasil kajian ini menunjukkan pengurusan

perlu memilih kombinasi penyertaan belanjawan, penekanan belanjawan, asimetri maklumat

dan gaya pengurusan untuk mengawal regangan belanjawan. Hasil kajian ini juga dapat

membantu pengurusan syarikat dalam memahami faktor penting yang mempengaruhi

regangan belanjawan dan seterusnya ke arah pengurusan yang efektif.

Kata kunci: Regangan belanjawan; penyertaan belanjawan; penekanan belanjawan;

asimetri maklumat; jarak kuasa

INTRODUCTION

Even though the notion of budgetary slack had been discussed since 1953 by Aygris, the issue

of budgetary slack is still of researchers’ interest and being debated in the literature (e.g.

Church, 2012; Yang et al., 2009; Maiga & Jacobs, 2008). Lau and Eggleton (2003) indicate

that there are still major unresolved issues of budgetary slack, one of which is the issue on the

factors influencing budgetary slack. Previous studies had identify three main factors affecting

budgetary slack i.e. budget participation, budget emphasis and information asymmetry. The

conflicting results on the direction of the relationship between these three factors and

budgetary slack contribute to these unresolved issues.

General notion expressed using budgetary slack as a tool to manipulate the budget in

which the presence of budgetary slack causes the budget target easy to achieve. Cyert and

March (1963) has included a slack as a key component of the manager trying maximized.

They say that when the organization achieves its goals, organizational resources will fill

individual goals. This is consistent with agency theory which states that managers as agents

are act according to its own goals and budgetary slack is one action that allows them to be

rewarded easily. Presence in the form of budgetary slack so stated as undesirable and

unethical (Douglas & Wier 2000) and it should be limited (Dunk 1995; Fisher et al., 2000;

Fisher et al. 2002a; Nouri 1994; Young 1985). In addition, budgetary slack increased

inefficiencies in resource allocation, affect the operating performance (Leibenstein 1966;

Williamson 1964) and affect the reliability of the information (Nouri 1994; Govindarajan

1986). These are the negative effects due to the presence of budgetary slack.


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Despite the common perception, there is also empirical evidence that says otherwise

that is budgetary slack led to a positive effect (Elmassri & Harris, 2011). Budget slack is used

to motivate employees, enable the work to achieve the goals of management and manage

budget risk (Davila & Wouters 2004; Elmassri & Harris, 2011). It encourages innovation and

creativity of employees, absorb stress, resolve conflicts and motivate employees to stay in the

company (Bourgeois 1981; Cyert & March 1963). This shows that budgetary slack increase

the performance of employees and organizations if appropriate circumstances.

Indirectly, this implies that the practice of budgetary slack considered leads to the

undesirable situation and have potential positive impact on the organization. Onsi (1973)

states budget slack is undesirable depending on the factors that affect it. Knowing the factors

will control the behavior of budgetary slack. Previous studies have found that three major

factors affecting the budget is budgetary slack participation (Lukka 1988; Merchant 1985,

Young 1985), the emphasis of the budget (Dunk 1995; Hopwood 1972; Merchant 1985; Otley

1978) and information asymmetry (Fisher et al. 2002p; Fisher et al. 2002b; Lambert 2001).

High degree of participation in the budget process is claimed to provide an opportunity

for employees to create slack in the budget. The higher the degree of participation in the

budget process, the higher the propensity of budgetary slack (Lukka, 1988; Young, 1985). On

the other hand, Merchant (1985) and Lal et al. (1996) found that budget participation is

negatively associated with budgetary slack or budget slack is reduced as staff felt appreciated

when they are allowed to participate in budget process. With regard to the effects of budget

emphasis, Leavins et al. (1995) and Linn et al. (2001) results contradict those of Van der

Stede (2000) whereby they found that budget emphasis was negatively associated with budget

slack. With regard to the effects of information asymmetry on slack, contrary to Jaworski and

Young (1992), Chow et al. (1988) found that information asymmetry is positively associated

with budget slack.

The three main factors determining budgetary slack; budget participation, budget

emphasis and information asymmetry shown to be related to budgetary slack, but decisions

about the relationship turned out to be consistent. Indirectly, this gives room for future

researchers to continue to study the budgetary slack. In addition, this study identified

inconsistency as determining factors not directly affect budgetary slack. There are other

factors that influence the interaction with budgetary slack. Dunk (1993) studied the

relationship between budgetary participation and budgetary slack in the presence of budget

emphasis and information asymmetry. He expects the interaction positive organisational

factors to the budget slack, but failed to establish a relationship. Lau and Eggleton (2003)

continue efforts Dunk (1993) with the same make and successful studies provide empirical

evidence that there is a negative relationship between budget participation, budget emphasis

and information asymmetry budgetary slack.

In Malaysia, studies on budgetary slack still in initial stage. Mohamad Adnan and

Sulaiman (2006, 2007) studies on the effect of religion, organisational and cultural on

budgetary slack among Malaysian organisation. Review by Nik Nazli et al. (2003), a tendency

to do budgetary slack is high for companies in Malaysia compare to companies in the United

Kingdom (UK) and New Zealand. High power distance in Malaysia than in the UK and New

Zealand identified as an explanation of the practice of budgetary slack. Fear of failure and the

need for good image for, corresponding to the characteristics of high society, high


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dependency employees to the superior namely power distance (Hofstede 1991) may be invited

to practice high budgetary slack.

Power distance is one of the nation's cultural dimensions presented by Hofstede (1980).

Ueno and Wu (1993) study on cultural differences and budgetary slack. However, their study

only on two cultural dimensions of individualism / group (individualism / collectivism) and

avoidance of uncertainty (uncertainty avoidance) and the results state that only the cultural

dimension of individualism / group only positively related with budgetary slack. A study by

Lau and Eggleton (2004), however, took individualism / group and power distance (power

distance) as proxy for the country's culture and examine its relationship with the budgetary

slack. However, their study is not able to prove an individual relationship between culture and

budgets slack but found a negative relationship interaction between the culture of the country,

budget emphasis and information asymmetry budgetary slack.

This study is choose four organisationals of budgetary slack budget participation,

budget emphasis, information asymmetry and power distance. Budget participation, budget

emphasis and information asymmetry selected because previous studies found that these three

factors is the main factor leading to budgetary slack. But the previous research on these three

factors has never been consistent. This gives the opportunity to study confirm. Another factor

which is chosen because of the power distance dimension of this culture that make the

difference between Malaysia and other countries as noted in the study by Nik Nazli et al.

(2003).

The study will not only examine the relationship between the organisationals directly

above the budgetary slack, but the interaction between the organisationals of budgetary slack

is also tested. This study continue the efforts of Dunk (1993) and Lau and Eggleton (2003,

2004) who studied the interaction the determining factors of budgetary slack.

The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. The next section discusses the

literature review and development of research hypothesis. This is followed by sections that

discuss method and present results. Before concluding remarks are made, the limitation and

avenue of further research are presented.

LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT

Budgetary slack is defined as intentional underestimation of revenues and productive

capabilities and/or overestimation of costs and resources required to complete a budgeted task

(Dunk & Nouri 1998). Budgetary slack is usually associated with dysfunctional behaviours;

achievement of budget target without much effort, unethical behaviour, ineffective resource

allocation and unreliable information.

However, there are empirical evidences that proved the opposite effect. Budgetary

slacks do motivate employees and lead to achievement of organisation’s goal (Davila &

Wouters 2004). It also encourages employees’ innovation and creativity, absorbed tension and

resolved conflicting goals (Bourgeois 1981; Cyert and March 1963). In addition, Yang et al.

(2009) find the relationship between budget slack and innovation performance to be an

inverse, U-shaped curve which means too little budget slack is as bad for innovation

performance as too much budget slack. However, Onsi (1973) stated that dysfunctional

behaviour of budgetary slack depends on the factors contributing to it and by knowing these

factors, control could be done to reduce the dysfunctional behaviour of budget slack.


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Previous research that linked culture with budgetary slack is Ueno and Sekaran

(1992). The study identifies the role of culture in budgetary control practices in the U.S. and

Japan. These studies assumes that two-dimensional culture which are individualism and

uncertainty avoidance is able to explain and understand any differences that may exist in the

practice of budgetary control for two countries, Japan and the United States. The results show

that the culture of individualism is higher in the U.S. than in Japan where there is greater use

of communication and coordination. This creates more traction in the budget and there is

greater effect on short-term performance assessment than in Japanese companies.

Results of the survey by Ueno and Sekaran (1992) show that the country's culture

plays an important role in the practice of budgetary control in general, and particularly in

budgetary slack. This gives more room for future research taking into account the culture of

the country as one of the main factors. This will also give more exposure to managers

involved in international business to understand so that they can prepare themselves when

they have to operate in different countries. Accordingly, the study by Nik Nazli et al. (2003),

using a sample of Malaysian companies, found that budget participation is high and the

propensity to create budgetary slack is very high compared with the companies in the United

Kingdom and New Zealand. High power distance in Malaysia than in the UK and New

Zealand is identified as an explanation of the practice of stretching the budget. Fear of failure

and the need for good image corresponds with power-distance society of employees

dependent on their superior (Hofstede 1991) contributed to increase budgetary slack.

Based on the discussion above, the expected power distance is one of the main

organisationals of budgetary slack in Malaysia and expected environmental range of this

power has a positive relation with budgetary slack. This study is also expected to provide

additional empirical evidence for the literature on budgetary slack.

Beside power distance, previous research had identified the organisational factors of

budgetary slack, of which, the main factors are budget participation, budget emphasis and

information asymmetry. These three organisational factors receive much conflicting results on

the direction of their relationship with budgetary slack.

The research on budgetary slack’s organisational factors could be traced back to Onsi

(1973). Onsi (1973) provides opportunities to subsequent research to explore more on these

organisational factors. Using experimental method, Young (1985) found that budget

participation is positively associated with budgetary slack, contradicting with Onsi (1985).

Merchant’s (1985) result on budget participation on the other hand, is consistent with Onsi

(1973). However, his result on budget emphasis is negatively associated with budgetary slack

as opposed to Onsi. This demonstrates there are conflicting results on the direction of the

relationship between organisational factors and budgetary slack. Research in 1980’s focus on

the relationship between organisational factors and budgetary slack individually.

Interaction effects of organisational factors started to be incorporated in the next

decade. Proposed by Dunk (1990) as an explanation for inconsistent results of individual

relationship of organisational factors to budgetary slack, his research examined three way

interactions between budget participation, information asymmetry and budget emphasis on

budgetary slack. However, the results are different from the hypothesized positive

relationship, which further widens the controversy on the direction of relationship between

organisational factors and budgetary slack. The effect of two way interactions of

organisational factors (information asymmetry and budget emphasis) was also discussed by


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Dunk and Perera (1997). Although the interaction effects of organisational factors were

introduced, most of the research in this decade still examined the relationship between

organisational factors and budgetary slack individually. Inconsistent results on organisational

factors of budget participation and budget emphasis are exhibited in the research by Leavins

et al (1995) and Lal et al (1996).

In the following decade, new organisational factors such as business strategy and

business achievement (Van der Stede 2000) and reputation and ethic (Douglas 2002) are

introduced. The focus of the research in this decade is more towards three way interaction of

organisational factors, for example (1) interaction effects of budget participation, budget

emphasis and asymmetry information on budgetary slack (Lau & Eggleton 2003) (2)

uncertainty, budget participation and control system (Kren 2003) and (3) budget emphasis,

asymmetry information and culture (Lau & Eggleton 2004). Beside this, individual

relationship between organisational factor and budgetary slack were also examined for

example, budget emphasis (Van der Stede 2000; Linn et al., 2001), asymmetry information

(Douglas & Wier 2000; Fisher et al., 2002a; Fisher et al., 2002b) and budget participation

(Linn et al., 2001).

Research in Malaysia on budgetary slack is still in early stage. The newest studies in

Malaysia is Mohamad Adnan and Sulaiman (2007; 2006) and Nik Nazli et al. (2003).

Mohamad Adnan and Sulaiman (2007; 2006) studies on factors influencing budgetary slack in

Malaysia. The factors include organisational, religious and culture. Nik Nazli et al. which

examined implementation of budget at general. Their study shows budgetary slack in

Malaysia is higher than in New Zealand and USA. Though the reasons for this difference are

not clear, it is possible that cultural factors may account for the difference (Nik Nazli et al.,

2003). Malaysia ranks very high on Power Distance (Hofstede, 1991). According to Hofstede

(1991) in large Power Distance societies, employees tend to be dependent on their superiors

and bosses have the ultimate authority. Thus, the fear of failure and need to ‘look good’ on the

part of employees are paramount. As such, participative budgeting may lead to a higher

propensity to create budget (Nik Nazli, 2000).

The above discussions indicate power distance, budget participation, budget emphasis

and asymmetry information are the main factors contributing to budgetary slack due to

inconsistent results of the direction of the relationship. The effects of interactions between

organisational factors are emphasized in the research as one possible explanation to these

inconsistent results. Thus, it offers an avenue for further research on organisational factors of

budgetary slack within the perspective of interactive effects.

Hypothesis Development

Over the years slack has been viewed as an agency, organizational behaviour and ethical issue

(Hobson et al., 2011; Ozer & Yilmaz, 2011). The premise of agency theory is that agents are

self-interested, risk averse, rational actors who always attempt to exert less effort and project

high capabilities and skill than they actually have. Given compensation or reward as

depending on budget attainment, managers (i.e. agents) will build a slack in the budget as to

ensure the budget targets are achieved. (Lowe & Shaw 1968; Schiff & Lewin 1968, 1970;

Waller 1988)


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Participation in budget gives opportunity for employee to do slack (Young 1985).

Lowe and Shaw (1968) stated that employee do budgetary slack to protect their own interest

and this action is economic rational behaviour. This is also supported by Lukka (1988) which

argued that a high degree of participation gives subordinate managers the opportunity to

contribute directly to the creation of slack and vice versa. This leads to hypothesis as follows:

H1: Budget participation is positively associated with budgetary slack Emphasis on meeting budget target as a criterion for evaluation of subordinates’ performance

(high budget emphasis) may be associated with high job-related tension (Hopwood, 1972). In

situation of high budget emphasis, employee will find a way to protect themselves from risk

of not achieving the budget target (Lukka 1988). Budgetary slack is one of the solutions for

this situation. Onsi (1973) reported a positive relationship between employees’ need to create

slack and emphasis on budget. Camman (1976) results are also consistent with Onsi (1973)

showing that when managers used budget emphasis, the responses of their employees are

defensive. These findings suggest as Merchant (1985) proposed that the budgetary slack is

positively related to budget emphasis. This leads to second hypothesis as follows:

H2: Budget emphasis is positively associated with budgetary slack

High information asymmetry will give opportunity for employee to do a slack without being

detected by the managers. In this situation, the ability of managers to detect slack is low.

Merchant (1985) concluded that the ability of superiors to detect slack may also influence

their employee to create slack. This leads to the third hypothesis as follows:

H3: Information asymmetry is positively associated with budgetary slack

According to Williams and Seaman (2001), high power distance reduces trust on individual.

Low trust will increase control on employees. Employees will have conflict of interest and try

to get good performance evaluation and try to protect themselves by doing budgetary slack.

According to Hofstede (1991) in high power distance society, employees fear of failure and

need to look good to their manager. This leads to fourth hypothesis as follows:

H4: Power Distance is positively associated with budgetary slack Budget participation give opportunities to employee do budgetary slack. Consequently,

subordinate managers may react favourable to budgetary slack or tend to increase the creation

of slack when there is a high job related tension due to high budget emphasis. The creation of

budget slack also increased when there is high budget emphasis coupled with opportunity to

participate in budget. This leads to the fifth hypothesis as follows:

H5: Interaction between budget participation and budget emphasis is

positively associated with budgetary slack

Dunk (1993) shows that participation alone does not affect budgetary slack and Dunk (1993)

suggests there may be other factors associated with participation will lead to budgetary slack.

Budget participation gives opportunity to employee to do slack and the opportunity become

wider with information asymmetry. Budget emphasis gives reason why employee do budget

slack. Thus, the above discussion suggests that high participation with high budget emphasis


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and high asymmetry information is likely to give rise to high budgetary slack. This leads to

the sixth hypothesis as follows:

H6: The interaction between budgetary participation, budget emphasis and

information asymmetry is positively associated with budgetary slack.

Budget participation and information asymmetry give opportunity to employees to do

budgetary slack while budget emphasis and power distance gives reason why employees do a

budgetary slack. Thus, the above discussion suggests that high participation with high budget

emphasis, high asymmetry information and high power distance is likely to give rise to high

budgetary slack. This leads to the seventh hypothesis as follows:

H7: The interaction between budgetary participation, budget emphasis,

information asymmetry and power distance is positively associated with

budgetary slack.

METHOD

Sample Selection

A total of 150 companies were randomly selected from companies listed in Bursa Malaysia on

15 November 20051. Listed companies in Bursa Malaysia is chosen as sampling frame

because of their big size, they employ more workers and have high paid up capital.

Therefore, it is expected that the companies use formal budget and control to guide

operations. From these 150 companies, 450 managers were chosen as sample respondent.

Each company is given three questionnaires together with a cover letter and self-addressed

envelope for the questionnaire to be returned directly to the researchers. First reminder letters

were sent one week after sending the questionnaires followed by second reminder letter two

weeks later. Telephone calls also were used to solicit higher response.

From a total of 450 questionnaires sent to managers, 83 questionnaires were returned, which

yielded a response rate of 18.44 per cent. All questionnaires returned are valid to analyse.

Variables Measurements

A five point likert scale is used to measure all items of the research variables. These items are

anchored by (1) low usage and (5) high usage.

Budgetary Slack

This study uses measurement suggested by Van der Stede (2000), which measures budgetary

slack with five items: (1) succeed in submitting budgets that are easily attainable, (2) budget

targets induce high productivity in the department,(3)budget targets require costs to be

managed carefully in the department, (4) budget targets have not caused employees to be

1 The sampling framework excludes companies from financial, warrant and loan sector. High possibility that this

sector does not practice budgetary slack since this sector is under Banking and Financial Institution Act

(BAVIA)


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particularly concerned with improving efficiency in the department, (5) whether the budget is

very easy to attain, attainable with reasonable effort, attainable with considerable effort,

practically unattainable or impossible to attain. From factor analysis, first and second items

are excluded because factor loading is less than 0.5.

Budget Participation

Budgetary participation is the means by which subordinate managers influence plans and their

means of implementation, thereby sharing in the decision making process with their superiors

on matters that affect their areas of responsibility (Milani, 1975). This study adopts Milani’s

measurement of budget participation on (1) the importance of employees involvement in

setting the budget, (2) the kind of reasoning provided to employees by their superior when the

budget is revised, (3) the frequency of discussion related to budget initiated by superior with

the employees, (4) the influence that employees have on final budget, (5) the importance of

employees contribution to the budget, and (6) the frequency of discussion with employees

related to budget is initiated by superior when budgets are being set. From factor analysis, all

the items are valid.

Budget Emphasis

It refers to tight budget control (Anthony & Govindarajan, 1994) and accordingly when

budget control is tight, performance is measured predominantly on the basis of attaining

budget goals (Van der Stede, 2000). Although most studies adopt the measurement developed

by Hopwood (1972), this study utilizes Van de Stede (2000) since the latter’s measurement is

more specific with regard to the high emphasis of the subordinates to achieve budget target

and consistent with the given definition. Budget is emphasised because of the following: (1)

it is reminder by superiors of the need to meet budget targets, (2) superiors judge performance

predominantly on the basis of attaining budget goals, (3) Control over the department by

superiors is principally through monitoring how well the budget is on target, (4) superiors

achieving the budget is an accurate reflection of whether the employees are succeeding in

their work, (5) not achieving the budget has a strong impact on employees performance as

rated by the superiors, (6) Employees promotion prospects depend on their ability to meet the

budget, and (7) In the eyes of the superiors, not achieving the budget reflects poor

performance. From factor analysis, all the items are valid.

Information Asymmetry

Information asymmetry arises when subordinates (agents) are in possession of information

that affects the decision process between subordinates and superiors (principals). The research

used revised instrument of Jaworski and McInnis (1988) suggested by Ramaswami et. al

(1997). Respondents are asked on the information possessed by them compared to their

principal with regards (1) Employees know more about how to accomplish the work they

normally encounter, (2) Employees are intimately familiar with the day-to-day decisions

related to their work, (3) Employees have developed a better working knowledge of their job,

(4) Employees can assess their performance more adequately after completing the activities,

(5) Employees can specify the most important variables to monitor in their work, (6)

Employees can specify the performance objectives to cover the range of activities they

perform. From factor analysis, all the items are valid.


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Power Distance

Hofstede (1980) defined power distance as the difference between the extent to which the

superior can determine the behaviour of the subordinate and the extent to which the

subordinate can determine the behaviour of the superior. Measurement of power distance uses

three questions used by Hofstede (1980) and two additional questions. The three questions

from Hofstede are: (1) Employees are frequently afraid to express disagreement with their

superior, (2) employees perceive that their superior decision making style is more autocratic

than persuasive, (3) employees prefer autocratic style of decision making from their superior

than the persuasive way. Two additional questions are: (4) employee expects to be consulted

than to be told by the superior, (5) employee’s company hierarchy is seen to be more

exploitive than reflecting natural differences. From factor analysis, the items are divided into

two dimensions. First dimension is manager style which is represented by items (1) and (2).

Second dimension is management style which includes items (4) and (5). Item no (3) is

excluded.

The Cronbach Alphas of the variables under study are (1) budgetary slack 0.74 (2) budget

participation 0.89 (3) budget emphasis 0.95 and (4) information asymmetry 0.92. (5) power

distance (manager style) 0.69 and management style 0.59.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

Respondent Profile

Nearly all the respondents are subordinate managers, with mean age of below forty years.

They have been holding their current position on average less than five years, and most of

them (83.1 %) are interested to continue working in the same company in the next five years.

More than half of the respondents have at least diplomas.

Summary descriptive statistics for independent and dependent variables are presented in Table

1.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of independent and dependent variables

Variables Min Max Mean Median Std dev

budgetary slack

budget participation

budget emphasis

information asymmetry

1.00

1.33

1.00

2.00

5.00

4.50

4.71

4.83

2.65

3.07

2.90

3.60

2.67

3.00

3.00

3.67

0.83

0.79

0.87

0.65

Power Distance-

Manager Style

1.00 5.00 2.60 2.50 0.86

Power Distance-

Management Style

1.00 5.00 2.70 2.50 0.77


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Hypotheses Testing

The results of testing hypotheses 1 to 4 are presented in Table 2. The finding suggests that

hypotheses 1 to 3 are rejected. Budget participation, budget emphasis and information

asymmetry do not have a significant relationship individually with budgetary slack.

Hypothesis 4 expects positive relationship between power distance and budgetary slack.

Result from factor analysis, shows power distance is divided into two dimensions; manager

style and management style. There is no significant relationship for manager style but for

management style, the result shows negative relationship and significant. This result is

opposite of the hypothesis stated before.

Table 2: Multiple Regression for testing Hypotheses 1-4

Variables Coefficient Std.

Error

T-

valu

e

P-

value

Constant b0 4.881 1.587 3.076 0.003

Budget Participation (BP) b1 0.101 0.462 0.218 0.828

Budget Emphasis (BE) b2 0.261 0.387 0.674 0.502

Information Asymmetry (IA) b3 0.555 0.485 1.145 0.256

Power Distance –Manager Style(PD-1) b4a 0.099 0.323 0.306 0.760

Power Distance –Management Style(PD-2) b4b -0.905 0.343 -2.637 0.010

R² = 0.131, Adjusted R² = 0.075, n = 83, F5,83

= 2.324 (p = 0.051)

The regression model used to analyse the data for testing Hypothesis 5 to 7 are:

H5: Y = b0 + b1 BP + b2 BE + b3 BP x BE

H6: Y = b0 + b1 BP + b2 BE + b3 IA + b4 BP x BE + b5BP x IA + b6BE x

IA + b7BP x BE x IA

H7: Y = b0 + b1 BP + b2 BE + b3 IA + b4 PD + b5BP x BE + b6BP x IA +

b7BP x PD + b8BE x IA + b9BE x PD + b10IA x PD +

b11BP x BE x IA + b12BP x BE x PD + b13BP x IA x PD +

b14BE x IA x PD + b15BP x BE x IA x PD

Where Y = budgetary slack; BP = budget participation; BE = budget emphasis; IA=

information asymmetry; PD = power distance

Table 3 shows interaction hypothesis which covered three hypotheses, hypothesis 5, 6

and 7. Table summarizes the results of the interaction between organisational factor and

budgetary slack .

Hypothesis 5 states that the interaction of budget participation and budget emphasis is

positively associated with budgetary slack. Table 3 presents the result of two way interaction

between budget participation and budget emphasis affecting budgetary slack. The results

indicate that coefficient b3 of the two-way interaction is highly significant (est. = 1.247; p <

0.001) and positively related to budgetary slack. The R2 is 16.7%. The result shows that

budget participation and budget emphasis individually do not affect budgetary slack.

However, interaction between them is positively associated with budgetary slack and

hypothesis H5 is supported.


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Table 3: Result of Hypothesis 5, 6 and 7

Hypothesis Interaction T-Value P-Value R² Result

5 Budget

Participation and

Budget Emphasis

3.516 0.001 0.167 Positive

and

Significant.

Accepted

6 Budget

Participation,

Budget Emphasis

and Information

Asymmetry

2.001 0.048 0.219 Positive

and

Significant.

Accepted

7a Budget

Participation,

Budget Emphasis,

Information

Asymmetry and

Power Distance

(Manager Style)

-1.786 0.079 0.328 Negative

and not

significant.

Rejected

7b Budget

Participation,

Budget Emphasis,

Information

Asymmetry and

Power Distance

(Management

Style)

-0.794 0.430 0.325 Negative

and not

significant.

Rejected

Hypothesis 6 states that the interaction of budget participation, budget emphasis and

information asymmetry is positively associated with budgetary slack. Table 3 presents the

result of three way interaction between budget participation, budget emphasis and information

asymmetry affecting budgetary slack. The results indicate that coefficient b7 of the three-way

interaction is highly significant (est. = 1.229; p < 0.048) and positively related to budgetary

slack. The R2 is 21.9%. The result shows that budget participation, budget emphasis and

information asymmetry individually do not affect budgetary slack. However, interaction

between them is positively associated with budgetary slack and hypothesis H6 is supported.

Findings from the study show that when information asymmetry is high with high

budget participation and budget emphasis, the occurrence of budgetary slack increases. The

result is consistent with agency theory whereby agents (managers) are self-interested and will

take any opportunity to secure their interest. With high degree of participation, it increases

employees’ opportunities to create directly the slack in the budget. More opportunities of

creating slack existed when employees have more information compared to their superior.

This situation will allow employees to do budget slack without the risk of being detected by

their superior because in high information asymmetry, superiors’ ability to detect slack is low

(Merchant, 1985; Lal et al., 1996). Accordingly, when emphasis in the budget is high, it

encourages employees to do more slack in budget to secure goal achievement.


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The result is further strengthened by the explanation of sample profile. On average, the

respondents hold their current position less than five years and mostly are interested to

continue to work in the same company in the next five years. Therefore, there is a high

possibility of natural acts of agent among them to secure their interest by creating slack in the

budget.

Hypothesis H7 states that the interaction of budget participation, budget emphasis,

information asymmetry and power distance is positively associated with budgetary slack.

Table 3 present the result of four way interaction between budget participation, budget

emphasis, information asymmetry and power distance (dimension manager style and

management style) affecting budgetary slack. The results indicate that there is no significant

interaction relationship and hypothesis H7a and H7b are not supported.

CONCLUSIONS

The objective of this study is to examine the individual relationship and interaction between

budget participation, budget emphasis, information asymmetry and power distance on

budgetary slack. This study suggests budget participation, budget emphasis and information

asymmetry individually does not affect budgetary slack but two-way interaction between

budget participation and budget emphasis and the three-way interaction between budgetary

participation, budget emphasis and information asymmetry is positively associated with

budgetary slack.

The results of this study show that budgetary slack is contingent upon the interaction

between budget participation, budget emphasis and information asymmetry in a positive

manner. The results provide evidence that managers (i.e. agents) have the tendency to build

slack in their budget whenever opportunities arise to secure their compensation prospects. By

participating in budget process, managers have opportunity to directly build a slack in the

budget. The tendency to build budget slack is greater when their information on subordinate

capabilities exceeds that of their superiors and budget target is the main indicator for

evaluating their performance.

The result also shows that management style and one dimension of power distance

have an impact on budgetary slack. However, this dimension does not have a positive

relationship but it has a negative relationship which indicates that part of power distance will

reduce budgetary slack. This is a new discover for Malaysian managers. This result also

shows that autocratic style will reduce budgetary slack in Malaysia.

This study gives important implications to both theory and practice. Theoretically, the

findings of this study are consistent with agency theory which underlies the conceptual model

of this study. Agency theory states that high budget participation with high information

asymmetry will increase budget slack if budget emphasis is also high. This is because

participation in budget and information asymmetry gives opportunity to the workers to do

budget slack without being detected by their superiors, to make sure they achieve the budget

targets when budget emphasis is high.

This study also gives additional empirical evidence which highlights national culture

factor and power distance as one of the main factors of budgetary slack in Malaysia. There are

two dimensions of power distance in this study; manager style and management style. Only


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management style has a significant negative relationship with budgetary slack. More

autocratic management style will decrease the budgetary slack.

Practically, for management to control budgetary slack, management has to control the

level of participation and emphasize on budget and information asymmetry simultaneously.

Thus, management needs to choose the right combination of organisational factors to control

the budgetary slack in order to gain effective management. Management can also increase

autocratic management style to reduce budgetary slack.

The results of the study may be subject to a number of possible limitations. Firstly,

many companies in Malaysia consider disclosing information as requested in the survey

questionnaire as confidential and thus are unwilling to cooperate. This results in a low

response rate (18.44%). However, the sample size received is considered enough for a

meaningful statistical analysis to be undertaken.

Secondly, although the sample for this study is selected from various industries, there

is no attempt to study the industrial influence on the current findings. If the sample collected

is large enough, consideration of industrial influence would provide a valuable insight.

Thirdly, measurements of management style (power distance) are based on the definition of

power distance only. Cronbach alpha is also low (0.58) and it will reduce the reliability for

this variable.

Finally, the results of this study should be interpreted with care as it is conducted in

one country only, i.e., Malaysia. Different results may be found in different countries with

different political settings and culture.

Future studies may use field study in multinational companies to study the budgetary

slack issue. Studying multinational companies may provide an interesting venue as these

firms possess complex organisation structure and multi-racial staff that operates in different

countries and with different culture.

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Department of Accounting

Faculty of Management and Muamalah

Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor (KUIS)

[email protected]

Rozita Amiruddin

Sofiah Md Auzair

Pusat Pengajian Perakaunan

Fakulti Pengurusan Perniagaan

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)

[email protected]

[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]




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OVERVIEW OF THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT AS A FORM OF

ABSORPTIVE CAPACITY IN THE FDI-GROWTH NEXUS

(Tinjauan Peranan Pembangunan Kewangan sebagai Pemangkin dalam Hubungan Pelaburan

Langsung Asing dan Pertumbuhan Ekonomi)



ABSTRACT

This study provides extensive review of the literature that encompasses two broad underlying

frameworks namely the FDI-growth nexus and the financial development-growth nexus. The

discussion is extended to the literature on the FDI-financial development-growth nexus where

the role of financial development is shown to be crucial in the FDI-growth link. The importance

of absorptive capacity has been recognized by past studies to enhance the relationship of FDI and

economic growth that so far empirically resulted in mixed findings. In serving the absorptive

capacity, higher level of financial development is identified as one of the significant channels

that would fulfill the purpose.

Keywords: Foreign direct investment; financial development; economic growth

ABSTRAK

Kajian ini meninjau peranan kualiti pembangunan kewangan sebagai pemangkin kepada

pelaburan langsung asing (FDI) dalam menggalakkan pertumbuhan ekonomi melalui sorotan

literatur. Tinjauan merangkumi dua kajian besar yang melibatkanhubunganFDI-pertumbuhan

ekonomi danhubungan pembangunan kewangan-pertumbuhan ekonomi. Perbincangan

dilanjutkan kepada pengembangan literaturhubunganFDI-pertumbuhan ekonomi di mana

peranan pembangunan kewangan dibuktikan sebagai pemacu penting dalam pertalian FDI dan

pertumbuhan ekonomi. Keupayaan menyerap telah diiktiraf oleh kajian lepas dalam membantu

meningkatkan kesan hubungan FDI dan pertumbuhan ekonomi, di mana setakat ini hasil kajian

hubungan tersebut tanpa pemangkin secara empirikal mendapati kesan yang bercampur.

Kesimpulannya, sebagai memenuhi fungsi keupayaan menyerap, tahap pembangunan kewangan

yang lebih tinggi dikenal pasti sebagai salah satu saluran penting yang akan memenuhi tujuan

tersebut.

Kata kunci: Pelaburan langsung asing; pembangunan kewangan; pertumbuhan ekonomi

INTRODUCTION

Since the last two decades, many countries have been taking earnest initiatives to promote their

economies as the destination for foreign direct investment. The flow of FDI increased sharply in

the developed and emerging economies that had designated FDI as a major vehicle for economic


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development (UNCTAD, 2010). FDI has been a capital formation of choice and identified as one

of the most important factors that contribute towards economic expansion through its benefits

and externalities. Alfaro et al. (2004, 2009) highlight several benefits of FDI that could promote

economic growth, for examples, knowledge spillover of technology transfers, introduction of

new processes to domestic market, learning-by-observing, training of labor force and managerial

skills.

While there is an extensive body of literature that investigates the relation between FDI

and economic growth, the empirical findings are ambiguous and inconclusive. On the one hand,

there are studies that find a positive relationship between FDI and economic growth (see, for

examples de Mello 1999; Yao & Wei 2007; Elsadig 2012). On the other hand, some studies have

shown that FDI is negatively related to economic growth (see, for examples Konings 2001; Elia

et al. 2009; Doytch & Uctum 2011). There are also studies that find no significant effects of FDI

on economic growth (Beugelsdijk et al. 2008; Temiz & Gokmen 2013; Yalta 2013; among

others).

Drawing on the ambiguous and inconclusive results of the FDI-growth relationship, the

literature has identified absorptive capacity of the host country as the key explanatory variable

for the varied conclusions. Specifically, absorptive capacity is described as a pre-requisite that

enables a host country to successfully incorporate the benefits and positive impacts of FDI

spillovers (Alfaro et al. 2009, Hermes & Lensink 2003).1 According to Crespo and Fontoura

(2007), absorptive capacities of domestic firms and regions are important preconditions for

realizing the benefits of FDI inflows. Since different countries have different levels of

development and local conditions, the impact of FDI in each country would be different. It is

expected that maximum benefits of FDI spillovers could be reaped through higher levels of

absorptive capacity. As stated in Alfaro et al. (2009), the success of domestic firms is determined

to a certain extent, by the local characteristics and the inherent weaknesses of domestic firms

might reduce their ability to absorb new technologies brought about by their foreign

counterparts. Consequently, this would hold back technological innovation and limit its impact

on the overall economy.

The literature of FDI-growth nexus has been extended with the introduction of financial

development as one form of absorptive capacity. Financial development of a country has been

recognized as one form of absorptive capacity since it has the potential to spur economic growth

by resolving various financial market imperfections which in turn allows the benefits of FDI to

be materialized. Levine (2005) provides detailed discussion on the following five major

functions of a financial system: producing information and allocating capital; monitoring firms

and implementing corporate governance; ameliorating risk; pooling of savings; and easing

exchange, all of which contribute to promoting economic growth.

Furthermore, in the realm of the FDI-growth literature, recent empirical studies that

investigate the role of financial development in FDI-growth nexus have collectively indicated

that finance is vital for the growth effects of FDI (see, for examples Hermes & Lensink 2003;

Lee & Chang 2009; Azman-Saini et al. 2010; Choong 2012). Hermes and Lensink (2003) find

that the development of banks and stock market are important preconditions for FDI spillovers to

be positively realized. Lee and Chang (2009) and Azman-Saini et al. (2010) also find that the

impact of FDI spillovers on economic growth requires a well-functioning financial market. The

findings of Azman-Saini et al. (2010) based on 91 countries over the period from 1975 to 2005

1 Cohen and Levinthal describe an absorptive capacity as “…an ability to recognize the value of new information,

assimilate it, and apply it to commercial ends” (1990: 128). In addition, Falvey et al. (2007) highlighted that a

country with higher absorptive capacity gained more from trade-related knowledge spillovers. In the study, trade is

measured by the average ratio of imports plus exports to GDP that capture the other benefits of openness.


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show that FDI’s impact on growth is positive only when financial development exceeds a

threshold level. Similarly, in a recent study, Choong (2012) also find that a well-developed

domestic financial market is a precondition for FDI to affect economic growth positively.

Taken together, prior studies have shown that financial development plays an important

role in the FDI-growth nexus and that it serves as one form of absorptive capacity of the host

country. Higher level of financial development suggests that the well-functioning financial

sectors are efficient in mobilizing and allocating capital to its most productive use. Thus,

countries with greater financial development will have better absorptive capacity, that would

enable them to realize more benefits from the FDI spillovers. As highlighted by Lai et al. (2009),

sufficient absorptive capacity is the foundation for FDI technology spillovers. Thus, it is

concluded that the role of financial development is shown to be crucial to enable a country to

make the most of the positive growth effects of FDI.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Foreign direct investment or abbreviated as FDI hereafter, serves as a primary form of

international capital transfer that has prospered tremendously in the past decades in both

developed and developing countries, to acquire cross-border expenditures and to expand the

corporate control of productive assets (Froot 1993). The first years of the 80s saw FDI becoming

the most crucial medium of integrating the world economy through its offerings of international

lending and borrowing. In recent years, FDI inflows have undergone a fast-paced development

and this leads to noteworthy economic success. As established from UNCTAD (2010), the FDI

inflows’ rapid increase is evident through the anticipation that the world inflows would escalate

to more than $1.2 trillion in 2010, further climb up to $1.3–1.5 trillion in 2011, and peak at $1.6–

2 trillion in 2012. The report which also ranks top economies based on the 2009 magnitude of

FDI flows, shows that the United States stays prominent as the world’s leading recipient of FDI,

besides its competitors namely China, France, Hong Kong and the United Kingdom.

The perception of the FDI as the very crucial component of capital flows in the global

economy and a dependable source of external financing is explained by the fact that it is more

stable than other types of investment. According to Chuhan et al. (1996) who study the behavior

of four major components of international capital flow in 15 developing and industrial countries

for the period of 1985-1994, direct investment is discovered as less volatile, owing to its less

drastic responses to disturbances in other capital inflows and in other countries.2 Besides,

through their adoption of the quarterly net flows and a univariate analysis in the study, it has

confirmed that direct investment is far from being ‘hot money’ or the term which denotes the

short term investment which is possibly speculative and which leads to market instability. In

addition, by incorporating FDI in the components of capital flows, it gives equal position to the

compositions of the loans and equity in international capital flows for the country. Lipsey (1999)

also shows that FDI suggests relatively higher stability than other types of international financial

flows. In the study, Lipsey (1999) places in comparison the differences among the types of

2 Four major components of international capital flows that are studied by Chuhan et al. (1996) are direct investment

(DI), short-term investment (STI), portfolio investment (PI) as well as other long-term investment (LTI). As

elaborated by Chuhan et al. (1996), DI contains some capital investment, retained earnings and intra-company debt,

STI captures changes in assets’ investment with one year maturity period, PI includes additional corporate equities

and bonds and LTI contains additional public and private sector debt securities, trade credit, loans, deposits and

other long-term assets. The source of data is Balance of Payments Statistics Yearbook of International Monetary

Fund.


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21

investments based on their direction of flows or volatility which measurement is by the standard

deviations.

In support of the findings obtained by Chuhan et al. (1996) and Lipsey (1999), Bird and

Rajan (2002) whose foundation of research resting on Malaysia’s balance of payment for the

1995-1998 timeframe, it is found empirically that economies which finance their current account

primarily with FDI are seen to be less vulnerable to a financial crisis.3 In favour of a long term

financing, FDI is acknowledged as more stable since it is irreversible in the short term. Although

the application of FDI as the main external financing is still not devoid of risks, its benefit

spillovers which heighten the development of the economy have made FDI superior to other

forms of capital flow. Moreover, Albuquerque (2003) offers empirical evidence that FDI also

carries a risk-sharing advantage over other capital flows. It is caused by the assumptions of the

flawed enforcement of financial contract and the inalienability of FDI that contributes to lower

levels of default premium and sensitivity to changes in the country’s financing constraints. By

taking an example from various international capital flows based on the said assumptions, with

samples of 111 countries for the period of 1975-1997, Albuquerque (2003) also urges

financially constrained countries to borrow relatively more via FDI.

FDI-Growth Nexus

The ultimate objective of FDI as the interjection of capital in economy is to accelerate the

growth rates, where in theory, FDI is expected to bring about a positive effect on the country’s

economic growth. Burgeoning empirical studies that have extensively investigated the FDI-

growth nexus, however have produced results that are contradictory. In spite of the fact that

some of them empirically find that FDI does have a positive contribution to growth (see, for

examples de Mello 1999; Vu & Noy 2009; Elsadig 2012), other empirical studies on the other

hand, have found otherwise, that is negatively related to growth (see, for examples Li & Liu

2005; Elia et al. 2009; Doytch & Uctum 2011). In addition, some other studies also find that the

significant impact of FDI on economic growth is non-existent (Beugelsdijk et al. 2008; Temiz &

Gokmen 2013; Yalta 2013) and that FDI only promotes growth given some conditions only

(Blomstrom et al. 1992; Balasubramanyam et al. 1996).

It is theoretically known that the major contribution of foreign investment to the host

country possibly stems from its various external effects or spillovers. Some studies have

managed to prove that FDI would contribute positively through its spillovers. For example

Blomstrom (1986) whose study sheds light on foreign investment and productive efficiency,

empirically finds that foreign investment’s multiple positive effects have proven to be an

important determinant in the industry’s structural efficiency. In addition, Blomstrom (1986) also

finds that the most important source of spillover efficiency is manifested in the competitive

pressure exerted by foreign firms. This study has shown that the role of FDI in the world

economy is significantly greater where recipient countries can obtain not only the funds for

investment but to the point that they can also enjoy the benefits through efficient technologies

and know-how. OECD (2003) reports that positive spillover effects of FDI can also become

advantageous to the country through the companies’ development and restructuring, the

enhancement of international trade and smart integration into the world economy, as well as an

3 Bird and Rajan (2002) also suggest that a country is better off if the capital flows are formed not entirely with FDI

but also with other forms of capital flows since a country that finances its current account deficits almost entirely by

FDI may remain vulnerable to capital reversals, as evident in Malaysia, which was affected by the crisis in Thailand

due to this condition. However, the relationship of FDI and other capital flows is other empirical issues shall not be

discussed in detail since it is not a focus in this study.


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increase in the competition and human capital development. A more recent study by Anwar and

Nguyen (2011) finds that an indirect effect or the spillover effect of FDI can be generated

through the links formed between domestic and foreign firms. Having said that, the FDI

spillover may lead to technology and knowledge transfer that increases the competition in the

domestic market, and ultimately contributes towards better resource allocation.

Theoretically, technological knowledge is widely recognized as a major FDI spillover

that contributes positively to the economic growth. According to Aghion and Howitt (1998),

under the growth theory, technological knowledge is important as a channel to maintain

economic growth in the long run since capital accumulation is subject to the effects of

diminishing marginal returns which would in time, cause the growth rate to cease. Some other

studies also find that FDI generates externalities in the form of technology transfer and

contributes to economic development (see, for examples Liu 2002, 2008; Sadik & Bolbol 2001;

Chakraborty & Nunnenkamp 2008; among others).

Furthermore, Liu (2002) who examines 29 industries of manufacturing over the period of

1993-1998 in China, suggests that FDI generates externalities in the form of technology transfer.

In the study, Liu (2002) finds that FDI in the manufacturing industry is significantly and

positively related to the productivity as well as the rate of productivity growth of its components

industries. In addition, Liu (2008) that extends the study of Liu (2002) provides more evidence

on FDI and technology spillovers by examining a large panel data of 17,675 manufacturing firms

over the period of 1995-1999. Liu (2008) proposes that FDI spillovers could decrease the short-

term level of productivity but increase the long-term productivity growth rate of local firms. In

the long run, technology spillovers serve as a source of knowledge that can make productivity

growth rate sustainable, as well as functioning as an ultimate engine of economic growth.4

In addition, Sadik and Bolbol (2001) present other evidence where the study finds that

FDI has been found to be an added advantage of generating technological spillovers for the

positive growth in the countries of the Arab world.5 It is also identified that by facilitating the

technology transfer in a global economy, it can hone the technology edge of other countries

involved in the various international endeavours. Similarly, Chakraborty and Nunnenkamp

(2008) who examine the effect of FDI in the Indian post-reform within a panel co-integration

framework, find that FDI stock and output are positively related through cross-sector spillovers

from the service sector to the manufacturing sector.

However, some other studies also find the FDI spillovers can be branched into positive

and negative spillovers, where some studies contend on their impact towards the host countries.

For example although Damijan et al. (2003) find that FDI is an important channel where

technology can be transferred to developing countries, they also find that there is no, or even

negative, horizontal knowledge spillovers from foreign-owned firm to domestic firms. Damijan

et al. (2003) investigate the effects of FDI’s direct technology transfer, FDI spillovers of intra-

industry knowledge, firm’s R&D accumulation and spillovers via trade for local firms’ total

factor productivity growth by examining firm-level data for eight transition countries for the

period 1994 to 1998. A more recent study by Hanousek et al. (2011) points that the forward

4 On the other hand, the negative effect of spillovers that is found in the short-term rate of productivity growth

indicates that technology transfer or externalities does not exist automatically and require costly learning process

(Liu 2008).

5 Sadik and Bolbol (2001) study the FDI’s role and its importance in the economic performance of the Arab

countries over the period of 1980-1999 by using the OLS. It captures the impact of FDI on the Arab’s technological

development and total factor productivity.


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spillover effects is negative and significant however the backward spillover effects are found

positive and significant.6 Hanousek et al. (2011) dispute the previous literature findings on direct

and indirect impacts of FDI in the emerging European market by using a survey and meta-

analysis.7 In addition, Hanousek et al. (2011) also find that the impact of productivity spillovers

in cross-sectional studies is greater than in panel studies since unobserved heterogeneity is not

properly addressed, further resulting in biased estimates.

Extensive literature that has explored the impact of FDI on economic growth has

produced incompatible results. Although FDI inflows are discovered as an engine of economic

growth, where their benefits of knowledge and technology spillovers could contribute to the

economic growth of the recipient countries, the empirical findings on the growth effects of FDI

are still inconclusive and remain ambiguous. Conversely, FDI is found to exert positive growth

effects on the recipient countries. For example, De Mello (1999) empirically finds that FDI

inflows positively affect an output growth in all panels, with and without country-specific factors

(i.e. institutions, trade regime, political risk, policy, etc). Yao and Wei (2007) provides empirical

evidence that FDI positively contributes to economic growth where it has been identified as a

powerful driver of economic growth for a newly industrializing economy to keep abreast with

the world’s most advanced country as a mover of production efficiency and a shifter of

production frontier. A more recent study by Ouyang and Fu (2012) discovers a positive effect of

FDI on growth where inter-regional spillovers studied from the coastal FDI is found to be

positively and significantly related to economic growth in inland regions.

On the other hand, other studies find that FDI is negatively related to growth. As Görg

and Greenaway (2004) review most of the previous empirical literature which investigates the

FDI-growth nexus, they discover that a great deal of the work does not find positive spillover

and thus conclude that the effects of FDI on growth are mostly negative. As shown by an earlier

study by Aitken and Harrison (1999), the study empirically finds that FDI has a negative

consequence on the productivity of domestically owned plants.

Elia et al. (2009) finds that the impact of outward FDI is negative to the home country

when foreign affiliates come from high income countries. Doytch and Uctum (2011) that

investigate the effects of manufacturing and service FDI on their own sector growth, the

spillover to other sectors and the overall economy in the host country, find that the impact of

total FDI on the whole growth in the service-based economies is also negative. Furthermore, as

also found by other studies, FDI has no significant effect on economic growth. Herzer et al.

(2008) that examine the link of FDI-growth for 28 developing countries find no existence of

positive unidirectional long-term effect of FDI to GDP in any country. Carkovic and Levine

(2002) who empirically revisits the relationship of FDI and economic growth find that the

exogenous component of FDI does not give any positive impact to economic growth. The other

study by Beugelsdijk et al. (2008) also finds no significant effect in developing countries, either

from horizontal (market seeking) or vertical (efficiency seeking) FDI even if there are

empirically positive and significant growth effects established in developed countries in both

types of FDI.

6 Forward spillover refers to how local firms benefit from intermediate inputs from foreign firms and backward

spillover refers to how foreign firms may profit from the improvement of domestic firms. 7 The sample in the meta-analysis consists of 21 papers, 10 of which are published in academic journals, 6 are

contributions to an edited volume and 5 are working papers.


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FDI-Growth and Absorptive Capacity

Generally, previous literature has recognized the fact that the impact of FDI on economic growth

is ascertained by certain local characteristics of the host countries. More specifically, it refers to

an absorptive capacity that is recognized by past studies as a key explanation for the inconclusive

and ambiguous findings in the FDI-growth nexus. As highlighted by Alfaro et al. (2009),

absorptive capacity is described as a precondition that aids a country to garner the diverse

benefits and positive impacts of FDI spillovers. Thus, the country’s local conditions matter as

they can restrict the extent to which FDI benefits materialize.8

In a study by Cohen and Levinthal, an absorptive capacity is defined as “…an ability of a

firm to recognize the value of new, external information, assimilate it and apply it to commercial

ends” (1990: 128). Cohen and Levintal (1990) also conclude that since absorptive capacity is

intangible, its benefits are indirect and it appears as part of the firm’s innovative capabilities.

Thus, abundant past studies dwelling into FDI spillovers have made a serious effort in

considering the element of absorptive capacity as the main channel towards investigating the

effects of the FDI-growth nexus. Collectively, past studies empirically find that with a

precondition of absorptive capacity determined by multiple factors, it contributes to a positive

relationship of FDI and economic growth (Blomstrom et al. 1992; Borensztein et al. 1998;

Branstetter 2006; Sinani & Meyer 2004).

Furthermore, recent empirical literature has brought forth the assertion that financial

development is a key explanation for the inconclusive and ambiguous findings in the FDI-growth

nexus where financial development is found to serve as a precondition in enabling the positive

growth effects of FDI to be realized. Financial development is recognized as an important

absorptive capacity due to its major functions in the country’s financial system that includes both

banking and stock market sectors. Alfaro et al. (2009) provide evidence that financial markets

act as a channel in facilitating the positive growth effects of FDI to be realized where the study

finds that countries with well-developed financial markets gains significantly from FDI through

total factor productivity improvements.

Financial Development-Growth Nexus

In the finance-growth nexus literature, a large body of research has shown that financial

development exerts positive impact on economic growth. The theoretical foundation of the

relationship between financial development and economic growth has been discussed over the

decades since the earlier works by Schumpeter (1911) and later by McKinnon (1973) and Shaw

(1973). These classical views have recognized financial sector development as a major catalyst

that contributes positively to economic growth. Well-functioning financial sectors have been

shown to enhance economic growth by lowering transaction costs, reducing market frictions and

ensuring that capital flows are steered towards the most productive use possible.

Levine (1997) provides a theoretical review which proves that financial development

plays an important role to the country’s economic growth. Levine (1997) highlights five

functions of financial system i.e. facilitate risk management, allocate resources, exert corporate

control, mobilize savings and ease trading of goods and services which consequently channels

capital accumulation as well as technological innovation to growth. The more efficient the

functions the more developed financial development will be which impliedly ameliorate market

8 Alfaro et al. (2009) mainly find that the improvement in total factor productivity plays an important role in

benefiting from FDI spillovers and capital accumulation in both physical and by contrast, human however does not.


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frictions of information and transaction costs. Levine (2005) further discusses the five major

functions of financial system in detail which provides different implications in every dimension

due to the possible improvements of the functions that consequently enhance economic growth.

Bertocco (2008) theoretically stresses on the positive linkage between financial

development and economic growth by way of re-assessing some crucial elements derived from

Schumpeter’s theoretical framework which includes innovation and credit. Collectively, past

studies have also empirically proven that there exist positive strong and robust relationship

between financial development and economic growth (see, for examples King & Levine

1993a,b; Levine & Zervos 1996, 1998; Arestis et al. 2001; Beck & Levine 2004; Kendall 2012;

Law et al. 2013). More recent studies also show that finance is of utmost importance for growth

(see, for examples Ergungor 2008; Hung 2009; Hasan et al. 2009; Jalil et al. 2010; Kendall 2012;

Law et al. 2013; among others). These studies collectively find that financial development has a

positive link with economic growth. As an instance, Ergungor (2008) and Hung (2009) provide

evidence that there is a contingent relationship between the two. In addition, Hung (2009) also

discovers that the effect of financial development on economic growth is determined by the

magnitude levels of investment loans and consumption loans. Hasan et al. (2009) find that the

development of the financial markets is associated with more robust economic growth. Another

research by Jalil et al. (2010) re-examines the finance-growth nexus in China and it is discovered

that the growth of the Chinese economies is driven by its financial development.

Overall, past literature has shown that financial development clearly functions as a key

engine to economic growth. The substantial role of financial development is recognized in the

promotion of growth through its various major functions. Financial management is important for

growth, as a well-functioning financial system highlights the consequent low levels of

asymmetric information and transaction cost which ultimately promote the flows of capital to be

directed to the most productive use and to affect economic growth in a positive manner.

FDI-Financial Development-Growth Nexus

Studies on FDI-growth nexus are extended by introducing financial development as an

absorptive capacity or a channel of the link. Financial development appears to be the key

explanation for the inconclusive findings of the relationship between FDI and growth. In other

words, financial development performs as a precondition to the country in facilitating the

positive growth effects of FDI spillovers. Extensive studies that empirically investigates the role

of financial development in FDI-growth nexus collectively finds a positive relationship between

FDI and growth with the existence of well-functioning financial system in a country (see, for

examples Hermes & Lensink 2003; Alfaro et al. 2004, 2010; Azman-Saini et al 2010; Choong

2012; among others). Hermes and Lensink (2003), Alfaro et al. (2010, 2004), Ang (2009), Lee

and Chang (2009) and Azman-Saini et al. (2010) empirically find that the level of the financial

development contributes to the FDI-growth nexus where the higher level of financial

development influences the stronger relationship of FDI and economic growth. These studies

provide strong evidence that a well-functioning financial development causes the link of FDI-

growth to be positive through the higher capability of the country in materializing the positive

effects of FDI spillovers.

Hermes and Lensik (2003) conclude that FDI of LDCs positively contributes to growth

only when their domestic financial systems are improved. Hermes and Lensink (2003)

empirically analyze the cross section of the data set of 67 of less developed countries (LDCs),

from the Latin American and Asian continents, for the period of 1970 to 1995 using the

regressions of growth equation. Alfaro et al. (2004) show consistent evidence similar to that of


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Hermes and Lensik (2003), where the level of local financial markets is important in realizing

the positive effects of FDI-growth link. The study empirically examine the link of FDI and

economic growth with financial markets as a channel using cross-country data for the period of

1975-95 for 20 OECD countries and 51 non-OECD countries for the first data set of credit

market indicators and 20 OECD countries and 29 non-OECD countries for the second data set of

equity market indicators. Consistent with Alfaro et al. (2004), Alfaro et al. (2010) improve their

work by providing new evidence on the importance of the well-developed markets in the FDI-

growth nexus. Alfaro et al. (2010) adopt a different approach to examine the role of local

financial markets in mediating FDI effects on output growth, by means of applying a calibration

exercise and sensitivity analysis. The findings of the study reveal that an increase in FDI leads to

higher growth rates in financially developed countries as compared to their poorer counterparts.

Meanwhile Choong et al. (2005) also suggest when a recipient country has a well-

developed and well-functioning financial sector FDI is more likely to enhance its economic

growth in a more efficient manner. It is indirectly suggest that the process of technological

spillovers may be more efficient in the presence of well-functioning financial systems. Choong

et al. (2005) examine the role of financial system in transferring the technological diffusion

embodied in FDI inflows in the Malaysian economy for the period of 1970-2001 by applying

bound test or unrestricted error correction model (UECM). Other empirical studies by Lee and

Chang (2009) and Azman-Saini et al. (2010) also consistently establish the same finding of the

positive link of FDI-growth with the pre-condition that the financial development has reached a

certain level. Study by Azman-Saini et al. (2010) which includes cross-country observation for

91 countries for the period of 1975-2005, employed private sector credit as a threshold variable

in the regressions, whereas Lee and Chang (2009) use a set of 37 countries using annual data of

1970-2002 and apply a panel-based ADF unit root tests as well as Pedroni’s panel cointegration

tests. A more recent study by Choong (2012) discovers new evidence on the FDI-growth nexus

that confirms yet again the domestic financial development as a pre-requisite for the realization

of the positive growth effects of FDI. Choong (2012) examines the relationship of FDI, financial

development and economic growth in a panel of 95 developed and developing countries over the

period from 1983 to 2006 using dynamic panel GMM estimation.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the existing empirical literature shows that a well-functioning financial development

causes the link of FDI-growth to be positive as it enabling a country in materializing the positive

effects of FDI spillovers. While extensive literature that has investigated the impact of FDI on

economic growth has produced mixed results, recent literature has identified an absorptive

capacity as a key explanation for the ambiguous and inconclusive findings of the FDI-growth

nexus where financial development is found to serve as one form of absorptive capacity that

enhances the positive growth effects of FDI. The financial development is thus recognized as a

new form of absorptive capacity in enabling a country to realize the positive growth effects of

FDI, and thus is expected to enhance understanding of the FDI-financial development-growth

framework.


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[email protected]



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PENERIMAAN MEDIA SOSIAL SEBAGAI MEDIUM DAKWAH DALAM

KALANGAN MAHASISWA KUIS

(Social Media Acceptance as Medium of Dakwah among KUIS Students)



ABSTRAK

Ledakan teknologi komunikasi pada masa kini membawa fenomena baru dalam bentuk

komunikasi manusia apabila fokus kini tertumpu kepada penggunaan media sosial dalam

pelbagai aspek kehidupan. Malah, penggunaan media sosial telah menjadi aktiviti yang

popular di laman sosial (Socialnomics.net. 2012). Justeru, penggunaan media sosial ini

meliputi tuntutan pelaksanaan dakwah yang harus menggunakan pelbagai metod mengikut

kesesuaian zaman. Kebanjiran media sosial seperti Facebook dan Twitter dilihat memberi

peluang yang meluas terhadap penyebaran mesej dakwah kerana sifatnya yang pantas dan

lebih global. Ini jelas apabila terdapat pendakwah-pendakwah tersohor turut menjadikan

media sosial sebagai wadah penting penyebaran mesej dakwah mereka. Selain itu, berdakwah

merupakan satu tuntutan dan tanggungjawab yang besar yang perlu dilaksanakan oleh umat

Islam dengan menitikberatkan konsep amar ma’ruf nahi mungkar (Zulkiple, 2001). Justeru,

objektif kajian ini adalah untuk melihat hubungan antara media sosial dan penyebaran mesej

dakwah dalam kalangan mahasiswa/i di Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor

(KUIS). Selain itu, kajian ini juga ingin mengenal pasti implikasi penyebaran mesej dakwah

serta memfokuskan perbincangan berkaitan penerimagunaan mesej-mesej dakwah di

rangkaian media sosial terhadap mahasiswa/i dengan berasaskan pendekatan teori Technology

Acceptance Model (TAM). Kajian ini dijalankan dengan mengaplikasikan kaedah kuantitatif

iaitu borang kaji selidik dan memperoleh hasil dapatan kajian daripada responden yang terdiri

daripada pelajar jurusan Asasi, Komunikasi dan pelajar jurusan Al-Quran dan As-Sunnah

dengan Komunikasi di KUIS. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa terdapatnya hubungan yang

signifikan antara penggunaan media sosial dan penyebaran dakwah Islamiah dalam kalangan

mahasiswa, impak yang positif diterima oleh mahasiswa melalui penggunaan media sosial

serta pengaruh dan manfaat yang positif terhadap penyebaran dakwah dalam kalangan

mahasiswa.

Kata Kunci: Media sosial; implikasi; mesej dakwah; Amar ma’ruf nahi mungkar; Technology

Acceptance Model

ABSTRACT

Explosion of Information and Communication Technology nowadays bring new phenomenon

in the form of human communication, whenever the focus now concentrated to social media

usage in various aspects of life. In fact, social media usage had become activity that is

popular in social website. Thus, this social media usage covers the implementation of da’wah

that should use various methods according to time suitability. Social media like Facebook and

Twitter are giving an opportunity towards da'wah message to be spread out faster and more

global. In fact, there are famous preachers who also use social media as their medium to


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spreat a message of da'wah. Apart from that, da’wah is very important and regard as a huge

responsibility that need to be carried out by Muslims by emphasizing the concept of amar

ma'ruf amar nahi mungkar. The objective of the study is to examine the relationship between

social media and the spreading of da'wah message among students in Selangor International

Islamic University College (KUIS). This study also is to identify the implication of spreading

the message of da'wah and concentrate relevant discussion towards the acceptance of da’wah

in social media network based on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) theory approach.

This study carried out by applying quantitative method namely survey and the gathered the

result from respondents consisting of Asasi students, Communication and Al-Quran and As-

Sunnah field student in KUIS. The result showed the significant relationship between social

media usage and the spreading of da’wah message among students, also the positive impact

that is accepted by student through usage of social media, influence and benefit that are

positive towards da’wah preaching among students.

Keywords: Social media; implication; da’wah messag; amar maaruf nahi mungkar;

Technology Acceptance Model

PENGENALAN

Berkomunikasi sangat dituntut dalam Islam dengan berpandukan kepada ajaran al-Quran dan

as-Sunnah yang merupakan rujukan tertinggi. Pelbagai kaedah dan medium telah digunakan

sejak zaman Rasulullah SAW dalam menyampaikan mesej terutamanya mesej dakwah

Islamiah. Namun, sesuai dengan peredaran zaman masa kini, Noor Shakirah (2006)

menjelaskan bahawa media menjadi nadi kepada maklumat, kejayaan sesuatu usaha dalam

masyarakat bergantung kepada usaha sejauh mana mereka menguasai medium pada

zamannya. Dakwah dalam Islam menjadi kewajipan untuk dilaksanakan sama ada secara

individu atau secara kolektif. Menurut Zulkiple (2001), setiap umat Islam adalah komunikator

Islam, iaitu berperanan sebagai seorang dae’i dan diletakkan tanggungjawab di peringkat

wajib menyampaikan mesej mengikut kadar keupayaan mereka. Justeru, komunikator Islam

perlu membawa mesej kebaikan dan mencegah kemungkaran kepada khalayak. Jelasnya,

dakwah merupakan seruan kepada seluruh manusia terhadap sesuatu perkara dan

menggalakkan mereka bagi mendapatkan sesuatu hasil. Firman Allah SWT dalam surah

Yunus, ayat 25 yang bermaksud:

“Allah menyeru (manusia) kepada tempat selamat (syurga).”

Daripada ayat tersebut dapat dilihat bahawa Allah menyeru manusia supaya patuh dan taat

kepadaNya agar memperoleh tempat yang selamat iaitu syurga. Oleh itu, dengan cara

berdakwah dapat mengajak kepada seluruh manusia agar berbuat baik dan mematuhi segala

perintah Allah SWT. Sehubungan itu, dalam usaha menyampaikan dakwah perlu bergantung

kepada medium yang tertentu mengikut peredaran zaman. Pada masa ledakan teknologi

terkini memperlihatkan penggunaan media sosial yang sangat dekat dengan pengguna dan

audiens alam maya. Sebagai sebuah negara yang sedang membangun, Malaysia juga tidak

ketinggalan dalam penggunaan media sosial bagi tujuan dakwah kepada masyarakat.

Kemunculan media sosial seperti facebook, blog, twitter mahupun instagram telah

mewujudkan satu peluang baru dalam kalangan pendakwah disebabkan sifatnya yang

menarik, pantas dan sangat interaktif. Dengan ciri-ciri tersebut, media sosial dilihat mampu

memberi impak yang maksima terhadap aktiviti dakwah seterusnya mempengaruhi minat

masyarakat agar lebih dekat dengan mesej dakwah Islamiah.


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Objektif Kajian

Berpandukan teori Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) yang diperkenalkan oleh Davis

(1989), kajian ini menyelidik penggunaan media sosial dan penerimaannya dalam kalangan

mahasiswa terhadap mesej-mesej dakwah Islamiah. Terdahulu, teori ini secara khusus

menerangkan penerimaan penggunaan teknologi seperti Internet dan memberi impak secara

tidak langsung kepada kepercayaan dan tanggapan pengguna.

Secara spesifik, kajian ini bertujuan untuk mencapai objektif berikut:

1) Mengenalpasti tujuan menggunakan media sosial dalam kalangan mahasiswa

2) Melihat hubungan antara media sosial dan penerimaan mesej dakwah dalam kalangan

mahasiswa

3) Mengenalpasti tanggapan mahasiswa terhadap media sosial sebagai medium dakwah

Islamiah

Sorotan literatur

Mutakhir ini, terdapat beberapa kajian berkenaan dengan penerimaan Internet, blog mahupun

media sosial dan maklumat berkaitan Islam dijalankan di Malaysia dengan menggunakan

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Musa et.al 2011; Shobi et.al 2011, Ab. Hamid et.al

2014). Internet telah menjadi medium penting pada hari ini dan sedikit sebanyak teknologi

Internet ini mula menguasai serta mempengaruhi tingkah laku masyarakat moden. Justeru,

tanggapan dan penerimaan masyarakat terhadap media-media sosial sebagai medium

penyebaran mesej dakwah adalah sesuatu yang perlu dikaji bagi mengetahui implikasinya

dalam kehidupan.

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)

Musa et.al (2012) menjelaskan bahawa Davis (1989) mencadangkan dua konstruk berkenaan

kepercayaan dalaman sebagai penentu utama dalam TAM. Salah satu daripada konstruk

kepercayaan dalaman ini adalah tanggapan kebergunaan (Perceived Usefulness – PU).

Konstruk kepercayaan kedua ialah tanggapan mudah diguna (Perceived Ease of Use –

PEOU). Oleh yang demikian, model TAM ini digunakan oleh pengkaji sebagai kerangka asas

kepada kajian ini.

Dalam kajian ini, pengkaji akan melihat hubungan antara faktor mudah diguna dengan

penerimaan mesej dakwah di media sosial dalam kalangan mahasiswa. Selain itu, tingkah

laku pengguna juga turut dikenalpasti berdasarkan impak yang diterima daripada mesej

dakwah tersebut dan seterusnya melihat akan penggunaan sebenar media sosial dalam

kehidupan mereka.

Rajah 1: Model Asas Penerimaan Teknologi (TAM) oleh Davis (1989)

Media sosial dan dakwah

Media merupakan alat yang berpengaruh bagi aktiviti komunikasi. Setiap individu

memerlukan media sebagai perantara untuk berkomunikasi dan mendapatkan maklumat tidak

kira sama ada melalui media cetak atau media elektronik. Kini, dengan perkembangan pesat

Keinginan

Bertingkah laku

Penggunaan

Sebenar

Tanggapan Kebergunaan

Tanggapan Mudah Diguna


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teknologi komunikasi maklumat berjaya menjurus kepada penggunaan saluran Internet

dengan lebih meluas dalam komunikasi seharian khususnya dalam aspek penglibatan

pengguna dalam berinteraksi melalui dalam talian dan dikenali sebagai komunikasi siber.

Menurut Wakefield dan Rice (2008) komunikasi siber memberi peluang kepada pengguna

Internet di dalam proses pembelajaran, pekerjaan, maklumat, data, berkongsi pandangan dan

sebagainya. Justeru, sejajar dengan definisi tersebut adalah perlu bagi para dae’I untuk

berkongsi maklumat dan pandangan menerusi media sosial. Menurut Muhammad Shahir

(2013), para dae’i khususnya dan umat Islam tidak seharusnya menghadkan kepada hanya

sesuatu media tertentu saja yang boleh digunakan dan dipakai dalam menyampaikan dakwah

Islamiah di seluruh dunia ini. Malahan, Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM) juga

dalam aktiviti dakwahnya telah menggunakan teknologi terkini termasuklah penggunaan

internet. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa kemajuan media yang lebih canggih dapat diterima

umum selagi ia tidak melanggar etika penggunaan media itu sendiri.

Oleh yang demikian, wujud pula pelbagai jenis media sosial hasil daripada penciptaan

komunikasi siber menerusi internet dan inovasi teknologi baru. Dengan kepelbagaian fungsi

media sosial tersebut, mesej dakwah boleh disampaikan dengan lebih menarik dan interaktif.

Kewujudan media sosial ibarat cendawan yang tumbuh selepas hujan boleh dijadikan medan

berdakwah bagi para pendakwah untuk lebih dekat dan mesra dengan masyarakat. Facebook,

YouTube, Twitter, Instagram dan sebagainya adalah antara media sosial yang hangat pada

masa kini. Buktinya, sejak kemunculannya pada tahun 2004, Facebook secara pantasnya telah

menjadi alat asas untuk interaksi sosial, identiti peribadi dan juga pembinaan rangkaian di

kalangan pelajar. Sehubungan itu, menurut Liu (2008) sejak tahun 2000 terdapat beratus-ratus

laman web rangkaian sosial dilancarkan sama ada yang berteraskan sudut professional seperti

Linkedln, dan juga bukan professional seperti MySpace dan juga blog. Ini menunjukkan satu

perkembangan yang sangat maju dalam inovasi teknologi baru apabila mendapat sambutan

yang hangat daripada pengguna internet khususnya media sosial.

Zulkifli (2008) menyatakan bahawa media sosial kini merupakan fenomena kepada

masyarakat dunia dan dilaporkan terdapat lebih 500 juta pengguna Facebook dan lebih 100

juta pengguna Twitter di seluruh dunia. Manakala, di Malaysia direkodkan melebihi 12 juta

rakyat mempunyai akaun Facebook. Dengan berasaskan jumlah pengguna yang begitu ramai

merentasi sempadan global, dapat dilihat potensi dan impak yang besar penggunaan media

sosial dalam aktiviti dakwah untuk manfaat masyarakat. Dakwah merupakan satu kewajipan

ke atas setiap individu dan menjadi tonggak utama kepada agama dalam usaha mengangkat

martabat Islam hingga ke puncaknya. Sejajar dengan itu, ruang dan peluang yang terdapat

dalam media sosial ini sewajarnya digunakan untuk mempromosi kefahaman Islam dan

perkara-perkara yang bermanfaat.

Pada hari ini, beberapa dae'i yang terkenal itu telah menggunakan media sosial dalam dakwah

mereka. Untuk menyebut beberapa , seperti Ustaz Azhar Idrus melalui Facebook dan Youtube

dan Ustaz Don Daniyal Don Biyajid mempunyai laman peminat Facebook untuk berinteraksi

dan berkongsi pengetahuan dengan peminatnya serta masyarakat secara keseluruhannya.

Malah, beliau juga telah program TV beliau sendiri yang bertajuk 30 Memproses Pengeluaran

Ustaz Don di TV Alhijrah. Ini menunjukkan bahawa selain daripada program TV atau mana-

mana jenis media yang akan digunakan tetapi masih dia menggunakan media sosial sebagai

medium tambahan untuk misinya dakwah. Selain itu, Prof Dr Muhaya Mohamad adalah

motivasi yang Islam dan Profesor Oftalmologi terkenal. Beliau mempunyai blog sendiri

(drmuhaya.blogspot.com), Facebook dan Twitter untuk berkomunikasi dengan masyarakat. Di

Facebook , dia berkongsi banyak perkara bermanfaat dan maklumat mengenai aspek-aspek

perubatan dan juga mesej Islam yang berkaitan dengan kehidupan sehari-hari.


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Peranan dan kelebihan media sosial

Populariti laman sosial seperti Facebook, Twiter dan sebagainya menyebabkan timbulnya

usaha untuk membangunkan jaringan sosial tempatan yang sesuai dengan kandungan dan

pengguna di Malaysia (Siti Eizaleila dan Azizah, 2010). Ini memberi satu alternatif baru

dalam interaksi dan komunikasi melalui ruang maya. Secara amnya, kewujudan laman web

rangkaian sosial telah digunakan oleh semua peringkat lapisan masyarakat tidak kira sama ada

golongan pelajar, surirumah, para pekerja sektor awam mahupun swasta. Oleh itu,

kemunculan media baru khususnya media sosial pada masa kini dilihat sebagai satu wadah

penting untuk berdakwah dalam kalangan rakyat Malaysia. Menurut Sohirin (2008), usaha

dakwah melalui Internet perlu diberi keutamaan berbanding penggunaan media tradisional. Ini

kerana penyampaian mesej dakwah itu boleh merentasi sempadan seterusnya mampu

mensasar kepada bukan sahaja orang Islam malah segenap lapisan bangsa. Melalui

penggunaan media, pelbagai keperluan semasa umat Islam dapat dicurahkan oleh umat Islam

itu sendiri mengikut citarasa kontemporari yang sesuai dengan ajaran Islam dan yang sentiasa

menjadi pilihan alternatif umat Islam sekarang. Penggunaan media dalam Islam seharusnya

lebih menekankan konsep tauhid dan menjadikan Islam sebagai acuan hidup mereka.

Rosmawati (2011) menjelaskan antara kelebihan laman web sosial yang

menjadikannya sebagai pilihan pengguna internet hari ini adalah disebabkan penawarannya

mencipta personal maya dalam setiap profil pengguna serta sebagai bentuk komunikasi

dengan pelbagai aktiviti. Ini membolehkan pengguna bergerak secara aktif dalam komunikasi

maya dan berkongsi idea secara individu. Selain itu, para pengguna bebas bersuara dan

melontarkan pandangan melalui tulisan-tulisan mereka di laman-laman sosial. Selain daripada

itu, menurut Siti Eizaleila dan Azizah (2010), laman jaringan sosial yang muncul

kebanyakkannya menawarkan fungsi yang sama iaitu sebagai tempat untuk bertemu sahabat

baharu, mengekalkan persahabatAn, berkongsi maklumat dan idea untuk tujuan peribadi

mahupun tujuan perniagaan serta menyatukan orang ramai. Ini jelas menunjukkan kelebihan

media sosial yang boleh digunakan oleh para pendakwah dalam menyebarkan mesej Islam

kepada seluruh masyarakat di Malaysia mahupun merentasi sempadan dunia. Sehubungan itu,

Rosmawati (2011) juga berpendapat bahawa peranan penggunaan laman web sosial untuk

menembusi benteng sasaran dakwah remaja yang gemarkan gajet teknologi pelengkap

interaksi sosial mereka seperti melalui Facebook, Twitter mahupun Myspace dilihat sebagai

faktor kepada pengimplementasian dakwah alaf baharu.

Justeru, dakwah pada hari ini memerlukan pendekatan yang lebih interaktif sesuai

dengan peredaran dunia teknologi yang lebih maju. Walau bagaimanapun, dalam menjalankan

usaha dakwah yang lebih dinamis dan optimis, para pendakwah tidak perlu sehingga

menafikan pendekatan dakwah klasik berdasarkan amalan Rasulullah SAW. Namun,

pendekatan dakwah itu perlu sejajar dengan bentuk penerimaan masyarakat hari ini yang

memerlukan mekanisme baru dalam penerimaan maklumat. Daripada sudut yang lain,

peranan media sosial sebagai jentera perubahan dan pencipta permainan baru boleh digunakan

untuk kebaikan masyarakat dan keluarga. Oleh itu, laporan menurut BERNAMA (2011),

Menteri Penerangan, Komunikasi dan Kebudayaan Malaysia iaitu Datuk Seri Dr. Rais Yatim

menyatakan bahawa penggunaan media sosial patut digalakkan tetapi perlu mempunyai

konvensyen mereka sendiri mengenai apa yang boleh dibuat dan apa yang tidak boleh dibuat.

Di sini jelas menunjukkan bahawa para pendakwah dan pengguna media khususnya perlu

tahu tentang etika penggunaan internet serta bijak dalam membincangkan isu-isu keagamaan

dengan cara yang lebih kreatif serta mengikut landasan yang ditetapkan syarak. Sebagai

contoh, laman web Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM) sendiri menggunakan web

sosial mereka dengan pelbagai aplikasi yang berguna kepada masyarakat serta memberi ruang

dan peluang kepada masyarakat untuk berkongsi pendapat dan menjawab pelbagai

kemusykilan agama. Selain itu, kelebihan media sosial yang tidak dapat dinafikan adalah


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sifatnya yang menarik, pantas dan mudah serta hanya mengambil masa beberapa saat sahaja

untuk pendakwah menyampaikan mesej dakwah Islamiah kepada masyarakat. Ia juga

mengamalkan interaksi dua hala antara pendakwah dan masyarakat apabila saling berbincang

di forum-forum mahupun memberi maklumbalas secara bertulis di pelbagai sudut media

sosial.

METODOLOGI KAJIAN

Sampel dan Kaedah Kutipan Data

Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah kuantitatif iaitu tinjauan yang berasaskan instrument yang

dikemukakan melalui boring soal selidik. Menurut Babbie (2001), penggunaan kaedah

tinjauan adalah satu cara pengumpulan data yang dianggap terbaik dalam sesuatu kajian sains

sosial kerana kaedah ini berupaya memberikan penjelasan yang tepat untuk mewakili satu

populasi yang besar. Subjek kajian terdiri daripada mahasiswa Kolej Universiti Islam

Antarabangsa Selangor (KUIS) yang terdiri daripada kelompok pengguna yang mempunyai

latar belakang pendidikan agama dan menggunakan media sosial bagi mendapatkan mesej-

mesej berkaitan dakwah Islamiah. Sebanyak 100 borang soal selidik telah diedarkan kepada

mahasiswa namun hanya 99 sahaja yang boleh digunakan dalam kajian ini. Selain itu,

pemilihan kawasan juga adalah berdasarkan ciri kemodenan wilayah yang bertepatan ciri-ciri

lokasi pengguna Internet, khususnya penggunaan media sosial dan kedudukan kawasan

tersebut yang juga berada berdekatan dengan Bangi, Nilai dan Kajang yang merupakan antara

bandar-bandar moden yang mencapai penggunaan Internet yang luas. Selain itu, aspek-aspek

lain seperti bangsa, pendidikan, sosial dan pendedahan Internet juga perlu diambilkira.

Soal selidik kajian

Dalam kajian ini, soal selidik diedarkan secara terus kepada pelajar secara rawak dan soal

selidik yang dihasilkan terdiri daripada 3 bahagian iaitu Bahagian A mengenai profil

demografi, Bahagian B bertanyakan tentang penggunaan media sosial, Bahagian C pula

adalah berkenaan dengan penerimaan dan implikasi mesej dakwah Islamiah dan Bahagian D

melihat tentang penggunaan sebenar media sosial dalam kalangan mahasiswa. Statistik

deskriptif digunakan untuk memperihalkan data-data asas responden kajian, iaitu yang

berkenaan dengan profil responden. Keputusan atau hasil daripada soal selidik ini dianalisis

dengan menggunakan Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) versi 20.0.

DAPATAN DAN PERBINCANGAN

Realibiliti analisis

Penyelidik menggunakan penilaian Cronbach’s alpha untuk melihat konsistensi antara item.

Merujuk kepada jadual 1 di bawah, nilai alfa adalah lebih dari 0.7 iaitu 0.833 dan sesuatu

instrumen kajian dianggap mempunyai nilai reliabiliti yang mencukupi apabila mempunyai

sama atau melebihi 0.70. Oleh itu dapat disimpulkan bahawa semua ukuran ini mempunyai

ketekalan dalaman yang tinggi.

Jadual 1: Nilai Reliabiliti

Cronbach's Alpha

N of Items

.833 31


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Hasil kajian

Responden yang terlibat dalam kajian ini berjumlah 99 orang, iaitu 14.1% merupakan

responden dari kalangan mahasiswa lelaki (n=14) sementara 85.9% adalah responden

mahasiswi wanita (n=85) dengan majoriti berumur 22 – 24 tahun (n=45, 45.5%). Daripada

jumlah responden tersebut, 23.2 % merupakan mahasiswa berpendidikan peringkat Asasi,

14.1% peringkat Diploma dan 62.6% peringkat Sarjana Muda. Antara bidang kajian mereka

adalah Asasi Bahasa Arab, Diploma Komunikasi, Sarjana Muda Al-Quran & As-Sunnah

dengan Komunikasi, dan kursus Sarjana Muda dari Fakulti Akademi Islam.

Penggunaan media sosial

Penggunaan media sosial diambil kira berdasarkan tempoh penggunaan, pilihan serta tujuan

melayari media sosial.

Jadual 2: Tempoh Penggunaan Media Sosial (n=99)

Kekerapan Peratusan

Valid

< 1 tahun 1 1.0

1-3 tahun 16 16.2

> 3 tahun 82 82.8

Total 99 100.0

Jadual 2 menjelaskan bahawa responden berpengalaman menggunakan Internet adalah

melebihi dari 3 tahun (82.8%). Ini menunjukkan responden sememangnya bergantung dengan

media sosial dan menerima teknologi baru ini dalam kehidupan.

Jadual 3: Kecenderungan pilihan Media Sosial (n=99)

Kekerapan Peratusan

Valid

Facebook 60 60.6

Youtube 7 7.1

Twitter 10 10.1

Instagram 11 11.1

Lain-lain 11 11.1

Total 99 100.0

Jadual 2 menunjukkan majoriti responden lebih cenderung menggunakan media sosial

Facebook dalam mencari maklumat (60.6%). Selain itu, responden juga turut melayari media

sosial yang lain seperti Instagram (11.11%), lain-lain (11.11%), Twitter (10.1%) dan Youtube

(7.07%).

Korelasi penerimaan media sosial sebagai medium dakwah

Jadual 4 menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang sangat signifikan (0.001) antara kelebihan

media sosial yang mesra pengguna dengan penerimaan terhadap responden. Ini menunjukkan

secara amnya responden dapat menerima kewujudan media sosial atas faktor mesra pengguna

dalam kehidupan mereka. Mesra pengguna di sini melibatkan faktor kandungan yang mudah

di dalam media sosial, kemahiran smeakin meningkat apabila melayari media sosial, sifatnya

yang fleksibel dan tidak kompleks serta menjimatkan masa dan kos. Faktor mesra pengguna


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inilah yang menjadi pemangkin kepada penerimaan media sosial sebagai medium dakwah

Islamiah.

Jadual 4: Faktor Mesra Pengguna (n=99)

MesraPengguna Penerimaan

Mesra Pengguna Pearson Correlation 1 .323**

Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 99 99

Penerimaan Pearson Correlation .323** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 99 99

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Penggunaan Media Sosial (Mesra Pengguna)

Graf 1: Penggunaan media sosial – mesra pengguna

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

kandungan yang mudah kemahiran meningkat fleksibel kompleks menjimatkan masa dan

kos

Sangat tidak setuju

Tidak setuju

Tidak pasti

Setuju

Sangat setuju

Analisis Graf 1 menerangkan dengan jelas majoriti responden setuju bahawa media sosial

sememangnya mesra pengguna dengan kandungannya yang mudah diaplikasikan (63.6%).

Selain itu, 59.6% daripda responden juga setuju bahawa kemahiran akan meningkat dengan

penggunaan media social yang mesra pengguna. Responden juga bersetuju (58.6%) bahawa

media social ini sememangnya menyediakan aplikasi yang fleksibel dan pelbagai mengikut

kejendak pengguna. Justeru, 33.3% daripada responden tidak setuju dengan kenyataan tentang

media sosial yang dilihat adalah kompleks dan susah digunakan. Ini jelas menunjukkan

bahawa media sosial adalah mesra pengguna dan digemari oleh responden. Oleh yang

demikian, responden berpendapat bahawa penggunaan media sosial adalah kos efektif dan

menjimatkan masa dengan jumlah 52.5% yang bersetuju. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa

internet dan media sosial adalah penting dalam hidup mereka.

Implikasi Mesej Dakwah melalui Media Sosial

Kajian ini juga melihat tentang implikasi mesej dakwah yang diperolehi daripada media sosial

dalam kalangan responden. Ia menjurus kepada perubahan atau tindakan yang dilakukan oleh

responden hasil daripada mesej dakwah tersebut.

Jadual 5 menunjukkan 62.6% responden bersetuju dengan kenyataan bahawa mesej

dakwah melalui media sosial mampu memberi kesan dijiwa mereka. Manakala terdapat 3%

daripada responden berfikiran sebaliknya. Ini menunjukkan bahawa terdapat sebilangan kecil


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responden yang tidak dapat menerima mesej dakwah melalui media sosial dan tidak terkesan

melaluinya.

Jadual 5: Memberi kesan dijiwa

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid

Tidak setuju 3 3.0 3.0 3.0

Tidak Pasti 10 10.1 10.1 13.1

Setuju 62 62.6 62.6 75.8

Sangat Setuju 24 24.2 24.2 100.0

Total 99 100.0 100.0

Jadual 6: Berkongsi Status


Valid

Sangat Tidak

Setuju 1 1.0 1.0 1.0


Tidak Pasti 5 5.1 5.1 8.1

Setuju 51 51.5 51.5 59.6

Sangat Setuju 40 40.4 40.4 100.0

Total 99 100.0 100.0

Jadual 6 menjelaskan bahawa 51.5% responden bersetuju untuk berkongsi status berkenaan

mesej dakwah di media sosial atau di akaun sosial milik mereka. Ini menunjukkan bahawa

mereka dapat menerima kegunaan media sosial sebagai medium untuk berkongsi maklumat

mengenai mesej dakwah. Namun, masih terdapat 1.0% daripada responden yang sangat tidak

setuju untuk berbuat demikian.

Jadual 7: Memberi komen dan pandangan


Valid

Sangat Tidak

Setuju 1 1.0 1.0 1.0


Tidak Pasti 26 26.3 26.3 31.3

Setuju 50 50.5 50.5 81.8

Sangat Setuju 18 18.2 18.2 100.0

Total 99 100.0 100.0

Jadual 7 menunjukkan separuh daripada responden iaitu 50.5% yang bersetuju untuk memberi

komen atau respons terhadap status yang berunsurkan dakwah di media sosial. Hanya 1.0%

yang sangat tidak setuju dan 4.0% tidak setuju. Ini menunjukkan terdapat segelintir daripada

responden yang tidak akan memberi sebarang komen dan pandangan berkenaan mesej

dakwah di media sosial.

Jadual 8 menjelaskan bahawa 44.4% responden sangat bersetuju agar media sosial

dijadikan medan perbincangan isu agama, ini termsuk juga mesej-mesej dakwah yang

disebarkan. 42.4% responden pula bersetuju, 9.1% tidak pasti, 3.0% tidak bersetuju dan 1.0%

sangat tidak setuju berkenaan akan hal ini. Walau bagaimanapun, responden juga berpendapat


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bahawa media sosial dapat diterima sebagai medium penyebaran mesej dakwah namun

iabergantung juga kepada tahap kesahan atau kesahihan mesej dakwah tersebu. Ini bergantung

kepada penerimaan dan tahap kepercayaan individu terhadap sesuatu mesej yang diterima di

media sosial. Responden masih mengambil kira faktor kesahihan sesuatu mesej sebelum

menyebar dan berkongsi dengan rakan-rakan mahupun kenalan di akaun sosial mereka.

Jadual 8: Medan perbincangan isu agama


Valid

Sangat Tidak

Setuju 1 1.0 1.0 1.0


Tidak Pasti 9 9.1 9.1 13.1

Setuju 42 42.4 42.4 55.6

Sangat Setuju 44 44.4 44.4 100.0

Total 99 100.0 100.0

Penggunaan Sebenar Media Sosial

Graf 2: Penggunaan Sebenar Media Sosial (mengikut tujuan)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Hiburan Populariti Interaksi Masa

lapang

Berkenalan

selebriti

Diskusi isu Mencari

maklumat

Sangat tidaksetujuTidak setuju

Tidak pasti

Setuju

Sangat setuju

Analisa Graf 2 menunjukkan tentang penggunaan sebenar media social dalam kalangan

repsonden (n=99). Majoriti responden 41.4% berpendapat mereka sangat tidak setuju dengan

tujuan menggunakan media social untuk hiburan dan 56.6% juga responden sangat tidak

setuju menggunakan media social untuk tujuan mencipta populariti. Walau bagaimanapun,

terdapat juga sejumlah kecil yang setuju (3.0%) berpendapat sebaliknya. Selain itu, 55.6%

responden adalah setuju menggunakan media sosial untuk tujuan berinteraksi. Ini disebabkan

aplikasi yang terdapat dalam media social sememangnya menjadi medan interkasi merentasi

sempanan geografi. 54.5% juga daripada responden menggunakan media sosial untuk mengisi

masa lapang mereka, namun 25.3% adalah sangat tidak setuju menggunakan media social

sebagai medan perkenalan dengan selebriti ternama. Justeru, 60.6% responden setuju bahawa

dengan media social, mereka dapt berdiskusi pelbagai isu secara atas talian. Sejajar itu, 45.5%

responden setuju menyatakan bahawa mereka menggunakan media social adalah untuk

mencari maklumat yang berkaitan.


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CADANGAN DAN KESIMPULAN

Hasil kajian yang telah dilakukan ke atas seramai 99 responden yang terdiri daripada pelajar

KUIS menunjukkan bahawa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan dalam penerimaan media

sosial dengan faktor mesra pengguna sebagai medium dakwah. Selain itu responden juga

memiliki asas pengetahuan agama yang baik dan cenderung untuk berkongsi mesej dakwah

yang diperolehi dengan mereka yang lain melalui media sosial. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa

mereka dapat menerima kewujudan media sosial atas tujuan penyebaran dakwah bergantung

kepada keyakinan terhadap kesahihan mesej dakwah tersebut. Untuk kajian lanjut, sampel

kajian boleh diperluaskan ke lain-lain institusi pendidikan dan masyarakat awam untuk

melihat faktor-faktor penerimaan penggunaan media sosial sebagai medium dakwah. Selain

itu, pengkaji juga berpendapat bahawa kajian berbentuk kualitatif seperti kumpulan fokus

boleh dijalankan pada masa hadapan untuk mendapatkan hasil kajian yang lebih

memberangsangkan. Ini memandangkan terdapat kekangan masa untuk mendapatkan lebih

ramai responden serta jumlah borang soal selidik yang rosak dan tidak boleh digunakan.

Oleh yang demikian, pengkaji melihat komunikasi dan interaksi pada masa ini tidak

hanya terhad kepada interaksi secara bersemuka, tetapi komunikasi kini terjalin dalam

interaksi ruang maya melalui laman web sosial. Media sosial kini mampu dijadikan medan

penyebaran mesej dakwah kerana ia dapat menjangkau khalayak dengan syarat mereka

mempunyai akses kepada internet. Justeru, pendakwah perlu mempunyai kemahiran serta

pengetahuan bagi memaksimumkan keberkesanan dakwah yang dilaksanakan. Pendakwah

hari ini juga perlu menjadi lebih kreatif dan fleksibel dalam mendekatkan diri dengan

masyarakat agar mesej dakwah tersebut dapat diterima. Oleh itu, penggunaan media dalam

Islam seharusnya lebih menekankan konsep tauhid dan menjadikan Islam sebagai acuan hidup

masyarakat. Hasil daripada kajian ini dapat menyumbang kepada pembentukan mahasiswa/i

bermaklumat dan celik menggunakan teknologi komunikasi untuk tujuan kebaikan serta

mempertingkatkan manfaat mesej dakwah dalam kehidupan. Daripada sudut yang lain,

internet dan media sosial sangat berguna dalam kalangan mahasiswa/i dalam memberi ruang

kepada mereka bersuara melahirkan pendapat serta menjadikan mereka lebih berani

memperjuangkan kepentingan mereka di masa hadapan selari dengan tuntutan syarak.

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http://www.utusan.com.my

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Ismail & Aini Faezah Ramlan (pnyt). Shah Alam: UiTM.

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Huzaimah Hj Ismail & Aini Faezah Ramlan (pnyt). Shah Alam: UITM.

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berdakwah.html

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http://www.mindamadani.my/artikel/bicara-haraki/item/13-hikmah-dalam-berdakwah.html


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Mohd Shobi Ishak, Musa Abu Hassan, Siti Zobidah Omar & Jusang Bolong. (2011).

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(pnyt). Bangi: UKM.

Mohamad Shahir Abdullah. (2013). Berdakwah Dalam Era Multimedia. Kertas kerja

dibentangkan dalam Seminar 'Islam dan Multimedia' di IKIM. Diakses daripada

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Musa Abu Hassan, Zulkiple Abd. Ghani, Mohd Shobi Ishak, Jusang Bolong & Siti Zobidah

Omar. (2011). Tahap Penerimaan Maklumat Berkaitan Islam di Iternet Dari

Perspektif Model Penerimaan Teknologi (TAM). Wan Amizah Wan Mahmud, Faridah

Ibrahim, Samsudin A.Rahim & Normah Mustafa (pnyt). Bangi: UKM.

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Hikmah, 5. pp. 92-99.

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Cabaran Media di Malaysia, (pnyt.) Mohamad Md Yusoff et al. Pulau Pinang: Pusat

Pengajian Komuniukasi Universiti Sains Malaysia.

Rosmawati Mohd Rasit (2011). Mediamorphosis melalui laman web sosial: Dari perspektif

sasaran dakwah remaja. Kertas kerja dibentangkan di Seminar Kebangsaan Media &

Dakwah (SMED 2011), anjuran Jabatan Pengajian Dakwah & Kepimpinan, Fakulti

Pengajian Islam, USIM.

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International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) Press.

Wakefield, M.A & Rice, C. J. (2008). The impact of cyber-communication on today’s youths.

(ACAPCD-14). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. Diakses daripada

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Fakulti Pengurusan dan Muamalah,

Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor, Malaysia

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ISU-ISU PENULISAN SKRIP: MASALAH YANG MEMERLUKAN PENYELESAIAN

(Issues in Script Writing: Solution-Needed Problems)

Mohd Daly Daud, Nursyamimi Harun, & Md. Rozalafri Johori


ABSTRAK

Bidang penulisan skrip semakin berkembang selaras kemunculan stesen-stesen televisyen (TV)

yang baru lantas menyuburkan lagi minat penulis-penulis untuk berkecimpung dalam dunia

penulisan skrip. Namun, pelbagai isu masih mengganggu bidang kreatif ini lalu mengundang

pelbagai polemik yang membelenggunya sehingga kini tanpa sebarang penyelesaian. Justeru,

kajian ini cuba mengetengahkan semula isu-isu yang membelenggu penulis-penulis skrip

tempatan dalam menghasilkan karya mereka dengan melakukan kajian secara kualitatif dengan

kaedah temuramah secara mendalam dengan seorang informan yang telah berkecimpung dalam

bidang ini lebih 30 tahun. Dapatan kajian yang dibincangkan dalam kertas kerja ini diharap dapat

membongkar persoalan berkaitan penulisan skrip yang mana memberi manfaat kepada penulis

skrip dalam mempersiapkan diri untuk menjadi seorang penulis yang baik. Diharap dengan

pendedahan ini, penulis skrip seharusnya berupaya untuk menutup ruang yang membolehkan

pihak lain mempertikaikan kredibiliti skrip yang dihasilkan.

Kata Kunci: Penulisan skrip; isu skrip; skrip TV

ABSTRACT

Script writing is flourishing in line with the emergence of new television (TV) stations that

inculcate writers’ interest to get involved in script writing. However, there have been issues

which beset this creative field, thus inviting various polemics that continue to impede this field

without solutions. Therefore, this study attempted to bring forth the issues that beset local script

writers in producing their creative works through an in-depth interview with an informant who

had been into scriptwriting for more than thirty (30) years. Hopefully, the findings of this study,

discussed in this working paper, will address the issues on script writing. This will benefit script

writers in preparing themselves towards becoming competent script writers. This discussion

shall help script writers to bridge the gaps and able to enhance the credibility of the produced

scripts.

Keywords: Script writing; script issues; TV scripts

PENDAHULUAN

Apabila kita berbicara mengenai karya, baik dari segi fiksyen atau pun bukan fiksyen, secara

tidak langsung perhatian kita akan tertumpu kepada proses penulisan skrip. Skrip dianggap nadi

kepada karya-karya penerbitan televisyen (TV). Kesempurnaan karya menggambarkan penulisan

skrip yang sempurna. Segala apa yang dipersembahkan dalam skrip wajar dihadamkan dengan


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baik oleh pengarah bagi mengelakkan penonton dilanda kebosanan dengan isi cerita yang

disampaikan.

Bukan mudah untuk menulis skrip. Sebagai seorang penulis skrip, mereka perlu bijak

meletakkan dirinya sebagai penyelidik yang mengkagumkan. Skrip yang ditulis perlu disokong

dengan fakta penyelidikan agar penceritaannya mampu meyakinkan penonton. Penulis skrip

juga perlu bertanggungjawab bagi memastikan setiap skrip yang dihasilkan benar-benar mampu

menambat hati semua pihak sama ada stesen penyiaran, pihak penerbitan mahu pun penonton.

Mereka juga harus ingat bahawa bidang ini mampu menjadi satu industri dan perkara ini tidak

harus dipandang ringan.

Namun, bukan semua orang boleh menjadi penulis skrip meskipun mereka bergaul atau

mempunyai hubungan dengan mereka yang terlibat dalam bidang pengarahan, penerbitan

rancangan-rancangan televisyen, filem dan video. Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Asiah Sarji et al.,

(1997) mendapati memang ramai penulis skrip di Malaysia yang berasal atau melalui proses ini

sebelum menjadi penulis skrip. Malah pengalaman ini memenuhi tempoh lebih 50 tahun yang

lalu. Pengalaman selalunya mengajar seseorang untuk menjadi penulis skrip termasuk

Allahyarham P. Ramlee dan Badol.

Takrif dan konsep dalam penulisan skrip

Menurut Asiah Sarji (1997), takrif umum skrip ialah idea yang dikembangkan menjadi isu dan

persoalan atau siri-siri kejadian yang saling berkaitan dan menyumbang. Isu dan siri-siri kejadian

ini diadun secara sistematik bersama-sama unsur-unsur seni dan teknikal yang lain bagi

memenuhi matlamat satu-satu keperluan yang dicetuskan, dirangka dan diputuskan dari idea.

Arthur Asa Berger (1990) pula mentakrifkan skrip sebagai blue print atau rangka yang

menafsirkan reka bentuk visual dan audio dalam sesuatu persembahan cerita.

Penulisan skrip pula adalah satu proses. Proses di sini bermaksud aktiviti yang perlu

dilalui oleh seseorang penulis skrip sehingga sesebuah skrip itu siap dipersembahkan atau

diserahkan kepada mana-mana pihak. Selagi ada kerja-kerja pembetulan yang dibuat, kerja-kerja

penulisan belum tamat, ia dianggap sebagai proses menamatkan penulisan. (Asiah Sarji, 1997).

Sebelum memulakan sesuatu penerbitan, seseorang pengarah atau penerbit memerlukan arahan

atau skrip yang menerangkan secara terperinci mengenai sesuatu bahan yang diperlukan dan

individu yang terbabit dalam proses penerbitan itu. Dengan adanya skrip, ia secara tidak

langsung membolehkan penulisnya menyusun sesuatu jalan cerita dengan lebih teraturdan

membolehkan penerbit, pengarah dan krew penerbitan mempertimbangkan aspek-aspek berikut;

(i) sudut kamera, (ii) audio, (iii) kesan khas dan (iv) masa.

Justeru, apabila tiba masa untuk penggambaran atau proses penyuntingan, penerbit atau

pengarah boleh terus memberi tumpuan kepada kualiti syot yang diambil daripada menghabiskan

masa memikirkan tentang perincian dalam penerbitan. Skrip juga membolehkan produksi berada

dalam keadaan yang lebih terkawal dan teratur. Menurut Zaini Kosnin (2009) konsep adalah

Garis Cerita. Ada juga orang menyebutnya Storyline Concept. Ia adalah satu garisan yang

digunakan untuk menentukan sesebuah cerita. Biasanya, ia mesti mempunyai pengenalan, isi dan

penutup. Jelas di sini bahawa struktur penceritaan amat penting bagi memastikan skrip yang

dihasilkan tidak bercelaru. Ini kerana, skrip yang baik dan ditulis dengan jelas mampu

berkomunikasi dengan penulis dan juga penonton. Skrip juga seharusnya menyediakan peluang

yang cukup kepada pembaca untuk membayangkan segala kemungkinan yang berlaku.


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Paling penting sekali, sebagai seorang penulis skrip, kita perlu memahami bahawa kita

menulis untuk divisualkan. Bukan untuk menulis cerita untuk dibaca. Oleh yang demikian,

bayangan visual di dalam fikiran kita amat penting ketika menulis dan apa yang penting, kita

tahu bahawa gambaran itu, boleh divisualkan.

METODOLOGI KAJIAN

Kajian ini dilakukan melalui temubual secara mendalam dengan informan iaitu seorang penulis

skrip yang juga seorang penerbit yang mempunyai pengalaman menerbitkan rancangan-

rancangan di RTM dan TV3. Beliau telah mempunyai pengalaman selama 30 tahun dalam

bidang ini dan turut mendjadi tenaga pengajar sambilan dalam bidang penerbitan video dan

penulisan skrip di Fakulti Pengajian Media, Fakulti Seni Persembahan Universiti Teknologi

MARA(UiTM), Filem dan TV di Kolej Universiti Lim Kok Wing, Akademi Seni Kebangsaan,

Universiti Multi Media (MMU), Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia (UIAM), Kolej

Yayasan Melaka (KYM), Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor (KUIS) dan Institut

Penyiaran Tun Abdul Razak (IPTAR). Informan turut terbabit dalam mengendalikan pelbagai

kursus lanjutan penerbitan program TV di kalangan penggiat industri penyiaran di peringkat

Asia Pasifik. Temubual dengan informan diajalankan secara interpersonal dan dilakukan selama

1 jam. Pemilihan informan pula adalah secara bertujuan kerana kajian ini memerlukan maklumat

secara khusus tentang permasalahan penulisan skrip di Malaysia. Soalan-soalan temubual

dikemukakan secara tidak berstruktur supaya temubual dapat dilakukan dengan santai dan

jawapan dapat diterima dengan mendalam secara semulajadi dan efektif. Cara ini juga mudah

untuk meneroka maklumat baru kerana ia kurang kawalan dan bersifat anjal yang memudahkan

informan memberitahu isu-isu yang membelenggu bidang penulisan skrip ini.

Keseluruhan audio sesi temubual dirakam dan kemudian ditranskripkan perkataan demi

perkataan bagi mendapatkan data yang lebih tepat dan terperinci untuk di analisis. Semua

transkrip yang telah disemak melalui proses pengekodan secara deduktif iaitu dengan membaca

teks, kemudian memberi kod kepada teks sehingga mendapat tema yang tepat. Proses pengkodan

telah dijalankan sehingga membentuk tema-tema yang mewakili konstruk-konstruk kategori

yang mewakili isu-isu dalam penulisan skrip di Malaysia.

HASIL KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN

Setelah dianalisis, skrip yang baik dan ditulis dengan jelas mampu berkomunikasi dengan

penulis dan juga penonton. Skrip juga seharusnya menyediakan peluang yang cukup kepada

pembaca untuk membayangkan segala kemungkinan yang berlaku. Melalui kaedah transgulasi

dengan pemerhatian dan sorotan literatur disenaraikan juga isu-isu penulisan skrip yang tidak

disentuh oleh informan. Oleh itu, antara isu-isu yang telah dikenalpasti;

Penulis Skrip Kurang Membuat Penyelidikan

Negara kita masih lagi kekurangan skrip yang berkualiti. Ini diakui sendiri oleh penulis

berpengalaman Martias Ali apabila menyatakan bahawa kita sebenarnya memang ketandusan

dari aspek cabang cerita yang ingin dikembangkan. Ramai penonton memberikan komen negatif

pada skrip drama atau filem tempatan. Penonton berhak bersuara tetapi apakah penonton ini

dapat berikan idea yang lebih bagus. Selalunya skrip kurang kualiti kerana kurang penyelidikan


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dibuat oleh penulis skrip. Idea yang ada hanya luaran tanpa mengetahui masalah dan perasaan

dalaman pada watak utama itu sendiri. Seperti cerita posmen, ia lebih meyakinkan jika posmen

yang berkongsi idea. Begitu juga, nelayan mempunyai banyak pengalaman sendiri yang mungkin

kisahnya dapat menarik perhatian penonton (Harian Metro: 18 Oktober, 2011).

Hakikat ini juga bukan sahaja berlaku pada skrip karya fiksyen, skrip bukan fiksyen turut

mengalami masalah yang sama. Masalah kurang kajian atau penyelidikan terhadap sesuatu topik

yang cuba ditonjolkan penulis skrip adalah sesuatu yang serius. Penulis skrip tidak boleh

membuat kesimpulan berdasarkan pengamatannya sahaja. Mereka perlu mendepani masalah ini

dengan mengalaminya sendiri. Inilah pentingnya penyelidikan. Malangnya tidak ramai penulis

skrip hari ini yang turun ke lapangan membuat penyelidikan berkaitan topik yang ditulis.

Duduk di hadapan komputer melayari internet dengan membuat tinjauan di lokasi adalah dua

perkara berbeza. Fakta yang terdapat di internet mungkin tidak dikemas kini. Jika turun ke

lokasi, penulis skrip pastinya dapat menghayati fakta serta merasai pengalaman dan suasana

sebenar subjek yang dijadikan bahan penceritaan. Dalam temubual bersama informan, beliau

menyatakan, “Lemahnya program fiksyen dan bukan fiksyen di negara kita adalah kerana

kurangnya penyelidikan. Bagi diri saya sekali saya berkarya, kena bagi yang berkualitilah, tidak

boleh berkarya seadanya, dia tak boleh ada terma oklah aku buatlah, itu tak boleh.”

Kajian Asiah Sarji et al., (1996) menyatakan hampir separuh daripada penulis skrip di

negara ini menyatakan penyelidikan tidak perlu dan mereka tidak mempunyai masa yang cukup

untuk membuat penyelidikan bagi menyiapkan skrip. Separuh lagi yang membuat penyelidikan

mengakui penyelidikan dibuat jika keadaan memerlukan, namun tidak begitu mendalam dan

tidak seteliti seperti diharapkan kerana kesuntukan masa.

Keadaan ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa penulis skrip di negara ini masih ketandusan atau

masih lagi tercari-cari idea dalam menyiapkan skrip untuk persembahan di media elektronik.

Bagaimana ingin mendapat naskhah skrip yang berkualiti jika proses awal penulisan skrip ini

diabaikan? Tiada gunanya untuk kita cuba berfikir atau menggambarkan secara visual (think

visually) jika ideanya masih tidak jelas atau kabur. Informan turut menyatakan padangannya

berhubung perkara ini, “Seorang penulis skrip, dia perlu ada kemahiran menghuraikan visual.

Bila pelajar masuk universiti, mereka diajar untuk menghuraikan visual, mereka perlu tahu

jenis-jenis shot, shot ini bagaimana, pergerakan kamera, dia punya instruction untuk

memasukkan effect, fade in lagu, fade up music background mereka perlu tahu. Jadi, bila dia

buat skrip tu, dia boleh baca apa yg pengarah nak. Bila dia boleh baca apa pengarah nak, dia

boleh visualize di kepala dia dalam bentuk lakon layar maka maka 80% - 90% matlamat filem

tu atau program TV akan tercapai.”

Penguasaan Bahasa yang Lemah

Dari sudut penguasaan bahasa pula, Musa et. al., (2010) menyatakan bahasa yang dituturkan

lambang budaya yang kita miliki. Budaya itu simbol falsafah dan pemikiran masyarakat. Oleh

itu, kesinambungan budaya tradisi dapat dilanjutkan jika TV menyajikan rencangan berasaskan

Bahasa Melayu. Falsafah sesuatu bangsa akan terserlah dari cara mereka berbahasa. Dalam

konteks ini, bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa rasmi negara wajar mendapat tempat dalam

penyiaran rancangan TV.

Namun realitinya hari ini, bahasa yang digunakan dalam skrip sering menerima kritikan

masyarakat. Penggunaan bahasa Melayu yang bercampur aduk dengan bahasa Inggeris jelas


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memualkan. Namun, ia terus mendapat tempat dalam karya fiksyen tempatan kerana ia dianggap

trend hari ini dalam berkomunikasi sama ada formal mahupun tidak formal.

Dato’ Adilah Shek Omar, Pengarah Institut Penyiaran dan Penerangan Tun Abdul Razak

(IPPTAR) berkata tidak ada komitmen terhadap bahasa Melayu oleh mereka yang sepatunya

memartabatkannya. Beliau berkata masih banyak kesilapan tatabahasa dan ejaan di dalam media

cetak dan penyiaran. Ini tidak sepatutnya berlaku kerana Bahasa Melayu mudah untuk dipelajari

dan di fahami. Beliau berkata masyarakat juga kerap kali menggunakan bahasa rojak bukan saja

dalam pertuturan seharian tetapi juga dalam acara rasmi. Ini kerana terdapat warga media yang

berpendapat bahawa bahasa adalah hanya untuk menyampaikan sesuatu mesej, asalkan dapat

difahami sudah cukup (Laman Web Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2011).

Hal ini pernah dibangkitkan oleh Senator Datuk Rizuan Abd. Hamid di Dewan Negara

ketika itu. Senator Datuk Rizuan Abd. Hamid berkata, usaha mendaulatkan bahasa Melayu akan

gagal jika penggunaan bahasa rojak dibenarkan terutamanya yang bercampur-aduk dengan

perkataan Inggeris. “Dalam pembentangan Rancangan Malaysia Kesembilan (RMK-9), kita guna

bahasa Inggeris yang dimelayukan. Yang menyebut dianggap bertaraf tinggi, yang dengar pula

kadang-kadang tak faham pun,” katanya. Beliau yang membahaskan usul RMK-9 di Persidangan

Dewan Negara berkata, media juga perlu memainkan peranan dalam mengurangkan penggunaan

bahasa rojak dan menyedarkan masyarakat pentingnya penggunaan bahasa Melayu yang betul.

Senator Dr. Mohd Puad Zarkashi yang bersetuju dengan Rizuan berkata, isu bahasa rojak telah

banyak dibualkan tetapi seolah-olah tiada pendekatan untuk menyekatnya. “Contohnya dalam

drama televisyen, bahasa yang digunakan bercampur-aduk, kadang-kadang tak seronok apabila

kita tonton dan meluat” (Laman Web Rasmi Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 2009).

Isu “bahasa rojak” ini turut mendapat perhatian pencinta bahasa. Bahasa rojak menjadi

satu tanda baharu bagi kewujudan fenomena Bahasa kacukan (Awang Sariyan, 2006).

Sesetengah orang berpendapat, fenomena bahasa rojak atau bahasa yang bercampur aduk tidak

lebih daripada bersifat fesyen semasa semata-mata. Isu tersebut telah menjadi isu yang hangat

diperkatakan. Selain isu nasib bahasa Melayu yang semakin terpinggir atau tidak diberikan

keutamaan pada tempat dan haknya yang wajar, Awang Sariyan juga melihat gejala bahasa rojak

dan kata serapan. Pada masa sekarang, bahasa Melayu telah menerima sekian banyak istilah dan

kata daripada bahasa Barat, terutamanya daripada bahasa Inggeris. Menurutnya, tidak ada

salahnya kita mengambil kata daripada bahasa asing untuk tujuan memperkaya ilmu,

kebudayaan dan pemikiran bangsa, namun, pengaruh bahasa asing itu tentulah perlu diserap dan

diambil secara sistematik dan sedapatnya ditapis melalui sistem bahasa Melayu (Mohamad

Azlan Mis, 2011).

Informan turut menentang penggunaan dialog drama yang mencampur adukkan bahasa

Inggeris dan bahasa Melayu, “Walaupun kita ingin menyatakan itulah norma biasa masyarakat di

ibu kota yang bercakap orang putih bercampur-campur tapi kita kena lihat juga apa matlamat

asal media elektronik apabila menghasilkan program-program drama yang bukan fiksen yang

macam tu dia mesti bertanggungjawab. Percampuran antara bahasa Melayu dan bahasa Inggeris

itu sangat jelas dalam drama-drama yang diterbitkan oleh TV swasta. Saya bercakap tentang

TV3, malah ASTRO pun begitu. Contoh dialog: “I think, I will decide later. Eh you, macam

mana pandangan you?”. Inilah perkara yang pada saya suatu suasana yang tidak sihat. Tak boleh

la. Malah, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka apabila melihat ada stesen TV yang hasil drama-drama

sebegini, dia seharusnya membantah dan dia seharusnya memberi surat amaran kepada stesen

TV tersebut, sebab Dewan Bahasa merupakan satu agensi yang harus memartabatkan bahasa.”


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Justeru, bagaimana kita ingin mengangkat martabat Bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa

kebangsaan jika karyawan kita sendiri menganak tirikannya. Slogan `Bahasa Jiwa Bangsa’

wajar menjadi santapan jika kita benar-benar berhasrat untuk mendaulatkan Bahasa Melayu

sebagai bahasa kebangsaan negara ini. Tiada gunanya slogan tersebut jika ia tidak dihayati.

Peranan ini terletak bukan sahaja di bahu penulis skrip malah turut mencakupi semua lapisan

masyarakat di negara ini.

Tiada Jati Diri

Media elektronik seperti TV merupakan antara agen sosialisasi yang penting (Leavy & Trier-

Bieniek, 2014) dalam membantu pembentukan identiti bangsa yang merupakan cabaran masa

kini dan akan datang (Bolong, 1998). Kepesatan teknologi komunikasi baru memungkinkan

pembentukan budaya bangsa terjejas, malah kewujudannya yang tidak dapat disekat itu

membolehkan imperialisme budaya berlaku. Imperialisme budaya dapat dikaitkan dengan

kandungan program yang disiarkan melalui televisyen (Bolong, 1998). Drama rantaian Barat

yang terkenal pada tahun 1990-an seperti 21 Jump Street dan L.A. Laws telah dikritik kerana isi

kandungannya yang memaparkan unsur seks dan homoseksualiti secara terang-terangan.

Kebimbangan dan kekhuatiran terhadap kesan daripada program televisyen Barat, terutamanya

drama rantaian, menyebabkan pihak kerajaan pada era 1980-an dan 1990-an menggalakkan

usaha penerbitan rancangan televisyen tempatan yang merangkumi drama rantaian, dokumentari,

dan pertandingan muzik untuk menangkis pengaruh Barat (Karthigesu, 1994). Malangnya, jalan

cerita yang klise dan pendekatan yang digunakan gagal menarik perhatian penonton tempatan

dan sekaligus membuatkan penonton terus menonton drama rantaian dari barat.

Di Malaysia, bidang perfileman ataupun drama berhadapan dengan masalah besar ekoran

tidak mempunyai jatidiri kerana lebih meluaskan pengaruh budaya luar terutama dari barat.

Sebahagian besar para penerbit tempatan pula gemar mengangkat imej filem atau drama yang

negatif serta tidak menguntungkan agama, bangsa dan negara. Kebanyakan drama atau filem

Malaysia dihasilkan mengikut kemahuan penerbit bukan Melayu yang lebih mementingkan

keuntungan. Kesannya, karya-karya ini tidak menaikkan imej Melayu, menyebarkan nilai Islam,

menguatkan iman serta merapatkan perpaduan Melayu dan ummah (Ummu Hani Abu Hassan,

2011).

Mansor Puteh (2009) dalam kajiannya mengatakan bahawa pada dekad 1970-an, pihak

stesen televisyen swasta dan Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) ghairah menyiarkan karya yang

dipengaruhi nilai Hong Kong. Hal ini menggalakkan ramai orang yang tidak berkelayakan untuk

mejadi pengarah, penulis skrip dan penerbit. Manakala kebanyakan pengkarya Melayu pula

adalah ahli perniagaan menjadikan banyak drama yang disiarkan di televisyen tidak berkualiti.

Kini, keghairahan stesen televisyen adalah memaparkan drama yang berbentuk hiburan dan

fantasi. Penolakan kehadiran pakar yang terdidik dalam bidang ini oleh FINAS, RTM dan

kerajaan menyebabkan elemen positif tidak dapat diresapkan ke dalam industri filem dan drama

televisyen. Malahan, drama dakwah ada yang memaparkan imej lelaki Melayu yang berjubah

sebagai perogol atau perkara lain yang mencemarkan Islam.

Jati diri dapat didefinisikan sebagai sifat atau ciri yang unik dan istimewa (dari segi adat,

bahasa, budaya, agama dan sebagainya) yang menjadi teras dan lambang keperibadian seseorang

individu, sesuatu bangsa dan sebagainya, atau disebut jua identiti (Kamus Dewan, 2007).

Informan turut melahirkan kekesalannya apabila dihadapkan dengan isu jati diri ini,

“Saya pernah komen FINAS fasal dua atau tiga dokumentari yang buat cerita pasal orang Islam,


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orang Melayu tetapi ciri-ciri keislaman itu, ciri- ciri kemelayuan itu tidak dijadikan elemen yang

dominan dalam penceritaan talent. Contohnya, ada satu treatment yang mencadangkan babak

pertama satu keluarga orang Islam di Sabah di Kota Belud, pergi ke kubur dan membaca Yassin

sebab adat orang Bajau di Kota Belud sentiasa mengingati nenek moyang dan mereka akan

sentiasa ke kubur untuk berdoa dan membaca Yassin, tetapi babak tersebut ditolak oleh

konsultan yang bukan orang Melayu orang Islam ke belakang, dia kata no, that’s not an

important scene. So berlakulah sedikit pergelutan idea di situ, jadi kalau FINAS tidak peka pada

perkara ini ,saya rasa jati diri akan hilang sebab the purpose of dokumentari yang diterbitkan dari

FINAS ialah untuk mengangkat budaya-budaya Melayu sebab nama pun FINAS.”

Selain daripada itu, drama tempatan sering memaparkan cara hidup barat berbanding cara

hidup masyarakat tempatan. Ini menjadikan drama tempatan tidak mempunyai kelainan atau

keunikan yang tersendiri yang mampu menandingi drama terbitan luar. Perkara ini dapat dilihat

dengan kejayaan drama Korea yang mana menitikberatkan nilai-nilai jati diri dan kekeluargaan

dalam setiap drama. Nor Hashimah dan Zaharani (2011) dalam kajian bertajuk Hallyu Di

Malaysia: Kajian Sosiobudaya menyatakan bahawa jati diri dan kebudayaan kebangsaan tetap

menjadi faktor penarik utama dalam usaha mengkomoditikan budaya. Penggunaan bahasa

Korea sepenuhnya tidak menjadi penghalang untuk menembusi pasaran antarabangsa, jalan

cerita, tema dan nilai positif yang ditonjolkan adalah jauh lebih penting.

Latiffah et. al (2009) mengatakan yang tema, plot, jalan cerita dan mutu lakonan yang

akan menjadi tarikan utama para remaja utuk menonton sesebuah cerita. Masyarakat

antarabangsa akan menilai sesuatu yang lain daripada yang mereka miliki dan mempunyai jati

diri bangsa tersebut sebagai daya penarik. Masyarakat Jepun yang pernah menjajah Korea sendiri

tertarik dengan drama Korea kerana mereka berpendapat terdapat nilai kekeluargaan,

kemanusiaan dalam drama Korea. Nilai-nilai ini telah lama hilang dalam drama Jepun dan Cina.

Drama Jepun lebih banyak menayangkan drama jenayah, seks, robot dan kerakusan perniagaan

serta individualistik. Tetapi drama Korea adalah sebaliknya (Shim, 2006).

Menurut Hatta Azad Khan (2012), pembuat filem sepatutnya menggalas tanggungjawab

sosial untuk meningkatkan pemikiran audiens melalui karya. Filem harus mewakili bangsa

negara dan peningkatannya perlu seiring dengan peningkatan hidup manusia. Malangnya,

kebanyakan produser lebih mementingkan filem yang menghiburkan dan memberi keuntungan

berlipat ganda. Perancangan menyeluruh dilakukan demi meningkatkan kualiti filem Malaysia.

Penggiat perlu jujur tidak hanya bercakap tetapi tidak melaksanakannya, semua pihak perlu

memainkan peranan (Siti Nursyahidah, 2012). Informan turut menegaskan bahawa content

provider tidak mempunyai sensitiviti atau kesedaran untuk memartabatkan nilai-nilai

kemelayuan, agama dan sebagainya yang menyebabkan semangat jati diri itu hilang. Penerbit

hari ini lebih gemar menerbitkan rancangan berbentuk santai berbanding isu-isu berat seperti

agama, jati diri dan sebagainya.

Malaysia merupakan sebuah negara yang menarik dengan kepelbagaian yang unik.

Penulis skrip seharusnya menjadikan keunikkan ini sebagai satu kelebihan dalam penghasilan

skrip yang bermutu dan menarik. Negara-negara seperti Iran, Thailand dan lain-lain mampu

menghasilkan sebuah karya yang bermutu malah sering memenangi anugerah diperingkat

antarabangsa, kekurangan dana mahupun peralatan tidak menjadi penghalang kepada

penghasilan sebuah karya yang bermutu. Pokoknya apa yang hendak ditonjolkan mestilah

mempunyai keunikan, identiti dan jati diri yang membezakan produk tempatan dengan yang lain.


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Bayaran Diterima Rendah

Selain itu, faktor pembayaran skrip dengan harga yang rendah juga antara penyebab skrip yang

ditulis tidak berkualiti. Bayaran yang diterima oleh penulis skrip hari ini juga amat rendah dan

tidak setimpal dengan usaha yang telah dicurahkan. Industri penerbitan drama televisyen

tempatan tidak mampu menghasilkan drama yang berkualiti disebabkan pembayaran program

yang masih tidak berubah sejak 17 tahun yang lepas (Latif, 2012).

Katanya, selain bayaran yang terlalu murah, monopoli yang ditunjukkan oleh stesen

televisyen tempatan juga amat teruk ketika ini. Media Prima misalnya telah memonopoli empat

buah stesen televisyen di bawahnya. Bayaran yang diberikan kepada hasil seni kita teramat

mendukacitakan tetapi penggiat seni tiada pilihan untuk menjual hasil produk mereka.

Bayangkan Media Prima sahaja ada empat stesen televisyen dan semua menetapkan harga yang

sama dan murah. Macam mana kami semua nak hidup? (Utusan Malaysia: 23 September, 2012).

Informan turut melahirkan kekesalannya apabila dihadapkan dengan isu pembayaran

skrip ini, “Masalahnya sekarang, siapa yang memperjuangkan duit (bayaran) untuk penulis

skrip? Adakah kerajaan? Tidak. Adakah persatuan? Tidak konsisten. Siapa lagi? Ada penulis

skrip yang cuba untuk memperjuangkannya, yang cuba bertegang urat untuk mempertahankan

rate dia, okay byebyelah. Producer kata byebyelah sebab saya masih ada ramai lagi penulis skrip

yang berminat nak menulis skrip untuk drama saya. Take it or leave it. Ini adalah tanda-tanda

kemusnahan kepada karya berkualitilah.”

Skrip Terlalu Sarat

Dalam penghasilan skrip dokumentari pula, skrip yang ditulis penulis skrip tempatan didapati

begitu padat dan sarat dengan kata-kata. Asiah Sarji et.al., (2009) menyatakan secara umumnya

karya filem dokumentari tempatan menggunakan terlalu banyak kata-kata sehingga

pergerakannya didapati berlumba-lumba dengan pergerakan visual. Satu kelemahan yang lama

bertapak di Malaysia. Selain itu, pemilihan kata dan istilah masih belum cukup dilakukan secara

lebih kreatif dalam mana sesuatu kata yang dipilih sepatutnya mempunyai kemampuan

menjelaskan makna yang melampaui kepentingan audio dan visual yang dipapar. Kata-kata yang

dipilih perlu mampu melambangkan makna yang melampaui makna visual.

Informan turut menyatakan bahawa, ada penulis skrip tempatan yang salah faham

terhadap perkara ini. Asalkan ia fakta, maka ia akan dimasukkan semuanya ke dalam skrip

tersebut dan menjadikan kandungan sesuatu skrip itu padat dan tidak menghiburkan. Jika

dirujuk kepada dokumentari luar seperti National Geographic dan Discovery Channel misalnya,

penulis skrip mereka menekankan fakta dan bagaimana skrip itu dimainkan untuk

menterjemahkan visual.

Bakat Baru yang Tidak Terlatih

Dengan bertambahnya saluran televisyen di negara ini, secara tidak langsung membawa

perubahan besar kepada permintaan skrip untuk rancangan baru yang diterbitkan. Ia bagi mengisi

ruangan slot yang diperuntukkan untuk sesuatu rancangan. Tidak kurang juga ia dijadikan medan

untuk melahirkan bakat-bakat baru dan membawa pemikiran-pemikiran baru dalam bidang

penulisan skrip. Namun kehadiran penulis-penulis baru ini mengundang kritikan apabila hasil


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karya mereka dipertikaikan dan idea yang dizahirkan dikatakan dangkal dan tidak

memberangsangkan.

Antara masalah yang dihadapi oleh kebanyakan penulis skrip dan hasil penulisan mereka

adalah seperti berikut; (1) Skrip dan cerita sangat stereotaip, (2) Perkembangan watak lemah dan

terpusat, (3) Suka meletak-letakkan sub-plot di dalam cerita yang menyebabkan tidak

terdapatnya kesinambungan, (4) Dialog yang terbentuk tidak sesuai dengan perwatakan, hambar

dan tidak kemas, (5) Lemah dalam membuat plotting cerita sehingga menjadikannya meleret-

leret (dragging) dan sering berlaku plot menyeleweng dari jalan cerita asal, (6) Kerap berlaku

sesuatu perkara/isu yang berulang-ulang menyebabkan cerita tidak berkembang dengan licin, (7)

Ada kalanya cerita tidak logic (Asiah et. al., 1997).

Penulis skrip berpengalaman selama 20 tahun, Martias Mohd Ali, berkata kehadiran

ramai penulis skrip baru sama seperti penulis blog memberikan perkembangan positif pada

penghasilan karya tempatan tetapi ia dibimbangi hasilnya menjadi sampah. “Kehadiran mereka

diperlukan kerana wujud permintaan stesen TV tetapi apakah kriteria mereka sehingga mudah

diistilah penulis skrip. Ada kalangan mereka mengaku penulis skrip selepas karya dihasilkan

disiarkan di TV atau layar perak. Namun, realiti mereka tidak mahu belajar cara menulis skrip

dengan betul. Mereka juga tidak mahu mengikuti kursus kerana beranggapan tawaran skrip baru

sudah ada dalam tangan,” katanya (Harian Metro: 21 Julai, 2012).

Justeru, tidak hairanlah jika rancangan-rancangan yang disajikan di televisyen kurang

mendapat sambutan kerana jalan penceritaan sendiri didapati yang kurang menarik perhatian

penonton. Tidak dinafikan bahawa semua bidang memerlukan latihan dan bimbingan daripada

mereka yang lebih berpengetahuan dan berpengalaman. Begitu juga halnya dengan penulis skrip

tempatan. Mereka didapati kurang pendedahan dari segi latihan dan bimbingan daripada mereka

yang terlatih dalam bidang ini. Malah ramai dalam kalangan mereka yang tidak mengikut format

skrip yang betul ketika menulis skrip. Hasilnya, skrip yang dizahirkan tidak mencapai standard

sebagaimana yang dikehendaki. Yang menjadi sasaran kritikan awal pastinya penulis skrip itu

sendiri.

Walaupun pelbagai usaha dilakukan oleh FINAS dan Persatuan Penulis Skrin Malaysia

(SWAM), namun kualiti penghasilan skrip masih di tahap yang rendah. Menurut Ummu Hani

Abu Hassan (2011) berdasarkan rekod yang dikeluarkan oleh Persatuan Penulis Skrin Malaysia

(SWAM), industri drama televisyen Malaysia menghadapi masalah mendapatkan skrip yang

berkualiti. Kelemahan skrip juga adalah pada dialog yang dipertuturkan oleh pelakon. Presiden

SWAM, Ahmad Ismail (2009) mengatakan drama tempatan dinilai cetek dan tidak lagi

mementingkan aspek bahasa sastera yang indah. Ini memberi kesan untuk melebarkan drama

tempatan ke luar negara. Menurut beliau lagi, ramai penulis skrip bebas yang tidak mengikut

format skrip yang betul. Masalah pembayaran penerbit kepada penulis skrip juga masih belum

dapat diatasi.

Penulis Skrip Kurang Membaca

Disamping itu, penulis skrip fiksyen juga dikatakan kurang membaca. Kajian yang dilakukan

oleh Asiah Sarji et al., (1999) mendedahkan dalam rumusannya bahawa tahap pendedahan

kepada pembacaan serius dan novel yang bermutu sama ada berkaitan dengan filem atau tidak

adalah rendah. FINAS dengan kerjasama persatuan-persatuan filem perlu merangka satu usaha

untuk menyediakan kemudahan yang memberangsangkan dan yang lebih menarik untuk

menggalakkan aktiviti pembacaan di kalangan karyawan filem.


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KESIMPULAN

Negara kita memerlukan ramai penulis skrip berbakat untuk menceritakan gedung khazanah

bangsa yang hanya baru sedikit dirungkaikan. Ia merupakan tanggungjawab besar yang harus

dipikul oleh semua pihak termasuk universiti, agensi-agensi berkaitan dan tidak terkecuali

persatuan-persatuan yang memperjuangkan hak penulis skrip.

Berdasarkan kepada isu-isu yang diutarakan di atas, maka jalan penyelesaian terhadapnya

perlu dicari bagi meningkatkan kembali kualiti penulisan skrip di negara ini. Tiada jalan pintas

untuk mengatasinya melainkan terpaksa bermula di peringkat awal lagi.

Penulis skrip yang berjaya adalah penulis skrip yang banyak membaca. Seorang penulis

skrip yang baik haruslah menanamkan sifat suka membaca bagi memperkayakan lagi

pengetahuannya dalam apa jua bidang yang ditulisnya. Setiap penulis juga perlu rajin membuat

penyelidikan berkaitan subjek yang ingin ditulis disamping turut membuat tinjauan lokasi

(reccee) bagi memastikan fakta berkaitan subjek adalah benar. Perkara ini harus diberi perhatian

oleh semua penulis kerana tanpa fakta yang lengkap, skrip yang ditulis akan hambar.

Penulis skrip juga perlu mendapat latihan dan bimbingan yang betul dalam penulisan

skrip. Format penulisan skrip harus diselaraskan agar ia tidak mengelirukan penulis skrip. Lain

guru, lain pula caranya. Justeru, tenaga pengajar seharusnya mencari titik pertemuan bagi

memudahkan sesi bimbingan atau pengajaran kepada penulis skrip ini. Jika ia mampu dilakukan,

tidak mustahil negara kita akan mempunyai format penulisan skrip yang seragam hasil gabungan

idea tenaga-tenaga pengajar yang berpengalaman.

Penganjuran bengkel-bengkel penulisan skrip yang perlu kerap diadakan memandangkan

bidang ini memerlukan kepakaran yang khusus bagi melahirkan penulis skrip yang berkualiti.

Selain daripada itu, penulis skrip juga disarankan untuk mendapatkan bimbingan daripada guru

bahasa berhubung penggunaan bahasa yang betul dalam tulisan mereka. Di sini, Dewan Bahasa

dan Pustaka (DBP) wajar memainkan peranan dalam memberi tunjuk ajar kepada penulis skrip

cara penggunaan bahasa Melayu yang betul dalam penulisan dan penyampaian. Sudah tiba

masanya DBP memberi perhatian sewajarnya terhadap isu penyalahgunaan bahasa di media

siaran ini jika tidak mahu isu berkaitan bahasa terus menjadi bualan umum.

Bagi memperkasakan jati diri bangsa, maka disarankan agar pihak kerajaan melalui

agensinya seperti Perbadanan Filem Nasional Malaysia (FINAS), Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka

dan Radio dan Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) memperbanyakkan pertandingan penulisan skrip

berunsur sejarah dan kenegaraan bagi membentuk kembali jati diri bangsa yang teruk tercalar

akibat peniruan budaya dan penyiaran rancangan import ini. Masyarakat Malaysia merupakan

masyarakat yang berpegang teguh kepada budaya dan adat resam tradisi, maka sewajarnyalah

rancangan-rancangan tempatan yang sarat dengan kesopanan budaya timur menjadi tontonan

rakyatnya.

Terdapat sebilangan penulis skrip yang mengeluh kerana bayaran yang diterima sebagai

penulis skrip tidak setimpal dengan usaha yang mereka curahkan. Justeru, satu jalan

penyelesaian harus dirancang bagi mengembalikan semula hak penulis skrip ini. Dicadangkan,

satu kadar bayaran yang seragam perlu diwujudkan bagi menangani permasalahan ini. Semua

pihak, baik dari stesen penyiaran mahu pun penerbit dan wakil penulis skrip perlu duduk semeja

bagi membincangkan masalah ini dan seterusnya mengeluarkan garis panduan pembayaran

standard bagi semua kategori penulisan skrip yang terdapat di negara ini. Langkah ini dirasakan

mampu mengatasi masalah yang membelenggu nasib sebilangan penulis skrip di negara ini.


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Disamping itu, penulis skrip sedia ada, perlu saling bantu membantu disamping saling

hormat menghormati di antara satu sama lain bagi merealisasikan hasrat murni ini. Memetik

coretan Mansor Ahmad Saman (1995:11)

“Penulis, pada hakikatnya ialah seorang “guru”, seorang tukang cerita

yang ingin menyampaikan maklumat, keterangan, pengetahuan dan

pengajaran kepada pembacanya. Dan sebagai guru yang baik, dia haruslah

mengambil iktibar dari pengalaman pensejarahan dan tamadun manusia

dan menyampaikan penulisannya dalam bentuk cerita yang menarik dan

memukau.”

Tepuk dada, tanyalah selera…

RUJUKAN

Asiah Sarji, Faridah Ibrahim, & Mazni Buyung. (1997). Keadaan dan Permasalahan Penulis

dan Penulisan Skrip. Kuala Lumpur: Finas.

Asiah Sarji, Faridah Ibrahim, & Mazni Buyung. (1999). Pola Pengamalan Profesionalisme

Dalam Industri Filem Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Finas.

Asiah Sarji, Faridah Ibrahim, & Shamsubaridah Ramlee. (2009). Industri Dokumentari di

Malaysia: Isu dan Hala Tuju. Kuala Lumpur: Finas.

Bolong, J. B. (1998). Perubahan Kognitif Dan Tingkat Interaksi Penonton Dengan Drama

Melayu Di Televisyen: Analisis Drama 'Juta Wan Segera'. Selangor: UPM.

Kamal Halili Hassan. (1990). Penulis dan Undang-Undang. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan

Pustaka.

Kamus Dewan Edisi Keempat. (2007). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Karthigesu, R. (1994). Sejarah Perkembangan Televisyen Di Malaysia (1963-1983). Kuala

Lumpur : Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka.

Latiffah Pawanteh, Samsudin A. Rahim, & Fauziah Ahmad. (2009). Media Consumption Among

Young Adults: A Look At Labels And Norms In Everyday Life. Malaysian Journal of

Communication, Vol 25: 21-31

Leavy, P., & Trier-Bieniek, A. (2014). Introduction To Gender & Pop Culture. In P. Leavy, & A.

Trier-Bieniek, Gender & Pop Culture (Pp. 1-25). Netherlands: Sensepublishers.

Mansor Ahmad Saman. (1995). Penulisan dan Media: Satu Kumpulan Rencana. Kuala Lumpur:

Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Mansor Puteh. (2009). Filem Melayu Dilema Dua Era. Dewan Budaya, Mac 2009, Kuala

Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Musa Abu Hassan, Narimah Ismail, & Jusang Bolong. (2010). Kesinambungan Budaya Melalui

Televisyen: Antara Khayalan dan Kenyataan. Cabaran Komunikasi Masa Kini (2010)

Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia

Ummu Hani Abu Hassan. (2011). Drama Dakwah di Malaysia: Kajian Tentang Proses

Penulisan Skrip. (Disertasi Sarjana, Jabatan Dakwah dan Pembangunan Insan, Akademi

Pengajian Islam Universiti Malaya).

http://www.ukm.my/news/index.php/ms/component/content/article/712-the-use-of-national-

language-should-be-paramount.html Retrieved: April 28. 2014

http://dbp.gov.my/lamandbp/main.php?Content=articles&ArticleID=798: kemaskini 21Jan 2009

Retrieved : 30 April, 2014

http://www.ukm.my/news/index.php/ms/component/content/article/712-the-use-of-national-language-should-be-paramount.html

http://www.ukm.my/news/index.php/ms/component/content/article/712-the-use-of-national-language-should-be-paramount.html

http://dbp.gov.my/lamandbp/main.php?Content=articles&ArticleID=798


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Mohamad Azlan Mis. (2011). Bahasa Rojak Dalam Kalangan Penduduk Di Sarawak

http://jurnalbahasa.dbp.my/wordpress/?p=987 Retrieved: 20 April, 2014.

Abu Bakar, S. N. (2012). Filem: Antara kualiti dan kuantiti, mana lebih utama? Retrieved May 1,

2014, from Sinar Harian: http://www.sinarharian.com.my/hiburan/filem-antara-kualiti-

dan-kuantiti-mana-lebih-utama-1.70407

Atak, F. H. (2012). Produser Merungut, Stesen TV Masih Bayar Ciput. Retrieved: Januari 5,

2013, From Hiburan: http://www.utusan.com.my

Elrafaei Sapi (2011) INTERAKSI: Idea baru penulisan skrip berkualiti Retrieved: April 23, 2014

from Harian Metro:

http://www.hmetro.com.my/myMetro/articles/INTERAKSI_Ideabarupenulisanskripberku

aliti//Article/article_print Retrieved: Mei 1, 2014.

Elrafaei Sapi (2012) Komersial, logik atau sampah Retrieved: April 23, 2014 from Harian

Metro:

http://www.hmetro.com.my/myMetro/articles/Komersial_logikatausampah//Article/index

_html

Mohd. Rasdan Ahmad (2012) Nak buka stesen TV sendiri Retrieved:

April 23, 2014 (http://www.utusan.com.my/utusan/Hiburan/20120923/hi_12/Nak-buka-

stesen-TV-sendiri#ixzz31TPh1QaH

Mohyin, Z. (2012). Baik Buruk Televisyen. Retrieved: January 4, 2013, From UtusanMalaysia :

http://www.utusan.com.my

Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin & Zaharani Ahmad. (2011). Hallyu di Malaysia: kajian sosiobudaya.

Jurnal Komunikasi, 27 (2). pp. 203-219. ISSN 0128-1496

Siti Nursyahahidah Abu Bakar. (2012). Filem: Antara Kualiti dan Kuantiti. Mana Lebih Utama?

Berita Harian.

Shim, Doboo. (2006). Hybridity and the rise of Korean popular culture in Asia. Media, Culture

and Society 28(1), 27-44.

Mohd Daly Daud

Nursyamimi Harun

Md. Rozalafri Johori

Jabatan Komunikasi,

Fakulti Pengurusan dan Muamalah,

Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor, Malaysia

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

http://www.sinarharian.com.my/hiburan/filem-antara-kualiti-dan-kuantiti-mana-lebih-utama-1.70407

http://www.sinarharian.com.my/hiburan/filem-antara-kualiti-dan-kuantiti-mana-lebih-utama-1.70407

http://www.utusan.com.my/

http://www.hmetro.com.my/myMetro/articles/INTERAKSI_Ideabarupenulisanskripberkualiti/Article/article_print

http://www.hmetro.com.my/myMetro/articles/INTERAKSI_Ideabarupenulisanskripberkualiti/Article/article_print

http://www.hmetro.com.my/myMetro/articles/Komersial_logikatausampah/Article/index_html

http://www.hmetro.com.my/myMetro/articles/Komersial_logikatausampah/Article/index_html

http://www.utusan.com.my/utusan/Hiburan/20120923/hi_12/Nak-buka-stesen-TV-sendiri#ixzz31TPh1QaH

http://www.utusan.com.my/utusan/Hiburan/20120923/hi_12/Nak-buka-stesen-TV-sendiri#ixzz31TPh1QaH

http://www.utusan.com.my/





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NEEDS ANALYSIS AND MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLISH FOR

SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN RELATION TO ENGLISH FOR ISLAMIC STUDIES

(Analisa Keperluan dan Pembangunan Bahan Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggeris untuk

Pengajian Islam)

Rabiathul Adhabiyyah Sayed Abudhahir, Mahanum Mahdun,

& ‘Aliyatulmuna Md. Nor


ABSTRACT

English for Islamic Studies or EIS is a new branch in English for Specific Purposes (ESP).

At the moment there is no specific tailor-made syllabus and materials designed specifically

in this field. The focus of this paper is on the importance of needs analysis and how it helps

in the process of materials designs. It also provides input to produce materials for English

for Islamic Studies. Articles on Needs Analysis, material designs and Islamic Studies were

reviewed to find out the best method in designing the best tailor-made syllabus and

materials to be used in EIS. This paper explains the different approaches in needs analysis

and also various types and categories of materials used in related studies. The paper aims

to provide readers with new information in designing materials for any Language for

Specific Purposes programs.

Keywords: LSP; ESP; EIS; Needs Analysis; materials; materials development;

methodology; Islamic Studies

ABSTRAK

Bahasa Inggeris bagi Pengajian Islam adalah cabang baharu di dalam dunia

Bahasa Inggeris bagi Tujuan Khusus. Pada masa sekarang tiada lagi silibus dan

buku teks yang dihasilkan mengikut keperluan pelajar-pelajar Pengajian Islam.

Oleh kerana itulah kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengenalpasti bagaimana analisa

kehendak ataupun ‘Needs Analysis’ boleh membantu dalam penghasilan silibus dan

bahan ilmiah yang bersesuaian dengan kehendak pelajar-pelajar ini. Fokus pada

penulisan ini adalah kepada konsep-konsep yang berbeza yang menjadi tunjang

kepada penghasilan boring soal selidik kehendak ataupun ‘Needs Analysis

questionnaire’.

Kata Kunci: Analisa keperluan; bahan pembelajaran; pembangunan bahan

pembelajaran; metodologi; Pengajian Islam

INTRODUCTION

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has long being discussed by many well-known

scholars in the world such as Tom Hutchinson, Alan Waters, Pauline C. Robinson, Tony

Dudley-Evans and Maggie Jo St. John to name a few. ESP started because of the demand


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for a new brave world in the English language learning (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).

People wanted to learn English not for pleasure or for the prestige of knowing the

language, but to learn English to open doors to the international currencies of technology

and commerce. Currently, ESP is also stated as one of the major activities around the

world (Robinson, 1991).

ESP should reflect the fact that many ESP teachings, especially where it is linked to

a particular profession or discipline, makes use of a methodology that is different from the

methodology used in the teaching of General English (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998).

ESP is classified into two sections. First, English for Academic Purposes (EAP), where we

have English for Academic Medical Purposes, English for Academic Science and

Technology Purposes and many more. Second is English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)

like English for Business Purposes, English for Medical Purposes and others.

There are five different stages in an ESP course preparation. The main purpose of

ESP is to fulfil the needs of the learners as well as the sponsors. So the first stage in ESP is

Needs Analysis which is done to identify the specific needs of the students as well as the

sponsors of the program. The next stage in ESP is course and syllabus design. Having

gathered all the information from the needs analysis process, instructors will then be able

to design a course based on the needs stated by the learners and the sponsors.

The third stage requires the instructors to find or to produce their own materials to

be used throughout the course. After producing the materials, the teaching-learning

process, which is stage four, will take place. The fifth stage in ESP is assessment and

evaluation. Here, the instructors will have to design a test paper to assess the student’s

ability. Assessment can be done before the course, during the course and also at the end of

the course. On the other hand, evaluation is a process through which the students and also

the sponsors would be able to know the outcome of the course and also the effectiveness of

the materials. In theory, these processes might look as if it is done on a linear basis but in

reality these process work recursively.

This article will focus mainly on needs analysis and materials development for

English for Islamic Studies (EIS). The reason in choosing Islamic Studies is mainly

because, the need in them to know English in order for them to use the knowledge in them

to spread Islam to the world. Currently there is no specific syllabus or materials that can be

used as a guide in the teaching of EIS. In fact the term EIS is also still very new to the

world of Language for Specific Purposes (LSP). Materials designed for EIS should be

carefully designed so that it has an impact on the students and it can create interest in them

to learn English as these students are often labelled as under achieving students when it

comes to their English Language proficiency.

A study carried out by K. R. Narayanaswamy in 1978 entitled ESP for Islamic

School-Leavers for students in Nigeria. The course was offered to the students in April

1976 to June 1978 but the study was only published in 1982. In this study the author

explains about the level of English of various students from certain Arab schools in Nigeria

in entering pre-degree classes at Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria. Sadly this so called

ESP course was missing many important elements. The most important element that was

missing, and should be the starting point in any Language for Specific Purposes course was

Needs Analysis as agreed by many LSP scholars, (Richterich & Chancerel, 1977; Munby,

1978; Allwright, 1982; Richterich, 1983; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Nunan, 1988;

Robinson, 1991; Richards et al., 1992; Holliday & Cook, 1982; Dudley Evans & St. John,

1998; Jordan, 2011). Needs Analysis was not done on these students to know what do they

really want to know or learn hence this course was focusing solely on reading and

grammar teachings which looks almost alike General English or GE.


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NEEDS ANALYSIS

In English for Specific Purposes or ESP, the most important stage is the needs analysis

stage. Students will be given a needs analysis form that covers Target Situation Analysis

(TSA), Present Situation Analysis (PSA) and Learning Situation Analysis. The function of

TSA is to collect data about the learners and not from the learners and on the other hand

PSA is more on learner-centered approach and it collects data from the learners by using

methods such as questionnaires and doing interviews on the participant.

There are many methods and approaches that are used in coming up with the best

Needs Analysis form, from TSA, PSA, LSA approaches to necessities, lacks and wants and

many others. Each approach will be discussed individually. Target Situation Analysis as

suggested by Munby (1978) is known to be the best known framework where he focuses

on students’ needs at the end of the language course and at the target-level performance.

Munby is said to be more concern on communicative syllabus design and his procedures

are very detailed.

The Communication Need Processor (CNP) as suggested by Munby too focuses on

variables that affect communication needs by organising them as parameters in a dynamic

relationship to each other and as a result, it can generate a profile of students language

needs, communicative competence specification and the most importantly it would be able

to produce a sequenced syllabus. Munby’s attempt of an approach that is systematic and

comprehensive has made the approach or instrument in gathering data more flexible,

complex and also time consuming (West, 1994).

Though Munby’s model looked very convincing, Hutchinson and Waters argued

that Munby’s model focuses was more on learners hence it neglects the role of society and

they claim that needs should be determined by a negotiation between society and

individual stake-holders (1987). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) on the other hand proposed

Learning-Centred Approach. There was a distinction between learner-cantered and

learning centred. In learner-centred the learners determined the learning process and on the

other hand learning-centred is a process that involves learning as a tool of negotiation

between individuals and societies.

Target needs were defined by them as Necessities, Wants and Lacks. Necessities is

to look at what learners or students should know in order to be able to function well and

communicate efficiently in the target situation, meanwhile Lacks on the other hand looks

more at the gap between what the students or learners already know and which part are

they lacking of and need more focusing on. Hence the gap that is discovered can be the

basis of the language syllabus and is referred by Jordan (2011) as deficiency analysis.

Learners’ wants are the most important input in the Needs Analysis and cannot be

ignored in any ESP courses (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). Learners’ Wants is considered

very important because it will determine their determination and whether or not they

participate effectively in the class or throughout the learning process (Mcdonough, 1984;

Nunan, 1988). By neglecting their needs and wants might hinder them from learning and it

will cause demotivation among students. Students’ motivation towards the course also

depends on whether or not their wants are taken into account in the development of

syllabus and materials.

Nunan (1988) on the other hand suggested two models in approaching Needs

Analysis. They are Strategy Analysis which the focus of the analysis is on the

methodology applied to effectively implemented language program and Means Analysis’

function is to adjust language courses to local situations. Needs analysis is also defined as

the method of establishing the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of a course (Dudley Evans & St. John,

1998). Their approach of Needs is to look at Objective Needs and Subjective Needs.

Objective Needs is gathered by deriving facts from outsiders and Subjective Needs is


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collecting facts from cognitive and affective factors by the insiders of a community.

Critical Needs Analysis was also stated as the most recent approach in the Needs Analysis

method (Dudley Evans & St. John, 1998) where it looks at descriptive method that

provides a list of learners’ needs from Students, ESP teachers, Head of Departments and

Policymakers’ point of view. The transformative method provides indication for changes in

the content, materials and teaching method (Pennycook, 1989; Benesch, 1996).

Needs analysis is also defined as a process of determining the needs of a group of

learners that requires a language and arranging the needs according to priorities where it

uses both subjective and objective information (Richards et al., 1992).When we talk about

Needs Analysis there are few things that should be focused on such as, whose needs are we

looking at? When it comes to whose needs, it is suggested that the sponsors, subject

specialists, the language course designer, the teachers and the students’ needs are all the

important factors that needs to be considered in designing any LSP courses or materials

(Jordan, 2011).

Few scholars agree that as the starting point of any LSP courses, Needs Analysis

should be able to provide input for syllabuses designing, materials and the kind of teaching

and learning that takes place in a classroom (Higgins, 1966: Richterich in Trim in et al.,

1973/80; Strevens, 1977; Coffey, 1984). Present Situation Analysis was proposed by

Richterich and Chancerel (1997/80) to provide students state of language development at

the beginning of the language course. Students, teaching establishment and user institution

should provide the source of information by using surveys, questionnaires and interviews

and it will later be analysed for the levels of ability, resources and views on language

learning. In PSA, a learner is connected or is interrelated with society and culture.

Strategies Analysis that starts with students’ perceptions of their needs in their own

terms was proposed by Allwright (1982). Strategies Analysis was categorised into three

subsections such as Needs that looks at the skills which a student sees as being the most

relevant or important point for him or herself, Wants on the other hand looks at the needs

on which the student puts a high priority to it and to be learnt in a limited time. Lastly

Lacks, refer to as the differences between the students present competence and desired

ones.

The main concern in Strategy Analysis is to help students to identify skill areas and

their preferred strategies of achieving the skills needed. Holliday and Cooke (1982)

proposed a term called Means Analysis. Mean analysis involves the study of local situation

for example teachers, teaching methods, students, facilities and many more. Means

analysis is done to see how long a course should be implemented. Means analysis starts

with a positive premise which determines what might be achieved with certain given

factors (Jordan, 2011).

A learning centered-approach was later coined by Holliday (1994). In Holliday’s

learning centred-approach, it acknowledges the social context of education that offers more

freedom to teachers. The main reasons behind this approach are to avoid or prevent

awkwardness caused by imported teaching methods that may be culturally inappropriate

for the students (Jordan, 2011).

Needs analysis requires a method that would be able to identify which subject to be studied

and what language level needed. Instructors should also be sensitive to which study

situations and related study skills are relevant for their students. The method used also,

should be able to assess students’ current abilities in English and study skills in order to

determine the students’ gap and their needs in coming up with the best syllabus, materials

or methodology used in all the LSP courses.

In a nutshell, needs analysis is an incorporation of different approaches in needs

analysis such as wants, lacks, target situation analysis, present situation analysis,

deficiency analysis, strategy analysis, means analysis, language audit and constraints,


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demands, necessities, likes, deficiencies, aims purposes and goals as stated earlier by other

scholars

Materials Development in ESP

Materials development in ESP courses is very crucial and it shows the effort and creativity

of the course designers as well as the teachers. Authentic materials that are used in the real

world are the best materials that should be used in any English for Academic Purposes

(EAP) or English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) courses. This would give the students a

look on the real world that they will be entering once they have graduated. It will also

attract them in learning English as learning English for second language learners has

always been a problem due to lack of vocabulary and lack of confidence to name a few.

Let us look at what materials really mean. Materials can be defined as anything or

any source that can be used to assists the students in the process of language learning. It

can be textbooks, workbooks, Audio video, photocopied hand outs, paper cutting or

anything that informs the language being learned (Tomlinson, 2008). Materials too can

also be in the form of instructional, experiential, elicitative or exploratory (Tomlison,

2001).

In this current IT or gadget centric age, M-learning or mobile learning (Laborda,

2011) is starting to make way. Materials designers are aware of the needs of many ESP

participants be it students or adult learners who are always on the move and the time they

have to sit in one place and holding an old school material to read in order to get input or to

do assignments or homework is actually non achievable already. So currently they are

looking on means and ways that mobile phones could be used as a replacement to paper

based materials so students or adult learners will have their reading time while they are on

the move.

Many ESP practitioners are thinking of the best materials that can suit their

students or learners in this growing world today. What might be fun last year would no

longer able to interest the student this year. Technology is developing rapidly hence

educators, trainers and ESP practitioners should catch up and move according to the trend

and not against the trend. Most importantly the rules of developing materials should be put

as the main priority in designing and developing ESP materials.

Materials in ESP are tailored to meet the needs and interest of a specific group of

learners. Taking into account the issue of centrality of the learner’s needs analysis is said to

be the main features that many authors in the field of materials design agree of (Sysoyer,

2000). In defining learner’s needs in material design, authors should consider the language

knowledge that the learners’ require for their proficiency development, the language and

content knowledge that needs to be added or reincorporated to the learners’ knowledge and

not forgetting the learners’ desire of language and content. All these elements are

important as it will make or break any ESP courses.

When teaching ESP courses, course designers as well as materials designers should

be able to reach to different target audience. This is because having different target

audience can lead to having a variety of materials because the need to cater to their

different needs. For example materials for English for Tourism and English for Aviation

would be totally different. This does not only happened when it comes to developing

materials but same goes to methods and teaching approaches such as lexical, task based,

communicative and problem solving.

Three main characteristics or factors that need to be considered or look into

seriously when designing ESP materials are, first, criteria of implementing or modifying

materials, subjective criteria on what teachers and students want from that material and

lastly objective criteria, which is what the material really offers (Hutchinson & Waters,


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1987). This is really important because then only the author would be able to produce a

good set of materials that will make the learners as well as the teachers teaching the

specific course at ease throughout the whole process of language and knowledge learning.

In the process of designing ESP materials, there are also many suggestions on the

factors that shaped a good set of ESP materials. Among them, are for authors to look at

topics or speciality. Learners’ situation, general and specific proficiency of the language at

entry and exit levels, students previous educational and cultural experience. Authors

should also look at types of skills to be developed and expected outcomes of the learning

goals.

Current trend shows that many authors in field of ESP are trying to make their

materials as interesting and as easy accessible as possible. Tomlinson has described

positive trends in materials development as those that lead to self ‘discovering the

language, using corpuses for their development use extensive reading, personalize the

process and experience spoken grammar in use (Tomlinson, 2008). While developing

materials authors should not forget the aspects of linguistic that are important and well

connected to ESP such as lexical items, language forms topics for conversations while

trying to integrate all the four skills in English with authentic texts.

Authentic materials and ESP courses can never be separated. Students or learners

should be provided with authentic materials that reflect their real world and in this case, the

Islamic Studies field. Materials used should be able to link and relate to the students

background knowledge as well as their language ability. A main concern is on the issue of

the language and content focused are drawn from the input in order to fulfil any tasks given

to them (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).

This is the gap that all ESP courses are trying to fill. Materials used should benefit

students or learners so that when they go out to the real world they will be not only able to

function well in the real world but also they should be able to use English in their working

life. Harding suggested three recommendations to consider while coming up with a set of

materials:

Use context, texts, and situations from the students’ subject area – Whether they

are real or stimulated they will naturally involve the language the students need.

Exploit authentic materials that students use in their specialism or vocation – Do

not be put off by the fact that it may not look like ‘normal English’.

Make the tasks authentic as well as the tasks – Get the students doing things with

the materials that they actually need to di their wok

(Harding, 2007, p. 10 – 11)

In the context of Islamic studies, the materials used for these students are supposed to

be integrated with the text that they use in the real world. It could be a text or sermons that

preachers or Imams used while preaching. It could also be a dialogue or questions and

answers sessions or discussions between preachers in Islam. The main aim is that texts

used should reflect their real life and also should relate to their background knowledge. A

material designer should be aware that the goal is not to teach these students the content of

Islamic Studies in English but how to use English properly in related to their field of study

so that they would be able to communicate whatever they have learnt in the university to

the community.

If the target audience is a set of ‘Dakwah’ students, then the material designers should

use texts used by the preachers in the real world as for example a sermon text can be used

as a reading comprehension text to teach these students Islamic terms and jargons in

English. Of course as Harding said it would not look like normal English at first but the

goal is to make them comfortable with the whole idea of learning English in their context

and in this case The Islamic Studies context. Once they are comfortable then the learning

process will be smooth. To get students’ attention in learning English in their context is not


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easy hence students should find the materials challenging, interesting and usable in order to

attract their attention and also to motivate the students or learners to learn. This is one of

the principles of social constructivist approach to language learning as suggested by

Wilson and Yang (2007).

Swales (1990) suggested that when materials are not available, adaptation and

simplifications by eliminating dense contents are desirable to make text more semi

authentic. These changes can be done by slightly modifying the style, register and

vocabulary. This has given many materials designers, rooms and space in coming up with

authentic materials. Most of the time sponsors would like to see authentic materials that

their staffs relate it straight away with their working life.

Then again there are also many problems in getting authentic materials and one of it is

when an ESP practitioner has to deal with documents or recording of something that has a

certain level of privacy. In a study done among German bankers that was working in

German Central Bank (the Bundesbank) in Frankfurt, in the year 2000, the author claimed

that it was a problem to get authentic materials such as videos of meetings, authentic

internal memos, faxes, business letters or email messages used at the Bundesbank. All

these documents were labelled as documents that are highly private and confidential in

Bundesbank (Edwards, 2000). This is why Swales suggested adapting and simplifying

materials so that if it is not fully authentic it is at least semi authentic.

It is necessary to find interfaces in materials production, adaptation and evaluation

between teachers in their own classroom and materials designers for commercial purposes

taking into consideration the students present situation and their target situation in using

those materials (Tomlinson, 2001). But then McGrath (2002) argues whether or not the

commercial materials used will fit and be enough in numbers and quality to cope with

students’ needs, proficiency and learning styles and also as Frendo (2007) said whether or

not it achieve the degree of authenticity.

These two arguments are logical in terms of the quality of materials develop and the

usability of the materials. Materials designers should work hand in hand with the teachers

in the process of developing materials and teachers should be given the freedom to enhance

the materials given to them according to their students’ level of proficiency and

background knowledge in them. When teachers and materials designers work closely with

each other not only the materials will have a certain level of quality in it but also the issue

raised by McGrath and Frendo will no longer be worrying as teachers have the freedom in

adjusting and playing around with the materials provided to them but not changing them

100% though commercial materials are used extensively.

Another issue in any ESP courses is that teachers usually have little knowledge on the

content or specialised area of the students in this case Islamic Studies and students have

little knowledge on the English Language. The gap has been there and teachers usually will

try to minimize the gap by trying to mimic experiences in the specialize field (Laborda,

2011). Students most of the time comes in into an ESP classroom with not only the target

on learning the language but they often want a good mixture of the both world, English and

content related to their field of study. If the teacher is able to mix these two elements

successfully, students will come in with the feeling of motivated and at ease with both the

materials and the method used.

When deciding on materials or items to be put into materials, authors and designers

should take into account the language and register to be used. This input can be gathered

from the analysis of Target Situation Analysis and the students’ needs too. It is an issue

raised at all ESP courses on what kind of language that is most suitable to be used in the

materials and also in the classrooms.

Materials designers can choose to use traditional materials which comprises of the printed

ones such as magazines, manuals brochures, and bulletins or current materials that are


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rising nowadays such as videos, listening files, websites, podcasts and many more. Again

the issue of ready-made materials would not be easily done if the designers choose to use

the traditional or the printed version of materials in comparison of videos, audios and

internet based materials. Designers as well as the teachers will have to put more effort and

dedicate their time in designing authentic materials if they choose to use printed traditional

materials.

CONCLUSION

As a conclusion materials development in ESP is very crucial. It should take into

consideration what the learners’ needs and also the sponsors’ needs. Materials designers or

authors should be able to connect, link and integrate the language elements as well as the

specialized field that they are catering for.

This can be done if the designers and authors begin the whole process of

developing materials with Needs Analysis. It is the most important part in the

establishment of any ESP courses. Students or learners’ as well as sponsors’ needs will be

answered in the Needs Analysis forms given to them. If there is a gap between the

respondents, the ESP practitioner or the syllabus designers will have to look at the middle

point or the ‘happy mean’ to satisfy both parties.

Another factor in developing materials is the level of authenticity of the material

itself. Designers should consider using real life, authentic materials that reflect the target

audience specialization. This will help students who are weak in the English Language to

at least comprehend reading text for example due to the background knowledge that they

have. ESP is not merely teaching grammar, reading, listening and speaking without any

context in it. All these four skills are important for the learners or the students but it should

be integrated with their field of study so that the background knowledge that they have will

help them in understanding terms and jargons easily. By using real life materials, students

too will be happy and will feel at ease when they are learning because they are familiar and

comfortable with the materials used in the classrooms.

REFERENCES

Allwright, R. L. (1982). Perceiving and pursuing learner's needs. Oxford: Modern English

Publications.

Benesch, S. (1996). Needs Analysis and Curriculum Development in EAP: A Example of a

Critical Approach. TESOL Quarterly, 30, 723-738.

Coffey, B. (1984). ESP - English for Specific Purposes. Languae Teaching, 17(1).

Edwards, N. (2000). Language for Business: Effective Needs Assessment, Syllabus Design

and Materials Preparation in a Practical ESP Case Study. English for Specific

Purposes, 19, 291-296.

Frendo, E. (2007). How to teach business english. Essex: Pearson Longman.

Harding, K. (2007). English for specific purposes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Higgins, J. J. (1966). Hard Facts. ELT Journal, 21 (1).

Holliday, A. (1994a). The House of TESEP and the Communicative Approach: The

Special Needsof State English Language Education. ELT Journal, 48 (1).

Holliday, A. (1994b). Appropriate methodology and social context. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Holliday, A. a. (1982). An ecological Approach to ESP. Lancaster: Lancaster Practical

Papers in English Language Education, 5.


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Jordan, R. R. (2011). English for academic purposes. United Kingdom: University Press,

Cambridge.

Laborda, J. G. (2011). Revisting Materials for Teaching for Specific Purposes. The

Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 17, 102-112.

McDonough, J. (1984). ESP in Perspective: A Practical Guide. Collins ELT.

McGrath, I. (2002). Materials evaluation and design for language. Edinburgh Edinburgh

University Press.

Munby, J. (1978). Communicative syllabus design. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Narayanaswamy, K. R. (1982). English for Specific Purposes for Islamic School Leavers.

System, 159-170.

Nunan, D. (1988). Syllabus design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Pennycook, A. (1989). The Concept of Method, Interested Knowledge and the Politicsof

Language Teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 23 (4).

Richards, J. C. (1992). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics.

London: Longman.

Richterich, R. (1983). Introduction to case studies in identifying language needs. Oxford:

Pergamon Press.

Ricterich, R. A. (1977/80). Identifying the needs of adults learning a foreign language.

Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Robinson, P. C. (1991). ESP today: A preactitioner's guide. Hemel Hempstead: Phoenix

ELT.

Strevens, P. (1977). Special Purpose Language Learning: A Perspective. Language

Teaching and Linguistics, 10 (3).

Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic research writing. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Sysoyev, P. (2000). Devoloping an English for Specific Purposes Course Using a Learner

Centered Approach: A Russian Experience. The Internet TESL Journal, 4 (3).

Tom Hutchinson, A. W. (1987). English for specific purposes: A learning-centered

approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Tomlinson, B. (2001). Materials development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Tomlinson, B. (2008). English Language Teaching Materials. London: Continuum.

Tony Dudley-Evans, M. J. (1998). Developments in english for specific purposes: A multi-

disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Trim, J. R. (1973/80). System Development in Adult Language Learning.

Strasbourg/Oxford: Pergamon.

West, R. (1994). Needs Analysis on Language Teaching. Language Teaching, 27 (1).

Wilson, K. A. (2007). A Socialconstructivist Approach To Reading: Turning the Rhetoric

into Reality. CELEA Journal, 30, 51-56.

Rabiathul Adhabiyyah Sayed Abudhahir

Mahanum Mahdun

‘Aliyatulmuna Md. Nor

Department of English,

Faculty of Management and Muamalah,

International Islamic University College Selangor, Malaysia

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]





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PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION ACT 2010: TAKING THE FIRST STEPS

TOWARDS COMPLIANCE

(Akta Perlindungan Data Peribadi 2010: Mengambil Langkah Awal ke arah Pematuhan)

Farah Mohd Shahwahid & Surianom Miskam


ABSTRACT

With the coming into force of the Personal Data Protection Act 2010 (PDPA 2010) on 15

November 2013, business entities (data users) are now obligated to comply with the principles

of data protection enshrined in the Act. The aim of PDPA 2010 is to ensure that personal data

of consumers (data subjects) that are collected, stored and used by the data user is being

handled in the correct manner. The Act contains seven principles of data collection in line

with data protection legislations worldwide. This study aims to discover whether the

provisions of PDPA have been complied with by the data users. This will be done by looking

at the provisions from the Act regarding the principles of data protection as well as the duties

for compliance to the legislation. Furthermore, the privacy policy from selected data user

business entities from selected industries are examined. The study also seeks to discover what

are the barriers that need to be overcome in implementing PDPA 2010 successfully.

Keywords: Personal Data Protection Act 2010; personal data; data user; data subject;

compliance

ABSTRAK

Dengan berkuat kuasanya Akta Perlindungan Data Peribadi 2010 pada 15 November 2013,

semua entity perniagaan (pengguna data) diwajibkan mematuhi prinsip-prinsip berkaitan

perlindungan data yang terkandung dalam Akta tersebut. Objektif utama Akta ini adalah

untuk memastikan bahawa segala data peribadi orang awam (subjek data) yang dikumpul,

disimpan dan digunakan oleh pengguna data dalam aktiviti komersial dikendalikan mengikut

prosedur yang ditetapkan. 7 prinsip perlindungan data peribadi yang digubal selari dengan

perundangan perlindungan data yang digunapakai di seluruh dunia. Kajian ini akan melihat

kepada pematuhan pengguna data kepada peruntukan-peruntukan yang terkandung dalam

Akta ini dengan melihat kepada peruntukan-peruntukan berkaitan dalam Akta berkenaan

prinsip-prinsip perlindungan data dan tanggungjawab pengguna data terhadap pematuhan

Akta ini. Di samping itu, polisi privasi data peribadi beberapa entiti perniagaan yang

tertakluk kepada Akta ini akan dikaji untuk melihat sejauhmana mereka mematuhi kehendak

Akta ini. Kajian juga cuba mengenalpasti apakah halangan yang perlu di atasi untuk

memastikan Akta ini dapat dikuatkuasakan dengan berkesan.

Kata kunci: Akta Perlindungan Data Peribadi 2010; data peribadi; pengguna data; subjek

data; pematuhan undang-undang


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1. INTRODUCTION

Information is a valuable commodity these days. Information is also seen as a

controversial tool of modern life. With vast quantities of information belonging or regarding

to individuals being held by various business entities, many issues arise as to the mechanism

in handling all this personal information. Matters pertaining to who holds this information,

how they hold it, and in what circumstances they use it and/or pass it on to others, has been

the subject of detailed legislation and regulation for many years.

The Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing

of Personal Data (Convention 108), adopted by the Council of Europe in 1981 was the first

legal instrument to guarantee the protection of personal data, as a separate right granted to an

individual. This convention obliges the signatories to enact legislation concerning the

automatic processing of personal data. At the same time, the Organization for Economic Co-

operation and Development (OECD) issued guidelines to its members, which urged them to

introduce measures to protect personal information. The European Commission realised that

diverging data protection legislation amongst EU member states impeded the free flow of data

within the EU. In 1995, the EU Data Protection Directive was enacted setting out the data

protection principles that EU member states must incorporate into their national data

protection laws.

In 1973, Sweden became the first country to adopt personal data protection legislation

with the passing of the Data Act. That legislation became the first national law that

implemented what we now recognize as the basic principles of data protection. Four decades

later, almost 100 other countries have followed suit.

2. PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION IN MALAYSIA

As far as Malaysia is concerned, with the passing of Personal Data Protection Act

2010 (PDPA) on June 2010 Malaysia becomes the first ASEAN nation to introduce such laws

into the region, and after a long wait, this law has now became enforceable on the 15th

November 2013. The coming into effect of the law is almost one year after the Act was

scheduled to take effect on January 1, 2013, but delayed due to legal formalities. The bill was

first drafted in 2001 and was originally expected to be implemented early 2010. It was

initially scheduled to be passed August 16 2013, with businesses using personal data required

to register themselves with the Personal Data Protection Department of Malaysia by

November 15, 2013. (The Malay Mail Online, 15 November 2013)

The PDPA was formed primarily to regulate the processing of personal data collected

for commercial purposes and all other matters connected or incidental to consumers’ personal

data. The PDPA also aims to safeguard consumers’ rights regarding their personal data. The

Act requires companies and organisations that handle consumers’ personal data in commercial

transactions (data users) to notify them and obtain their consent for any collecting and

processing of their personal information.

The PDPA is applicable to a data user which is defined in section 4 of the Act as a

person who either alone or jointly or in common with other persons processes any personal

data or has control over or authorizes the processing of any personal data, but does not include

a data processor. In short, a data user is a person who processes or controls or authorizes the

processing of personal data. Abu Bakar Munir (2012) adds that a data user must be a legal


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person. The term legal person would cover individuals, companies and other corporate and

unincorporated entities.

The PDPA is only applicable for data or information that falls under ‘personal data’.

Section 4 of the act defines personal data as any information in respect of a commercial

transaction, which (a) is being processed wholly or partly by means of equipment operating

automatically in response to instructions given for that purpose; (b) is recorded with the

intention that it should wholly or partly be processed by means of such equipment; or (c) is

recorded as part of a relevant filing system or with the intention that it should from part of a

relevant filing system, that relates directly or indirectly to a data subject, who is identified or

identifiable from that information.

The Act also provides the definition for data subject under section 4 as an individual

who is the subject of the personal data. This means that data subject is the owner of the

personal data that is being processed by the data user. Referring to the definitions, for a

particular data or information to qualify as personal data under the PDPA, it must be shown

that the data subject can be identified or is identifiable from the data in question. In simpler

words, the data that was processed by the data user can be traced back to a particular

individual, i.e. the data subject. Among data or information that would qualify as personal

data would include the name, identification numbers, addresses, telephone numbers, bank

account numbers and even place of work or place of birth. Sometimes, one data alone does

not make an individual identifiable, but a series or a combination of data does so.

Abu Bakar Munir (2012) further explains this by saying that an identifiable person

appears to be the one whose separate identity is ascertainable but who is not known in person.

He or she may be traceable by virtue of certain factors. It is suggested that a person is

identifiable where there is sufficient information either to contact him or to recognize him by

picking him out in some way from others. Furthermore, a person is identifiable if his identity

can be ascertained from the information held plus the results of reasonable enquiries which

are made either by the data user or another.

The PDPA is applicable to any person who processes data either by automatic means

or manually. Processing is defined in section 4 to include the ‘collecting, recording, holding,

or storing the personal data or carrying out any operation or set of operations on the personal

data, including the organization, adaptation or alteration or personal data, the retrieval,

consultation or use of personal data, the disclosure of personal data by transmission, transfer,

dissemination or otherwise making available, or the alignment, combination, correction,

erasure or destruction of personal data. The definition was deliberately framed broadly to

include all possible activities of a data user. Automatic means of processing data would

include the recording and storing of personal data in a computer or online database, as well as

the use or disclosure of personal data on the data user’s email, mailing list or website.

Examples of manual processing of personal data would include the collecting of consumers’

business cards or application forms, keeping consumers personal information in logbooks or

filing cabinets and erasing or shredding documents containing the personal information of

consumers.

2.1 The provisions of the PDPA 2010

Compliance to the PDPA is by following the seven data protection principles which

are expressly and clearly stated in the provisions of the Act. Section 5(1) lists down the data


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protection principles while section 5(2) of the Act mentions that contravention of the data

protection principles shall be punishable by fine, imprisonment or even both.

The first principle of data protection is the General Principle section 6 which provides

that no personal data about a data subject is to be processed unless the data subject has

consented to the processing. It also states that a data user shall not process any sensitive

personal data of a data subject unless it is in accordance with section 40 of the same Act.

Section 6(3) further states that any personal data shall not be processed unless the personal

data is processed for a lawful purpose directly related to the activity of the data user, the

processing of the personal data is necessary for, or directly related to that purpose, and the

personal data is adequate but not excessive in relation to that purpose.

Section 7(1) discusses the second data protection principle which is the notice and

choice principle. The provision requires the data user to inform the data subject by giving a

notice in writing that

(a) That personal data of the subject is being processed by or on behalf of the data

user, and shall provide a description of the personal data to that data subject;

(b) The purposes for which the personal data is being or is to be collected and further

processed;

(c) Of any information available to the data user as to the source of that personal data;

(d) Of the data subject’s right to access to and to request correction of the personal

data user with any inquiries or complaints in respect of the personal data;

(e) Of the class of third parties to whom the data user discloses or may disclose the

personal data;

(f) Of the choices and means the data user offers the data subject for limiting the

processing of personal data, including personal data relating to other persons who

may be identified from that personal data;

(g) Whether it is obligatory or voluntary for the data subject to supply the personal

data; and

(h) Where it is obligatory for the data subject to supply the personal data, the

consequences for the data subject if he fails to supply the personal data.

This principle requires a company to have a privacy policy statement, which contains

all the matters stated above. All of the requirements must be complied with, not a selected

few. This provision also requires that the written notice shall be in both Bahasa Melayu and

English. If the data users wish, they can also provide the privacy policy in other languages as

well. The data user must also ensure that consumers are provided with the means to choose

the privacy policy.

Section 8 of the PDPA prohibits the disclosure of personal data for other purposes

without the consent of the data subject. The prohibition covers two aspects, which are firstly,

the purpose for the disclosure and secondly to whom is the disclosure of personal data made

to. For the first part of the prohibition, data users are only allowed to disclose the personal

data for the purpose or directly related purpose that the data was collected for in the first

place. However, the PDPA does provide certain exceptions where personal data may be

disclosed without the consent of the data subject. These exceptions are laid down in section

39 which includes that the disclosure is necessary for the purpose of preventing or detecting a

crime, or for investigation purposes or where disclosure of personal data is required or

authorized by or under any law or court order (section 39 (b); the data user has acted in the

reasonable belief that he had a right to disclose the personal data to the other person or had


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acted in the reasonable belief that he would have had the consent of the data subject if the data

subject had known of the disclosure and the circumstances of such disclosure (section 39 (c)

and (d)); and lastly the disclosure was justified as being in the public interest.

For the second part, data users are only allowed to disclose the personal data to any

third party or class of third parties that are stated in the written notice provided to the data

subject. This is to ensure that the data subject has been made aware of the existence of the

third party/parties and the consent of the data subject was obtained before the personal data

can be processed by such third party/parties.

Section 9 of PDPA governs the security principle which requires a data user to take

practical steps to protect the personal data being processed from any loss, misuse,

modification, unauthorized or accidental access or disclosure, alteration or destruction. To

comply with this principle, protection must be given in regard to the nature of the personal

data, the place or location the data is stored, the security measures which are incorporated to

the equipment where the data is stored, the measures taken to ensure the integrity of the

personnel having access to the data as well as the measures taken to ensure secure transfer of

the data. In cases where data processing is done on behalf of the data user by a data processor,

Section 9(2) requires the data user to take steps to ensure that the data processor provides

sufficient guarantees in respect of security measures governing the processing of personal

data, and takes reasonable steps to ensure compliance to aforementioned measures. In

complying with the security principles, the measures taken by the data user would differ and

depend on the industry the data user conducts its commercial activities as well as the type of

personal data that is being processed. For certain industries which deal with sensitive,

confidential and valuable personal data on a daily basis, such as the banking, insurance, health

and communication industries, data users are expected to take high level security measures to

safeguard the personal data in order for them to fulfill the requirements of section 9.

Examples would include personal details concerning banking transactions, insurance policies,

health records and medical history of patients and the telephone numbers and addresses of

clients of the data users.

This principle clearly states ‘practical steps’. The data user must only take measures

that commensurate with the risks represented by the processing of, or the nature of the data

together with the cost of implementing such security measures. Data users must strike a

balance between the seriousness of the consequences of failure in security and the price of

putting into place the security measures.

The retention principle endowed in section 10 of the PDPA requires that personal data

is not retained or kept by the data user for a period longer than necessary for the fulfillment of

the purpose it was processed. It is the responsibility of the data user to destroy or permanently

delete the personal data. The words ‘shall not be kept’ in that section seem to indicate that it is

mandatory for the data user to dispose the data when it is no longer needed for its purpose.

The Act is silent on the period for deletion or how for the data user to determine when to

dispose of the data.

Section 11 explains the data integrity principle, a crucial element in personal data

protection law. This provision requires the data user to take reasonable steps to ensure that the

personal data is accurate, complete, not misleading and kept up to date having regard to the

purpose, including any directly related purpose for which the personal data was collected and

later processed. This requirement shows the importance of the data user ensuring that no

personal data are inaccurate, incomplete or obsolete.


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Any data subject must be given the right of access to the personal data held and

processed by the data user. If the personal data is inaccurate, the data subject must be able to

correct the data to give effect section 12.

2.2 Rights of Individuals (Data Subjects)

In relation to the processing of personal data of individuals, certain statutory rights are

provided under the PDPA. The six rights are the right to be informed, right of access to

personal data, right to correct personal data, right to withdraw consent, right to prevent

processing which is likely to cause damage or distress and right to prevent processing for the

purpose of direct marketing.

The right of access to personal data gives effect to the access principle. The provisions

governing this right are Section 30-33. Section 30 (1) provides that an individual is entitled to

be informed if his personal data is being processed by or on behalf of the data user. Section

30(2) says that upon payment of a prescribed fee, a requestor may make a data access request

in writing to the data user for information of the data subject’s personal data that is being

processed by the data user and for that information to be communicated to him in an

intelligible form. However, section 32 the n lays down the circumstances where a data user

may refuse to comply with that request.

The right to correct personal data is also provided in the Act under sections 34-47.

Section 34 (1) says that where a requestor of a data access request or the data subject himself

considers that personal data being held by the data user is inaccurate, the requester or the data

subject, may make a data correction request in writing to the data user for necessary

amendments to be made to the personal data. However, section 36 states that in certain

circumstances, the data user may refuse to comply with a data correction request. To prevent

such refusal, it is advised that the person seeking the data correction to supply the necessary

evidence to prove the inaccuracy of the personal data.

The right to withdraw consent for processing data is guaranteed under section 38

which expressly states that the data user shall cease the processing of personal data, upon

receiving a notice in writing for him to do so.

Section 42 then further goes on to explain another right of a data subject which is the

right to prevent processing of any personal data that is likely to cause damage or distress to

the data subject or to any other person. This provision also gives a right to the data subject to

prevent the data user from collecting, holding, processing or using his personal data. For this

provision to be applicable, the data subject must prove that the collecting, holding, processing

or use of that personal data causes or is likely to cause damage or distress, and the damage or

distress caused must be substantial and unwarranted. As the words ‘substantial’ and

‘unwarranted’ is not defined in the Act, it can be interpreted to suit the particular type of

personal data or industry in that particular situation.

Another right accorded by the PDPA is the right to decide whether or not they wish to

have their personal information used for direct marketing purposes. Section 43(1) states that a

data subject, may, by submitting a notice in writing to the data user, require the data user to

cease or not proceed with the processing of his personal data for direct marketing purposes.

Direct marketing is defined in the PDPA to mean the communication by whatever means of

any advertising or marketing material which is directed to particular individuals. This right

can be exercised by the data subject at any time, even if they have initially consented to the

use of their personal data, this consent can be later on revoked. Businesses that operate a


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direct marketing approach should pay extra attention to this clause as it cannot be assumed

that once consent has been given by a data subject, that the consent will be continuous. Once

consent has been revoked, no direct marketing material of any form should be sent to the data

subject anymore. This would include but not limited to letters, brochures and catalogues both

in paper and paperless form. This provision is unique in the sense that it is applicable to not

only prevent the sending and receiving of marketing communication but also can be used to

stop the profiling, screening or data mining activities involving the data subject’s personal

data.

2.3 Penalty for Non-Compliance

Failure to comply with the provisions of this legislation is a punishable criminal

offence. Section 135 states that prosecution under the PDPA must be instituted by, or with the

written consent of the public prosecutor. Section 135 gives the authority to Sessions Court to

try any offence under the PDPA and to impose punishment for any such offences under the

PDPA. Non-compliance of the PDPA is punishable by a fine or to imprisonment or to both.

This punishment is clearly stated under section 5(2) of the PDPA which states that subject to

the exemptions under section 45 and 46, a data user who contravenes the personal data

protection principles commits an offence and shall, upon conviction, be liable to a fine not

exceeding RM300,000 or to imprisonment not exceeding two years, or both.

Other offences under the PDPA by those who qualify to be data users include the

processing of personal data without having a certificate of registration (section 16) and the

continuing to process personal data after the revocation of registration as data user (section

18). Another offence under the legislation is stated under section 130 which provides that a

person commits an offence when he, either knowingly or recklessly, without the consent of

the data user, collects, discloses, or procures the disclosure of data to another person. These

offences upon conviction carries the punishment of fine not exceeding RM500,000 or to an

imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years, or both.

Section 38 provides that data users who fail to cease the processing of personal data

upon receiving notice from the data subject withdrawing consent to the processing of his

personal data, commits an offence, and upon conviction is liable to a fine not exceeding

RM100,000 or imprisonment up to one year, or both.

Another offence under PDPA is stated under section 40, the processing of sensitive

information contravening the conditions stated in the Act. This offence, upon conviction is

liable to punishment of fine not exceeding RM200, 000 or to imprisonment for a term not

exceeding two years, or both.

Offences of data user’s refusal to comply with a data correction request by the data

subject, non-compliance with any code of practice applicable to a data user (Section 29), and

a data user’s continuous processing of personal data after withdrawal of consent from data

subject (Section 38) are all punishable by a fine not exceeding RM100, 000 or imprisonment

not more than 1 year, or both.

2.4 Privacy Policy: Compliance by Business Entities

The enforcement of PDPA on the 15 November 2013 also introduced some subsidiary

legislations including the Personal Data Protection (Class of Data Users) Order 2013 (PDPO

2013). This new regulations require certain class of data users to register with the Personal


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Data Protection Commissioner. These selected data users are from the following 11

industries:

1. Communications

2. Banking and financial institution

3. Insurance

4. Health

5. Tourism and hospitalities

6. Transportation

7. Education

8. Direct selling

9. Services

10. Real estate

11. Utilities

The law requires that business entities and service providers under these categories to

comply within three months from the date of the coming into effect of the legislation. By

looking at the list, this would include data users like banks, financial institutions,

telecommunication firms, insurance companies, private hospitals, private schools, colleges

and universities, commercial airlines, law firms, real estate agencies, and utilities’ providers

such as Tenaga National Berhad, ASTRO and SYABAS. Besides registration, enforcement of

PDPA would require compliance to the personal data principles. The initial step to be taken

by data users is by having a privacy policy in place, where the data user guarantees to take

steps to comply with the seven data protection principles.

Referring to the websites of some selected data users, the privacy policy of these

selected data users were analysed to see if they complied with the requirements of PDPA. The

findings are summarized as follows:

2.4.1 Maybank (Malayan Banking Berhad)

The privacy notice of Malayan Banking Berhad is accessible through its website

www.Maybank2u.com. It is available in both English and Bahasa Melayu. The notice

explains that it collects, uses, maintains and discloses customers’ personal data in respect of

commercial transactions and that it takes steps to safeguards the personal data collected from

their customers. The notice also lists down, non-exhaustively, the types of personal data

collected from the customers. The privacy notice contains provisions regarding all seven

principles of data protection. There are provisions explaining the use the personal data

processed and while it undertakes to keep data confidential, the notice admits that there are

circumstances where the data will be disclosed to third parties. A provision is also included

allowing data subjects (customers of Maybank) to amend any incorrect data being processed,

as well as the actions to be taken by the data subject to amend or correct the data.

2.4.2 CELCOM

The privacy policy of CELCOM is available online through its website and expressly

states that the Customer Service Division is responsible for the customer access and

correction of personal data, notice and choice process to limit processing of personal data and

the Privacy Department in Legal Division is responsible for the monitoring the administration


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of this notice and monitoring its compliance. The privacy policy includes provisions on all the

data protection principles, where CELCOM promises compliance. The policy also has a

clause regarding the processing of sensitive personal data where it states “that it does not

process any sensitive personal data in its ordinary course of business but if the need arises,

CELCOM will obtain explicit consent from the customer before or when it processes sensitive

personal data. At this point, CELCOM may process personal data without the customer’s

consent only in limited circumstances as permitted by law”.

2.4.3 Telekom Malaysia Berhad

Similar to other data users, Telekom has prepared a privacy policy in line with the

requirement of PDPA. The policy contains provisions detailing the company’s processing of

customers’ personal data and all seven principles of personal data are dealt with in the policy.

While promising to safeguard the personal data, the company admits to using the data

collected for purposes mentioned in the policy. The policy contains information on how data

subjects (referred to as ‘Members” in the policy) may choose to ‘opt out” from receiving mail,

and how the ycan modify their information or make any other necessary changes.

3. LIMITATIONS AND CHALLENGES AHEAD

Section 2(2) of PDPA provides that the Act applies to a data user in multiple ways.

Firstly, where the data user is established in Malaysia and the data user processes data.

Secondly, when the data user that is established in Malaysia, employs or engages someone to

process personal data. Thirdly, when a data user who is not established in Malaysia, uses

equipment in Malaysia to process personal data. Therefore, it can be said that the applicability

of this Act is limited to Malaysian data users or at least to data that was processed in this

country.

A severe limitation of this Act that has also been a subject of criticism by many is the

fact that this Act, as stated in section 3(1) does not cover both the Federal and State

governments of Malaysia. As a huge amount or personal data is processed by government

agencies, the exclusion of these entities would surely have implications on the successful

implementation of this law.

Section 3(2) also excludes data wholly processed outside of Malaysia unless that

personal data is intended to be further processed in Malaysia. The effect of this is that the

PDPA is not applicable to internet based data gatherers, unless the data collected is used or is

to be used in Malaysia. For example, if a Hong Kong based bank (the data user) gathers

information from Malaysian consumers (the data subjects) through the internet, the PDPA is

not applicable unless the data collected is used or is intended to be used in Malaysia.

Another important element in discussing the applicability of PDPA is that this law is

only applicable to the processing of personal data in respect of commercial transactions.

Therefore, any personal processed for non-commercial or private use is exempted from this

legislation. Section 4 of the PDPA defines commercial transaction to mean any transaction of

a commercial nature, whether contractual or not, which includes any matters relating to the

supply or exchange of goods or services, agencies, investments, financing, banking and

insurance. The definition provided by the Act does not include credit reporting which is under

the purview the Credit Rating Agency Act 2010.


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With the fast changing world of information and communication technology where

international data transfer is unavoidable it has increased the complexity of personal data

management itself from the moment data is collected, used, stored, and destroyed. The PDPA

is equally applicable to all customers, employees, and third party service providers that handle

personal data. Overall, companies businesses will also be affected as processes will be

required to be refined to comply with the requirements of the Act.

Besides the issue of applicability of PDPA, another challenge that is being faced is the

lack of knowledge on PDPA specifically or on the concept of personal data protection as a

whole. Many business owners are clueless as to their status as data users. They are unsure if

they fall under the purview of the PDPA and if they are, what are the steps that need to be

taken by them. Business owners are still unsure of what constitutes personal data? For

example, a wedding planner deals with many parties, from the couple getting married to the

various contractors that he engages for wedding related services. Is the wedding planner

breaking the law by keeping a collection of pictures and videos of his clients’ weddings? It is

unsure if the Act applies in this context. (The Star Online, 2 February 2014)

Another aspect that impedes the successful implementation of PDPA is the limitation

in terms of data users being ‘technology savvy’. According to the managing director of a

security solution company, Goh Chee Hoh “it is not easy now for businesses to equip

themselves with the proper tools to help them to secure their customers’ personal data because

people today are using a diverse set of mobile devices, operating systems and consumer apps

to handle sensitive data”. (The Star Online, 2 February 2014)

While much effort to increase knowledge awareness on PDPA has been conducted in

the forms of seminars and public awareness campaigns through the media, it is clear that

much more needs to be done. For many of the multinational companies, compliance with the

PDPA should not be a big problem as they already have in place a global policy that just

needs to fit to the Malaysian requirements. Those who seem to struggle the most with

compliance are the small and medium enterprises (SME). (The Star Online, 2 February 2014)

This view is supported by Kuok Yew Chen, a lawyer at Christopher & Lee Ong, one

of many law firms providing legal consultancy over the PDPA. Kuok believes that many

companies already have some sort of privacy policy in place. “Generally, the multinationals

would already have global privacy policies and so they would simply need to adapt these to

meet the requirements of Malaysia’s PDPA. It is, perhaps, the small- and medium-enterprises

that would be least prepared, given that not many would have internal policies or procedures

on privacy and protection of personal data,” said Kuok. (The Star Online, 2 February 2014)

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The PDPA has already been enforced and business entities and service providers are

required to register by 15 February 2014 or face penalties under section 16(4) of the PDPA.

Since the grace period of three months has expired, it means that this is the time for

enforcement. Relevant parties and the authority should take measures to identify the gaps to

meet the legal requirements and industry standards in order to develop a strategic roadmap to

address the gaps and to develop structure, roles and responsibilities, policies and procedures

to be applied by all affected parties. More important, audit processes and systems to assess

compliance with policies, standards, and legal requirements should be set up and enforced to

maintain strict compliance of the law.


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5. REFERENCES

Businesses in the dark over PDPA, retrieved from:

http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2014/02/02/Businesses-in-the-dark-over-the-

PDPA/, accessed on 20 April 2014.

Comply with Act or face action, data users warned, retrieved from:

http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2014/02/02/Comply-with-Act-or-face-

action-data-users-warned/, accessed on 24 April 2014.

Data Protection Act gazzetted effective today, retrieved from:

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effective-today, 15 November 2013 accessed on 11 May 2014.

Data users must register with Personal Data Protection Dept by Feb 15, retrieved from:

http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2014/02/06/Data-protection-Feb15/,

accessed on 2 May 2014.

http://celcom.com.my, retrieved on 2 May 2014.

http://pdp.gov.my, retrieved on 2 May 2014.

http://www.maybank2u.com.my, retrieved on 2 May 2014.

http://www.tm.com.my, retrieved on 4 May 2014.

Greenleaf, Graham, Sheherezade and the 101 data privacy laws: Origins, significance and

global trajectories, September 10, 2013, Journal of Law, Information & Science, 2013

UNSW Law Research Paper No. 2013-40.

Munir, A. B. (2010). The Personal Data Protection Bill 2009, Malayan Law Journal Articles

[2010] 1 MLJ cxix.

Munir, AB. (2012). Personal Data Protection Act: Doing Well by Doing Good, Malayan

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Protecting Your Personal Data, retrieved from

http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2012/02/12/Protecting-your-personal-data/,

accessed on 24 April 2014.

NUBE: Bank staff forced to give up their personal info, retrieved from:

http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2014/02/02/Nube-Bank-staff-forced-to-give-

up-their-personal-info/ accessed on 2 May 2014.

Website of Foong Cheng Loong (advocate & Solicitor) Legal Articles on Intellectual

Property, Social Media, Data Privacy, Franchise and Others retrieved from:

http://foongchengleong.com/2013/11/enforcement-of-the-personal-data-protection-act-

2010-4/ accessed on 24 April 2014.

Yong, P. K. (2009). Privacy and Personal Data Protection In The Malaysian Communications

Sector -- Existing In A Void? Malayan Law Journal Articles [2009] 5 MLJ ciii.

You can’t call me anymore, retrieved from:

http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2014/03/09/You-cant-call-me-any-more/,

accessed on 2 May 2014.

Your data is your own, retrieved from:

http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2014/02/02/Your-data-is-your-own-Check-

before-giving-your-consent-says-PDP-commissioner/, accessed on 24 April 2014.

http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2012/02/12/Protecting-your-personal-data/

http://foongchengleong.com/2013/11/enforcement-of-the-personal-data-protection-act-2010-4/

http://foongchengleong.com/2013/11/enforcement-of-the-personal-data-protection-act-2010-4/


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Farah Mohd Shahwahid

Surianom Miskam

Department of Business Management


International Islamic University College Selangor

[email protected]

[email protected]



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