UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

LEARNING PRIMARY SCIENCE IN

A WEB-BASED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

ROHAIDA MOHD. SAAT

FPP 2003 10

LEARNING PRIMARY SCIENCE IN A WEB-BASED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

By

ROHAIDA MOHD. SAAT

Thesis Submitted in Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Graduate Studies

Universiti Putra Malaysia

May 2003

DEDICATION

To my loving husband, Abdullah, who has understandingly endured the

countless days that this study has taken from our relationship.

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I further dedicate this thesis to my three children, Nurul Nadhirah, Nurul Afiqah,

and Muhammad Akmal who have inspired me to keep going and hope this effort

has also inspired them to keep striving for excellence.

Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

LEARNING PRIMARY SCIENCE IN A WEB-BASED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

By

ROHAIDA MOHD. SAAT

May 2003

Chairperson: Professor Kamariah Abu Bakar, Ph.D.

Faculty: Educational Studies

III

Learning primary science includes the acquisition of science process skills.

Studies have shown that integrated science process skills should be taught

through some form of specific training. This study adopts the use of Web-based

learning environment in learning science process skills. The purpose of this

study was to unravel the learning processes that occurred in the learning of

science, particularly the skill of controlling variables, in a Web-based learning

environment.

The study employed an exploratory qualitative case study which involved

nineteen Grade Five children. The participants were selected using the purposive

sampling technique. During the study, children explored the specially designed

Web-based instructional material known as 'Science Process Skills in Scientific

Exploration', in short SPicE.

IV

The primary data collection techniques used in this study were interviews,

children's conversations, observations, children's diary entries and entries from

the on-line discussions. Data from interviews, conversations and observations

were transcribed while relevant entries from children's diaries and on-line

discussions were extracted. Data were analyzed using the constant comparative

method of analysis.

The findings of the study suggest that there were three dimensions of learning,

the cognitive, interpersonal and intrapersonal dimensions. These learning

dimensions were intertwined among each other and were influenced by the

design features of SPicE. Besides the acquisition of the intended skills, the

findings also indicate that the children acquired other science process skills,

manipulative skills as well as computer skills. There were four main factors that

influence the acquisition of these skills; the programme, physical setting, the

teacher and children's readiness.

Three major conclusions were drawn from this study. First, Web-based learning

facilitates science learning. Second, besides the intended learning outcome,

learners acquired other related skills such as manipulative skills and computer

skills, in the Web-based learning environment. Lastly, skill acquisition in the

Web-based learning environment is influenced by various external and internal

factors.

Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan Ijazah Doktor Falsafah

PEMBELAJARAN SAINS SEKOLAH RENDAH DALAM PERSEKITARAN PEMBELAJARAN BERASASKAN JARINGAN

Oleh

ROHAIDA MOHD. SAAT

Mei 2003

Pengerusi: Profesor Kamariah Abu Bakar, Ph.D.

Fakulti: Pengajian Pendidikan

v

Pembelctiaran sains merangkumi penguasaan kemah iran proses sains. Kajian

terdahulu menunjukkan bahawa kemah iran proses sains bersepadu perlu diajar

secara terus dengan menggunakan latihan tertentu. Justeru, kajian ini

menggunakan persekitaran pembelajaran berasaskan Jaringan dalam

pembelctiaran sains. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mendalami proses pembelajaran

sains, khususnya dalam penguasaan kemahiran mengawal pembolehubah dalam

persekitaran pembelajaran yang berasaskan Jaringan.

Kajian kes ini menggunakan kaedah kualitatif yang bersifat tinjauan. Kajian ini

melibatkan sembilan belas murid sekolah rendah dan mereka dipilih berdasarkan

teknik persampelan bertujuan (purposive). Semasa kajian dijalankan, murid

berinteraksi dengan satu bahan pembelajaran sains yang berasaskan Jaringan

berjudul 'Kemahiran Proses Sains dalam Penerokaan Saintifik' atau dalam

singkatan SPicE. Program ini direka khas untuk penguasaan kemahiran proses

sa ins mengawal pembolehubah.

VI

Data dikutip melalui temubual, perbualan murid, pemerhatian, diari murid dan

perbincangan murid secara "Atas Talian" ( on-line). Data dari temubual,

perbualan dan pemerhatian ditranskripsikan manakala hanya data yang relevan

diekstraksikan dari diari murid dan perbualan secara "Atas Talian". Analisis

dilakukan dengan sentiasa membuat perbandingan antara data.

Dapatan mencadangkan bahawa proses pembelajaran sains dalam persekitaran

pembelajaran berasaskan Jaringan melibatkan tiga dimensi, iaitu dimensi

kognitif, interpersonal dan intrapersonal. Ketiga-tiga dimensi pembelajaran ini

berkait rapat antara satu sarna lain dan dipengaruhi ciri reka bentuk SPicE.

Selain daripada penguasaan kemahiran yang dirancangkan, dapatan juga

menunjukkan bahawa mmid menguasai kemahiran proses sains yang lain seperti

kemahiran manipulatif dan juga kemahiran kornputer. Dapatan juga

rnencadangkan bahawa terdapat empat faktor yang mempengaruhi penguasaan

kemahiran; iaitu program SPicE, susun atur fizikal, guru dan kesediaan rnurid.

Tiga kesirnpulan dapat dibuat daripada dapatan kajian ini. Pertama,

pembelajaran berasaskan Jaringan dapat meningkatkan pembelajaran sains.

Kedua, murid rnenguasai kemahiran lain dalam persekitaran pembelajaran

berasaskan Jaringan. Akhir sekali, penguasaan kemahiran dalam persekitaran

pembelajaran berasaskan Jaringan dipengaruhi beberapa faktor dalarnan dan

Iuaran.

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.

Many people helped me through the years th.at this study has been in process.

First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Dr. Kamariah

Abu Bakar who has guided and inspired me through this work. Her insight,

encouragement and understanding have helped me pull through this study. My

thanks also go to my other supervisory committee members, Dr. Shamsuddin

Ahmad and Dr. Rohani Ahmad Tarmizi. My special thanks too to Professor Dr.

Sharan Merriam of University of Georgia, who had followed through my study

and gave constructive comments along the away.

Thank you to Universiti Malaya for giving me the opportunity to pursue this

study and also to my faculty members who have helped me in so many ways,

especially Associate Professor Dr. Sharifah Noml Akmar, Associate Professor

Dr. Esther Daniel and Associate Professor Dr. Fatimah Hashim.

To Madam Shamsinar Hayati and Madam Rusmazura Che Halid from Sekolah

Kebangsaan Kg. Tunku, and Madam Faridah Darns from Kota Bharu Teachers'

Training College, thank you for willingly validated the content of SPicE. And

my special thanks also go to Miss Chelvi of Curriculum Development Centre,

Ministry of Education who validated my English translated version of the verbal

excerpts.

Vlll

My special thanks also go to the Headmaster and staff of Sekolah Kebangsaan

Abu Bakar Baginda, Kajang, who have allowed me to conduct my study there

and who have assisted me in making this study possible. I would also like to

extend my appreciation to Educational Planning and Research Department,

Ministry of Education and the Selangor Education State Department for allowing

me to conduct this study without much hassle.

To Mazalan, Hadina and Ng Soo Boon, thank you for the constructive comments

in the process of writing this thesis, and who have shared the sweat and tears for

being a doctorate student. To Rosma, Hajar, Rodiah, Saadah and others, thank

you for the support and company.

I would want to save my warmest thanks for my husband who not only stood by

my side in times of hardship, but also assisted me in troubleshooting the

technical hitches particularly during my field study. My special thanks also go to

my children for accepting the sacrifices a family inevitably experiences when

'Mama' is writing her work. To my mother, with her unfailing faith and prayer

for the success of this study - Thank you Mak!

IX

I certify that an Examination Committee met on 27th. May 2003 to conduct the final examination of Rohaida Mohd Saat on her Doctor of Philosophy thesis entitled "Learning Primary Science in a Web-Based Learning Environment" in accordan�e with Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1980 and Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulations 1981. The Committee recommends that the candidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Examination Committee are as follows:

Habibah Elias, Ph.D. Professor Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairperson)

Kamariah Abu Bakar, Ph.D. Professor Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

Rohani Ahmad Tarmizi, Ph.D. Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

Shamsuddin Ahmad. Ph.D. Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

Richard Gunstone, Ph.D. Professor Faculty of Education Monash University Australia (Independent Examiner)

MSHER MOHAMAD RAMADILI, Ph.D. Professor / Deputy Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date: ,3 1 JUL 2003

x

This thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia has been accepted as fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory Committee are as follows:

Kamariah Abu Bakar, Ph.D. Professor Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia ( Chairperson)

Rohani Ahmad Tarmizi, Ph.D. Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

Shamsuddin Ahmad, Ph.D. Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

AINI IDERIS, Ph.D. Professor I Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date: r.i II lin 2\\"3 .1 5 i"'U'.J _u-

Xl

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.

RO

Date: 27 July 2003

DEDICATION AB STRACT ABSTRAK ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS APPROVAL DECLARATION LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION Background to the Study The Process Approach Primary Sci ence Educati on i n Malaysia Integrati on of Technology i n Sci ence Educati on Statement ofthe Problem Purpose and Research Questi ons Signi ficance of the Study Limitati on ofthe Study Defini tion of Terms

II. REVIEW OF RELATED L ITERATURE Introduction Chi ldren's Learning of Sci ence

Acqui sition of Sci enti fic Knowledge Acqui siti on of Sci enti fic Ski lls Other Learning Dimensi ons in Sci ence Learning

Instructiona l Design Theory Theoretical Framework for the Development of W eb-Based Instructi onal Materi als Sci ence Process Ski lls Research Related to Sci ence Process Ski lls Research Related to Integrated Sci ence Process Ski lls: Controlling Vari ables

Definiti on of Controlling Vari ables Approaches to Learning of Controlling Vari ables

Computer in Educati on

xu

Page 11 111 V VB IX Xl XVI XVll

1 3 9

1 7 20 23 24 26 27

29 30 3 1 42 5 1 56

62 66 70

73 73 75 80

Research Related to the Use of Computer Technology in Science Teaching Research Related to the Use of Web-based Instruction in Science Teaching Factors that Facilitate the Acquisition of Science Process Skills among Children Summary of the Literature

III. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A WEB-BASED IN STRUCTION:

84

88

93 96

SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS IN SCIENTIF IC EXPLORATION ( SPicE) Introduction 99 History of the Web 100 Why Web-Based Instruction? 1 02 Application of the Instructional Design Theory 1 07 The Instructional Design Model of SPicE 1 09 The SPicE Team 120 The SPicE Site 1 2 1 Features of SPicE 130

Learn er Controlled 130 Hierarchical Sequenced 133 Simulation 1 34 Hands-On Activities 135 Interactivity 136 Feedback 137

Beta Testing of SPicE 141 Chapter Summary 146

IV. METHODOLOGY Introduction Design of the Study

Case Study Selection of Site and Subjects Duration ofthe Study Research Procedure Data Collection

Interviews Conversations Observations Children' s Diaries Electronic Discussion

Context of the Study Data Analysis

147 148 1 50 153 1 56 1 57 1 61 162 164 165 1 66 167 169 1 7 1

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Validity and Reliability Researcher Biases and Assumption Summary

V. FINDIN GS Introduction Learning Process in the Web-Based Learning Environment

Cognitive Dimension Interpersonal or Social Dimension Intrapersonal Dimension Interrelatedness ofthe Learning Process The Connections between the Learning Process and Instructional Design of SPicE

Types of Skill that Children Acquired in the Web-based Learning Environment

Science Process Skills Manipulative Skills Computer Skills

Factors that Infl uence Skill Acquisition Facilitating Factors Inhibiting Factors

Chapter Summary

VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1 85 1 8 8 1 89

190 1 9 1 192 2 1 2 224 228

23 1

234 235 247 248 25 1 25 1 265 272

Introduction 276 Summary 277 Conclusions and Discussion 283

Web-Based Learning Environment Facilitates Science Learning 283 Web-Based Learning Environment Facilitates Acquisition of Other Related Skills 300 Factors Affecting Skill Acquisition 3 1 0

Implicat ions f or Theory and Pract ice 3 1 7 Methodological Refl ect ions 322 Recommendations for Future Research 324 Chapt er Summary 326

REFERENCES 328

XIV

xv

APPENDIX A l Storyboard 348 A2 Sample of Storyboard 349 B Pilot Study Handout I 350 C Pilot Study Handout II 355 D Excerpts from 'Diari Saya' 356 E Fieldwork Schedule 357 F Letter of Consent 358 G Students' Lesson Plan 359 H Teacher-Student Conversation / Interview Guide 363 I Audit Trail 369 J 1 Sample of V erbal Data 372 J2 Sample of the Verbal Matrix 376 13 Sample of the Second Matrix of the Verbal Data 378 J4 Sample of V ideo Data 380 J5 Sample ofthe V ideo Matrix 384 J6 Children's Diaries 387 17 Sample of Matrix of Diary Entries 391 J8 Entries from SPicE Forum 395 J9 Analysis of Forum 399 no Sample of the Field Notes 403 J1 l Sample of the Main Matrix 406 K Translation of Excerpts 410 L Credentials 423

VITA 424

XVI

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 33

2 A Conceptual Model for Affective Development 55

3 Summary of the Learning Theories: Cognitive Skill Acquisition 63

4 The Science Process Skills 69

5 Levels of Controlling V ariables 75

6 Summary ofthe Design Features of SPicE 1 40

7 Group and Group Members 1 59

8 Summary of Types of Data 1 69

9 Matrix of Sections of SPicE and the Learning Dimensions 1 82

10 Cognitive Dimension 1 95

1 1 Interpersonal Dimension 2 1 4

12 Intrapersonal Dimension 224

13 Analysis of the Forum Participation 253

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Superordinate Learning 39

2 Model of Cognitive Skills Acquisition as Perceived by the Researcher 47

3 The Flow of Infonnation as Generally Conceptualized in Infonnation-Processing Theory 49

4 Case Model of Memory Capacity 50

5 Instructional Systematic Design 58

6 Model for Designing CLEs 60

7 Schematic Diagram of the Theoretical Framework for the Development of SPicE 65

8 Task Analysis of Controlling Variables 1 1 5

9 Overview of SPicE 1 22

1 0 SPicE Homepage 1 23

1 1 SPicE Main Menu 123

1 2 SPicE Introduction Page 124

1 3 Simulated Activities 126

14 Persaingan Activity 126

1 5 Level 3 of Persaingan Activity 127

1 6 Level 3 of Panas! Panas! Activity 128

1 7 Link ages in Controlling Vari ables Frame 1 32

1 8 Link to Students' Worksheet 1 32

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Figure Page

1 9 Levels of Difficulties in Tanjakan Activities 133

20 Immediate Feedback 1 39

2 1 Research Procedure 1 6 1

22 Framework for Data Analysis 1 84

23 Learning Process in Web-based Learning Environment 1 92

24 Display Showing Different Coloured and Shaped Sails 1 97

25 Display Showing Different Shapes of the Anterior Part of the Car Model 1 98

26 Procedures of the Hands-On Activity 200

27 SPicE-Generated Graph 2 1 0

28 The SPicE Quiz 22 1

29 Interrelated Between Learning Dimensions 230

30 Measurement Reading Process 239

3 1 Group Working Together 264

32 Group Working Individually 264

33 Lay-Out of the Computer Laboratory 266

34 The Computer Laboratory Setting 266

35 Model of Science Learning in a Web-based Environment 274

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Science education has been a vital part in the school setting in many countries

across the world. This is because science and technology is regarded as the prime

mover of the economic development of a nation (Ministry of Science,

Technology and Environment, 2000). Developed countries such as the United

States of America, Germany, United Kingdom, Japan and Australia have

introduced science as early as kindergarten or at primary level. The United

Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (in short UNESCO),

recommends that science be taught in primary schools, as the teaching and

learning of science has direct influence on how children think logically about the

everyday phenomena and how they solve daily problems (as cited in Ministry of

Education Malaysia, 1993a). Such intellectual skills nurtured at an early age, will

be a valuable asset to the children, as the learning of science fosters creative and

innovative minds.

Tilgnes (1990) pointed out several benefits of learning science at an early age.

The learning of science helps students to acquire the habit of questioning, the

ability to evaluate premises and variables, the desire to search for patterns and

meanings of a collection of data, and to approach logically the solution of

2

problems. In short, students are able to acquire a systematic method of studying

the things around them.

Another reason for introducing science at an early age is that children are known

to possess universal qualities regardless of their individual genetic or cultural

differences. They are curious, persistent, interpretive, energetic and adventurous

(Kellough, Carin, Seefeldt, Barbour, and Souviney, 1996) which are analogous

to the nature of science. In view of this, science is deemed suitable to be taught

at an early age as the characteristics of children complement the nature of

SCIence.

In fact the teaching of science at an early age is widely practised in most

countries in the world. Science education including science at elementary or

primary level worldwide has undergone several changes and innovations, aimed

at improving the quality of science education. In the mid 1950' s rigorous science

curriculum reform took place in the United States of America, especially when

the Soviet Union launched its earth orbiting satellite Sputnik in October 1957

(Bybee and DeBoer, 1994). The American government then became

enthusiastically involved in improving the teaching of science. Among the

innovations that have gained much attention is the inquiry approach in teaching

science. As DeBoer (1991) stated, "If a single word had to be chosen to describe

the goals of science educators during the 30-year period that began in the late

1950's, it would have to be INQUIRY" (p.206).

3

Inquiry was popularized by John Dewey back in the early 1900's, though it was

commonly known as problem solving (Barr, 1994). Inquiry is synonymous to

science since the nature of which Schwab (1962) argues is itself an inquiry

process, where one finds the source and the cause of phenomena. 1brough this

process, students are actively solving problems and discovering scientific

knowledge. This marks the beginning of the process approach adopted in science

education. The process approach focuses on many skills that human use to

construct knowledge, to represent ideas, and to communicate information. The

acquisition of these skills will enable students to solve problems better.

The Process Approach

Since the mid-1900's, there has been a growing support for the teaching of

science processes as a part of school curriculum (Finley, 1983). In this respect,

Gagne (1963) views science process skills as the foundation for scientific inquiry

and knowledge is developed inductively from sensory experience. According to

Gagne (1963), basic science process skills include observation, inference,

classification, predicting, collecting and recording data, and measurement. These

skills are simpler and provide a foundation for learning the integrated or more

complex skills which includes controlling variables, interpreting data, defining

operationally, formulating hypotheses, and experimentation.

Schwab's idea on inquiry and Gagne's idea of science process skills have been

embraced in projects such as SAPA (Science - A Process Approach) Project,

4

Warwick Process Science, Science in Process (Woolnough, 1991). The

developers of these projects believe that science is best taught as a procedure of

inquiry that is a process of finding out, which involves the development of

certain attitudes and skills. This enhances the development of specific thinking

skills believed to be used by scientists in their work. This claim is supported by a

study done by Davis (1979). Davis reported that SAP A students scored higher

than students in the control groups on a subtest of Torrance Test of Creativity. In

addition, these SAP A students were also found to produce more and a greater

variety of ideas or questions. Bredderman (1982) reviewed more than 60 studies

reported over a 15-year period which involved classrooms using process­

oriented curricula. The results of these studies revealed a consistent pattern

where children in the process-oriented classrooms outperformed the students in

the control group, in all categories: creativity, attitudes, logic, and science

content.

Although there is an increased popularity in the process approach in science

curriculum, some science educators (Millar and Driver, 1987) have criticized

this approach. Millar and Driver argue that there is no one scientific method as

scientists work in a variety of ways. They also question whether science

processes are situation specific or transferable, as people do generalize and

transfer what they have learned from one situation to another. Some science

educators (Ramsey and Howe, 1969; Millar and Driver, 1987) even believe that

process skills such as hypothesis formation, are intuitive and cannot be taught,

but many (Harlen, 1999; Pappelis and Pohlmann, 1980) signify the importance

5

of science process skills. These skills are involved in scientific inquiry and

discovery, where through these processes scientific knowledge is constructed.

Process skills are sometimes known as the basic problem solving skills,

scientific method, scientific thinking, critical thinking, inquiry skills, and

intellectual skills (Helgeson, 1994). Almekinders, Thijs and Lubben (1998) also

referred to process skills as procedural understanding. According to them, the

learning of science not only gives the understanding of the science content and

methods of inquiry, but includes the understanding of methods and procedures of

practical inquiry. Despite differences in the terms used, there is considerable

agreement about what these terms mean. They are general descriptors of logical

and rational thinking which are used in many areas of human endeavour. If used

in some context in science, they are known as scientific process skills (Harlen,

1999; Millar and Driver, 1987). Therefore, science process skills are considered

the vital skills needed in the learning of science since they involve the process of

scientific inquiry. As cited by Harlen (1999),

" ... Learning with understanding in science involves testing the usefulness of possible explanatory ideas by using them to make predictions or to pose questions, collecting evidence to test the prediction or answer the questions and interpreting the results; in other words, using the science process skills" (p. 131).

Looking back at the importance of introducing science at the primary level and

accepting the argument that science process skills are part and parcel of science

education, one main question arises. Are the science process skills being taught

at primary level the same as at the secondary level? Sometimes these skills seem

6

to be hierarchical in nature. For example, before students can classify, they need

to master the skill of observation. This is in line with SAPA project's argument,

that the basic skills provide the basis for the learning of the more complex skills

(Gagne, 1963). If this hierarchy exists, should the basic skills be more

appropriately taught at primary level and the more complex skills be taught at

secondary level?

Besides, these complex skills or integrated skills such as formulating hypotheses

and controlling variables require one to operate at the Formal Operational Stage

of Pia get's Stages of Cognitive Development Model (Inhelder and Piaget, 1958).

In fact Brotherton and Preece (1995) found that there is a relationship between

science process skills and Piagetian Reasoning Patterns. The integrated skills

require a higher cognitive demand. Analysis of test items in the Assessment of

Performance Unit (APU) by Adey and Harlen (1986), also found that these

items on process skills have the same characteristics as the Level of Demand in

Piagetian Term. The so-called complex science process skills require higher

cognitive demands on the students.

However, many countries such as the United States, United Kingdom and

Malaysia include these integrated skills in the primary science curriculum.

Studies by Inhelder and Piaget (1958), Shayer, Kuchermann and Wylam (1976)

and Palanisamy (1986) have shown that most primary school students are

operating at the concrete operational stage. Some characteristics of students at

this stage are that they able to think logically, able to perform mental operations