Teori-teori Pembangunan Sumber Manusia

Motivation and Hygiene Factors

Frederick Herzberg

(1923 – 2000)

Tempat Frederick Herzberg dilahirkan

Tempat kelahiran Frederick Herzberg sekarang

Teori Motivasi – Kebersihan Herzberg’

Teori ini memberikan penekanan kepada Motivasi dan Kepuasan Kerja dan Hasil Kerja yang boleh mengatasi Ketidak-Puasan. Keperluan Motivator berkait rapat dengan cara

perlaksanaan kerja —autonomi, tanggungjawab, kerja yang menarik.

Keperluan kebersihan berkait rapat kontek fizikal dan psikologikal kerja— environment kerja yang selesa, gaji, kestabilan kerja.Keperluan Kebersihan yang tidak dipenuhi membentuk

Ketidakpuasan tetapi Kepuasan Keperluan Kebersihan tidak menyumbang kepada Motivasi atau Kepuasan Kerja.

Herzberg:Herzberg: Kontek Kerja adalah sumber KetidakpuasanKontek Kerja adalah sumber Ketidakpuasan..

Masalah dengan faktor Kebersihan (e.g., gaji, Masalah dengan faktor Kebersihan (e.g., gaji, keadaan kerja) menyumbang kepada keadaan kerja) menyumbang kepada Ketidakpuasan. Jika tidak banyak masalah maka Ketidakpuasan. Jika tidak banyak masalah maka rendah Ketidakpuasan.rendah Ketidakpuasan.

Keadaan kerja - Penyumbang Kepuasan KerjaKeadaan kerja - Penyumbang Kepuasan Kerja Faktor Motivator (e.g., pencapaian, Faktor Motivator (e.g., pencapaian,

tanggungjawab) berkait dengan perlaksanaan tanggungjawab) berkait dengan perlaksanaan kerja. Kepuasan Kerja yang tinggi menyebabkan kerja. Kepuasan Kerja yang tinggi menyebabkan perlaksanaan kerja yang juga tinggi.perlaksanaan kerja yang juga tinggi.

Frederick Herzberg mengatkan dua dimensi yang berbeza menyumbangkan kepada tingkahlaku kerja – Faktor Kebersihan dan Motivasi. Faktor Kebersihan adalah elemen seperti keadaan kerja, gaji,

polisi, perhubungan. Faktor Motivasi memenuhi kehendak yang tinggi dan ini

termasuk; pencapaian, perakuan, tanggungjawab dan peluang untuk berkembang.

Motivator yang memuaskan pekerja – perkara yang meransang mereka untuk bekerja dalam kumpulan, akur kepada kumpulan dan menyumbangkan.

 Motivator kerap dikaitkan dengan pencapaian. Perakuan positif Penyelia dan rakan sekerja ketika perjumpaan formal misalnya ketika mesyuarat.

Faktor Motivator dan Kebersihan

Faktor kebersihan membantu mengelak ketidak-puasan.

Faktor yang membantu pekerja.

i) Environment kerja & sasaran kehendak asas

ii) Gaji

iii) Kelebihan/ Faedah/ (Benefits) – Insuran Kesihatan

iv) Polisi Syarikat dan Pengurusan

v) Keadaan Kerja – Ruang bekerja

Faktor Motivator

1. Kandungan tugasan/ kerja – apakah yang dipertanggungjawabkan?

2. Perakuan

3. Tanggungjawab

4. Pencapaian

5. Perkembangan dan pembelajaran

Faktor Kebersihan Faktor Motivasi

Gaji Polisi syarikat Keadaan Kerja Kelebihan/ Faedah Kestabilan Kerja

Peningkatan Kerjaya Perkembangan Individu Perakuan Tanggungjawab Pencapaian

Faktor Kebersihan Faktor Motivasi

Situasi kerja/ Environment kerja- Menyumbangkan kepada

ketidak-selesaan dan mengakibatkan rasa sakit.

- Apakah yang akan berlaku kepada pekerja?

Situasi kerja/ Environment kerja menyumbang kepada kepuasan kerja dan perkembangan psikologikal.

- Apakah yang akan berlaku kepada pekerja?

Motivasi Tinggi

HT kurang rungutan

HR banyak rungutan

Motivasi Rendah

kurang rungutan

banyak rungutan

Kepuasan Kerja

Sikap positif atau negatif pekerja terhadap kerja.

Pengukuran – interpretasi kerja/ perbualan

Contoh ?

Kesan Ketidak-puasan Kerja

- Ponteng

- Berhenti kerja

- Pencapaian

Grid Penguruan Blake dan Mouton

Sistem Likert

Teori Z Ouchi

Grid Pengurusan Blake dan Mouton

Teori ini diperkenalkan pada 1964 bertujuan menerangkan huraian gaya kepimpinan pengurus untuk tujuan meningkatkan kecekapan dan keberkesanan organisasi.

Pengurus yang efisyen:1. Tumpu kepada pekerja (Teori Hubungan Kemanusiaan)2. Tumpu kepada produktiviti (Teori Pengurusan Klasikal

dan Saintifik)

Grid Pengurusan Blake dan Mouton

Grid kepimpinan utk menerangkan gaya kepimpinan. LIMA jenis gaya pengurusan:

1. Pengurusan Lemah (Impoverished Management)2. Pengurusan Kelab Riadah (Country Club Management)3. Authority-Compliance4. Pengurusan Pasukan (Team Management)5. Pengurusan Pertengahan (Mid-of-the-Road

Management)

The New Managerial Grid

Insert Figure 2.2

Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid

•Authority Compliance (9,1)

•Classical theory

•Country Club (1,9)

•Informal grapevine

•Impoverished (1,1)

•Laissez-faire

•Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)

•Compromise (carrot & stick)

•Team (9,9)

•Human Resources Approach

•Promote the conditions that integrate creativity, high productivity, and high morale through concerted team action

Likert’s System of Management

Exploitive Autocratic

Benevolent Autocratic

Consultative

Participative Team

Perbezaan keempat-empat sistem ada dari aspek motivasi, komunikasi, pembuatan keputusan, penyediaan maklumat, kawalan, struktur pengaruh dan persepsi.

Kajian Likert mendapati kebanyakan organisasi mengamalkan sistem 4 ( Pembabitan Organisasi/ Participative Team)

Ciri-ciri sistem 4:

1. Terdapat hubungan saling membantu ketua dan pekerja bawahan.

2. Proses pembuatan keputusan adalah secara kolektif.

3. Ahli organisasi juga merupakan ahli unit dalam organisasi.

4. Organisasi mempunyai matlamat pencapaian tinggi.

Four Systems of Management: Rensis Likert Four Systems of Management: Rensis Likert Management is crticial to all organizational activities Management is crticial to all organizational activities

and outcomesand outcomes Continuum that ranges from more classically oriented Continuum that ranges from more classically oriented

system to one based on human resources theorysystem to one based on human resources theory Of all the tasks of management, managing the human Of all the tasks of management, managing the human

component is the central and most important taskcomponent is the central and most important task High producing departments and organizations tend High producing departments and organizations tend

toward System IV; low producing units favor System Itoward System IV; low producing units favor System I System I - Exploitative AuthoritativeSystem I - Exploitative Authoritative System II - Benevolent AuthoritativeSystem II - Benevolent Authoritative System III - ConsultativeSystem III - Consultative System IV - ParticipativeSystem IV - Participative

Blake and Mouton’s Managerial GridBlake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid

Stresses interrelationship between production (task) and Stresses interrelationship between production (task) and peoplepeople

Management’s main purpose is to promote a culture in the Management’s main purpose is to promote a culture in the organization that allows for high production at the same time organization that allows for high production at the same time that employees are fostered in their professional and that employees are fostered in their professional and personal developmentpersonal development

Managerial Grid - now Leadership Grid (Blake & McCanse) Managerial Grid - now Leadership Grid (Blake & McCanse) (Figure 3.3, p. 59)(Figure 3.3, p. 59)

FOCUS: Manger’s Assumptions about CONCERN for FOCUS: Manger’s Assumptions about CONCERN for PEOPLE and CONCERN for PRODUCTIONPEOPLE and CONCERN for PRODUCTION

Assessment instrument does not represent personality traits Assessment instrument does not represent personality traits of the manager -- instead, indicate a specific orientation to of the manager -- instead, indicate a specific orientation to production and peopleproduction and people

Concern for PEOPLEConcern for PEOPLE Degree of personal commitment to one’s jobDegree of personal commitment to one’s job Trust-based accountability (vs. obedience-based Trust-based accountability (vs. obedience-based

accountability)accountability) Self-esteem for the individualSelf-esteem for the individual Interpersonal relationships with co-workersInterpersonal relationships with co-workers

Concern for PRODUCTIONConcern for PRODUCTION Use of people and technology to accomplish Use of people and technology to accomplish

organizational tasksorganizational tasks Concern for is not about quantity or qualityConcern for is not about quantity or quality

Assessment instrument does not represent personality Assessment instrument does not represent personality traits of the manager -- instead, indicate a specific traits of the manager -- instead, indicate a specific orientation to production and peopleorientation to production and people

Blake and Mouton’s Managerial GridBlake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid

•Authority Compliance (9,1)

•Classical theory

•Country Club (1,9)

•Informal grapevine

•Impoverished (1,1)

•Laissez-faire

•Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)

•Compromise (carrot & stick)

•Team (9,9)

•Human Resources Approach

•Promote the conditions that integrate creativity, high productivity, and high morale through concerted team action

Miles’ Human Resources TheoryMiles’ Human Resources Theory

Increased satisfaction is related to the Increased satisfaction is related to the improved decision making and self-control improved decision making and self-control that occurs due to participation that is that occurs due to participation that is genuinely solicited and heardgenuinely solicited and heard

Two prevalent Human Resources TheoriesTwo prevalent Human Resources Theories Rensis LikerRensis Liker Blake & Mouton (Blake & McCanse)Blake & Mouton (Blake & McCanse)

Teori Z Ouchi

Teori alternatif kepada Teori X dan Y dan teori ini adalah berdasarkan corak pengurusan Jepun.

Teori Z lebih mengutamakan pembentukan dan penyuburan sumber manusia dalam organisasi.

Teori Argyris

Menekankan peranan individu dalam organisasi. Menyokong komunikasi terbuka dalam organisasi dan penglibatan dlm membuat keputusan.

Implikasi Teori-teori Sumber Manusia terhadap Komunikasi

Kandungan Komunikasi

Berkaitan tugas, sosial dan inovasi

Arah Komunikasi Pelbagai arah dan antara kumpulan

Saluran Komunikasi Semua saluran

Gaya komunikasi Formal dan tidak formal

Kesimpulan

Pendekatan Sumber Manusia dalam pengurusan adalah kesan kelemahan Teori Hubungan Kemanusiaan.

Prinsip-prinsip Sumber Manusia dapat dibentuk dalam organisasi menerusi partisipasi, proses pembuatan keputusan, daya inovasi. Ini jelas menerusi teori Grid Pengurusan Blake dan Mouton, Sistem Likert 4, Teori Z Ouchi dan Teori Argyris.

Terdapat sifat kepelbagaian dalam komunikasi dalam organisasi sumber manusia.

Teori Sistem

Ludwig Von Bertalanffy

Merujuk kepada organisasi sebagai mempunyai TIGA komponen:

Susunan Hierarki (Hierarchical Ordering)

Pembentukan organisasi menyerupai satu sistem yang kompleks seperti sistem biologi tubuh manusia. Di dalam sistem tersebut terdapat sub-sistem yang membantu proses pengorganisasian.

Saling Bergantung dan Memerlukan (Interdependence)

Satu sistem yang besar memerlukan sub-sistem yang kecil untuk beroperasi.

Keterbukaan (Permeability)

Organisasidiandaikan sebagai organism hidup yang memerlukan elemen luar untuk beroperasi. Elemen keterbukaan menyebabkan organisasi menerima inovasi luar.

Proses SistemSistem diterjemahkan menerusi proses

input-throughput-output.

“inputs” adalah bahan atau maklumat persekitaran luar yang masuk ke dalam organisasi menerusi elemen keterbukaan.

Menerusi proses transformasi aktiviti “throughput” berlaku dan menghasilkan “output”.

Sistem mentransformasikan output kepada environment luar

e.g.

Kilang Perabut perabut public

Bahan mentah “input”

“throughput” “output”

Ciri-ciri Sistem

Holistik -- Sistem diterangkan sebagai menyeluruh/ besar. Sesuatu sistem itu bersifat holistik kerana setiap anggota sistem bergantung antara satu dengan yang lain. Organisasi juga akan kukuh apabila terdapat amalan berkerja bersama.

Equifinality -- Untuk mencapai sesuatu matlamat itu banyak cara yang boleh dilakukan. Pelbagai cara tersebut akan dilakukan untuk tujuan pencapaian metlamat organisasi.

Entropi Negatif -- Kecenderungan sistem yang mengamalkan dasar tertutup untuk mengalami kemusnahan. Sistem yang mengamalkan dasar terbuka mampu menghalang kemusnahan.

Kepelbagaian Keperluan -- Kepelbagaian kaedah untuk mengawal pelbagai cabaran yang mungkin muncul daripada persekitaran sistem.

Teori Sistem Sibernetiks -- dikembangkan oleh Norbert Wiener 1948 – 1954. Fokus kepada penerangan bagaimana satu sistem berupaya mencapai keseimbangan atau homeostasis kerana kewujudan pelbagai komponen yang saling berkait. Sistem Sibernertiks mementingkan tindak balas dalam memastikan keupayaan untuk berfungsi.

Teori Maklumat -- Teori yang menekankan kepentingan maklumat dalam organisasi. Pertukaran maklumat merupakan keperluan kepada organisasi.

Teori Budaya Organisasi

Fokus terhadap apakah itu organisasi? Apakah yang dipunyai oleh organisasi.

Empat komponen budaya kukuh:

1.Nilai

2.Wira (Heroes)

3.Upacara dan Amalan (Rituals)

4. Jaringan Budaya

Budaya Organisasi adalah kompleks

Budaya organisasi diterjemahkan menerusi upacara, peraturan komunikasi, “cerita”, kepercayaan, simbol.

Kemunculan Budaya Organisasi adalah hasil interaksi ahli dalam organisasi. Walau bagaimanapun tidak wujud satu Budaya Organisasi yang unggul.

Budaya organisasi mempunyai kesan terhadap bentuk dan struktur organisasi. Menerusi kajian berbentuk deskriptif pengkaji akan dapat memahami budaya organisasi dan mengenali organisasi tersebut.

Budaya penting terhadap mengarahkan kejayaan organisasi.

Apakah dengan melihat bangunan tersebut anda dapat memahami budaya organisasi

tersebut?

Human Human Resources Resources

ApproachesApproaches

PREVIEWPREVIEW

The classical approaches sees worker as cogs in a machine that can be easily replaced. The role of workers in these theories is to provide physical labor.

Classical manager would look at employees with the perspective “workers work”, the human relations manager would look at employees with the perspective “workers feel”

Human Resources Approach

Individuals in organizations have feelings that must be considered and also recognize contributions from employees: thoughts & ideas.

Impetus for Human Resources Approach

Humanistic theories were developed to promote the Humanistic theories were developed to promote the CONCERNS of the individual worker in an CONCERNS of the individual worker in an atmosphere that was too focused on production atmosphere that was too focused on production (FOCUS ON RELATIONAL & MAINTENANCE (FOCUS ON RELATIONAL & MAINTENANCE FUNCTIONS)FUNCTIONS)

The Hawthorne studies --- springboard the move The Hawthorne studies --- springboard the move from classical to human relations.from classical to human relations.

Human relations approach states that higher-order Human relations approach states that higher-order needs can be satisfied through job design, needs can be satisfied through job design, management style, other organizational factors. management style, other organizational factors. When the higher-order needs are satisfied, When the higher-order needs are satisfied, employees should be happier. When employees are employees should be happier. When employees are happier, they should be more productive.happier, they should be more productive.

Principles of Human Relations Principles of Human Relations TheoryTheory Human relations theory is characterized by a shift in emphasis Human relations theory is characterized by a shift in emphasis

from TASK to WORKERfrom TASK to WORKER Go beyond physical contributions to include creative, cognitive, Go beyond physical contributions to include creative, cognitive,

and emotional aspects of workersand emotional aspects of workers Based on a more dyadic (two-way) conceptualization of Based on a more dyadic (two-way) conceptualization of

communication.communication. SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS are at the heart of organizational SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS are at the heart of organizational

behavior--effectiveness is contingent on the social well-being of behavior--effectiveness is contingent on the social well-being of workersworkers

Workers communicate opinions, complaints, suggestions, and Workers communicate opinions, complaints, suggestions, and feelings to increase satisfaction and productionfeelings to increase satisfaction and production

Origins (Hawthorne Studies & work of Chester Barnard)Origins (Hawthorne Studies & work of Chester Barnard) Human Relations School of Management - Elton Mayo Human Relations School of Management - Elton Mayo

(Harvard(Harvard

Origins of Human Relations TheoryOrigins of Human Relations Theory

““The Hawthorne StudiesThe Hawthorne Studies Hawthorne Works of Western Hawthorne Works of Western

Electric CompanyElectric Company 1924 - Chicago1924 - Chicago Research focus: Relation of Research focus: Relation of

quality and quantity of illumination quality and quantity of illumination to efficiency in industryto efficiency in industry

Four Important StudiesFour Important Studies

““The Hawthorne Studies”The Hawthorne Studies”

Illumination Study (November 1924)Illumination Study (November 1924) Designed to test the effect of lighting intensity on worker productivityDesigned to test the effect of lighting intensity on worker productivity Heuristic value: influence of human relations on work behaviorHeuristic value: influence of human relations on work behavior

Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1932)Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1932) Assembly of telephone relays (35 parts - 4 machine screws) Assembly of telephone relays (35 parts - 4 machine screws) Production and satisfaction increased regardless of IV manipulationProduction and satisfaction increased regardless of IV manipulation Workers’ increased production and satisfaction related to supervisory practicesWorkers’ increased production and satisfaction related to supervisory practices Human interrelationships are important contributing factors to worker Human interrelationships are important contributing factors to worker

productivityproductivity Bottom Line: Supervisory practices increase employee morale AND productivityBottom Line: Supervisory practices increase employee morale AND productivity

Interviewing Program (1928-1930)Interviewing Program (1928-1930) Investigate connection between supervisory practices and employee moraleInvestigate connection between supervisory practices and employee morale Employees expressed their ideas and feelings (e.g., likes and dislikes)Employees expressed their ideas and feelings (e.g., likes and dislikes) Process more important than actual resultsProcess more important than actual results

Bank Wiring Room Observation Study (November 1931 - May 1932)Bank Wiring Room Observation Study (November 1931 - May 1932) Social groups can influence production and individual work behaviorSocial groups can influence production and individual work behavior RQ: How is social control manifested on the shop floor?RQ: How is social control manifested on the shop floor? Informal organization constrains employee behavior within formal organizational Informal organization constrains employee behavior within formal organizational

structurestructure

Hawthorne Studies - ImplicationsHawthorne Studies - Implications

Illumination Study (November 1924)Illumination Study (November 1924) The mere practice of observing people’s behavior tends to alter their The mere practice of observing people’s behavior tends to alter their

behavior (Hawthorne Effect)behavior (Hawthorne Effect) Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1932)Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1932)

Relationships between workers and their supervisors are powerfulRelationships between workers and their supervisors are powerful Human interrelationships increase the amount and quality of worker Human interrelationships increase the amount and quality of worker

participation in decision makingparticipation in decision making Interviewing Program (1928-1930)Interviewing Program (1928-1930)

Demonstrated powerful influence of upward communicationDemonstrated powerful influence of upward communication Workers were asked for opinions, told they mattered, and positive attitudes Workers were asked for opinions, told they mattered, and positive attitudes

toward company increasedtoward company increased Bank Wiring Room Observation Study (November 1931 - May 1932)Bank Wiring Room Observation Study (November 1931 - May 1932)

Led future theorists to account for the existence of informal communicationLed future theorists to account for the existence of informal communication

Taken together, these studies helped to document the powerful nature of Taken together, these studies helped to document the powerful nature of social relations in the workplace and moved managers more toward the social relations in the workplace and moved managers more toward the interpersonal aspects of organizing.interpersonal aspects of organizing.

Hawthorne Studies - CriticismsHawthorne Studies - Criticisms

Not conducted with the appropriate scientific Not conducted with the appropriate scientific rigor necessaryrigor necessary

Too few subjects (N=5)Too few subjects (N=5) No control groupsNo control groups Subjects replaced with more “cooperative” Subjects replaced with more “cooperative”

participantsparticipants

WORTHLESSWORTHLESS GROSS ERRORSGROSS ERRORS INCOMPETENCEINCOMPETENCE

Work Factors

Satisfaction of Higher-Order Needs

Job Satisfaction

Productivity

Flowchart of Human Relations Principles

Work Factors

Satisfaction of Higher-Order Needs

Job Satisfaction

Productivity

Flowchart of Human Relations Principles

However, years of research have failed to support this. WHY?

Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregorMcGregor Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)

Articulated basic principles of human relations theory The Human Side of Enterprise (1960, 1985) To understand human behavior, one must discover the

theoretical assumptions upon which behavior is based Especially interested in the behavior of managers toward

workers “Every managerial act rests on assumptions, generalizations,

and hypotheses--that is to say, on theory . . . Theory and practice are inseparable.”

Two Objectives: Predict and control behavior Tap Unrealized potential

Theory X - Classical Theory Theory Y - Human Relations Theory FOCUS: Manager’s assumptions about HUMAN NATURE

Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregorMcGregor

Theory X - Classical TheoryTheory X - Classical Theory Three Assumptions

The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it.

Most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment

The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, wants security.

Neither explains nor describes human nature

Theory Y - Human Relations TheoryTheory Y - Human Relations Theory AssumptionsAssumptions

Physical and mental effort in work is similar to play / rest.Physical and mental effort in work is similar to play / rest. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only External control and the threat of punishment are not the only

strategiesstrategies Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with

their achievementtheir achievement The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to

accept but to seek responsibilityaccept but to seek responsibility The capacity to exercise a high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and The capacity to exercise a high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and

creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely distributed in the populationdistributed in the population

Intellectual potentialities of the average human being are underutilizedIntellectual potentialities of the average human being are underutilized A more positive perspective of human natureA more positive perspective of human nature The KEY to control and quality production is commitment to The KEY to control and quality production is commitment to

organizational objectivesorganizational objectives

Theory Z

Developed by William Ouchi’s “Japanese Management ” and was popularized during the Asian economic boom in the 1980s.

For Ouchi, the theory focused on increasing employee loyalty to the company by providing a job for life with a strong focus on the well-being of the employee both on and off the job.

The theory promotes stable management, high productivity and high employee morale and satisfaction.

The theory was based Dr. W. Edwards Deming’s “14 points.” His motivation theories were rejected in the US and he went to help Japanese business and government leaders.

Theory Z suggested the special way to managing style that focuses on a strong company philosophy, a distinct corporate culture, long-range staff development, and consensus decision making.

Ouchi shows that - lower turn-over, increased job commitment and dramatically.

Professor Ouchi spent years researching Japanese companies and examining American companies using Theory Z management styles.

By 1980s, Japan was known for the highest productivity anywhere in the world, while America had fallen drastically. The word “Wa” in Japanese can be applied to Theory Z because they both deal with promoting partnerships and group work.

The word “Wa” means a perfect circle or harmony, which influences Japanese society to always be in teams and to come to a solution together.

Promoting the word “Wa” is how the Japanese economy became so powerful and also because the Japanese show a high level enthusiasm to work, some of the researchers claim that “Z” in the Theory Z stands for “Zeal”.

Ouchi wrote a book “Theory Z How American Business Can Meet the Japanese Challenge” (1981).

American business can meet the Japanese challenges with highly effective management style that promises to transform business in the 1980s.

It can be done through a special way of managing people.

“This is a managing style that focuses on a strong company philosophy, a distinct corporate culture, long-range staff development and consensus decision-making.

Thus, it resulted in lower turn-over, increased job commitment, and dramatically higher productivity.

Ouchi took Japanese techniques and adapted to the American corporate environment. Theory Z also makes assumptions about workers. It assumes that workers tend to want to build happy and intimate working relationships with those that they work for and with as well as the people that work for them.

Theory Z workers have a high need to be supported by the company, and highly value a working environment in which family, cultures and traditions and social institutions are regarded as equally important as the work itself.

These types of workers have a very well developed sense of order, discipline, a moral obligation to work hard, and a sense of cohesion with their fellow workers.

It is assumed that Theory Z workers can be trusted to do their jobs to their utmost ability so long as management can be trusted to support them and look out for their well being.

The theory assumes that workers will be participating in the decisions of the company to a great degree.

Management must have a high degree of confidence in its workers in order for this type of participative management to work.

Ouchi explains that the employees must be very knowledgeable about the various issues of the company as well as possessing the competence to make those decisions.

Theory Z also suggest that workers should be generalists and not specialists and they need to increase their knowledge of the company and its processes through job rotations and constant training.

However, promotions tend to be slower in this type of setting, as workers are given longer opportunity to receive training and more time to learn the ins and outs of the company’s operations.

The desire of the theory is to develop a work force which has more of a loyalty towards staying with the company for an entire career and be more permanent than in other types of settings.

It is expected that once they rise to the position of a high level management they will know more about the company and how it operates.

With reference to the three Theories X, Y, Z discuss its implications to the modern organization that today include new challenges and opportunities.

What are the challenges and the opportunities of today’s organization ?

SUMMARYSUMMARY

Humanistic Theories of OrganizationsHumanistic Theories of Organizations Human Relations TheoryHuman Relations Theory

The Hawthorne Studies Chester Barnard McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Human Resources TheoryHuman Resources Theory Likert’s Systems Theory (Four Systems of Management) Blake and Mouton’s (Blake and McCanse) Managerial Grid

The principles of human resources theory attempt to integrate the concern for production from classical theory with the concern for the worker from human relations theory -- more effective and satisfying!

Motivation and Hygiene Factors

Frederick Herzberg

(1923 – 2000)

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene TheoryFocuses on outcomes that lead to higher motivation and job satisfaction, and those outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction. Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work

itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work.

Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context of the work—comfortable work environment, pay, job security.Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction;

satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction.

Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory) Herzberg:Herzberg:

Job contextJob context is source of dissatisfaction is source of dissatisfaction Problems with Problems with hygiene factorshygiene factors (e.g., pay, (e.g., pay,

working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; lack of problems means lack of dissatisfactionlack of problems means lack of dissatisfaction

Job contentJob content is the source of job satisfaction is the source of job satisfaction Motivator factorsMotivator factors (e.g., achievement, (e.g., achievement,

responsibility) link with job performance; if responsibility) link with job performance; if high, satisfaction high and performance stronghigh, satisfaction high and performance strong

Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory) Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using

different methodsdifferent methods Still does not explain individual differences, Still does not explain individual differences,

professional or cultural differencesprofessional or cultural differences

Motivators and Hygiene Factors Frederick Herzberg theorized that two entirely

separate dimensions contribute to an employee’s behavior at work—hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors are elements such as working

conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal relationships Motivators fulfill high-level needs and include

achievement, recognition, responsibility and opportunity for growth

Motivators and Hygiene Factors

Motivators satisfy subordinates–-the things which encourage them to attend work, comply to group or team goals, and produce.

 They often are linked to performance. Positive recognition by a superior and among peers during a formal meeting is an example of this.

Motivators and Hygiene Factors Hygiene factors keep subordinates from being

dissatisfied. They apply to subordinates regardless of performance.  Timely and thorough completion of and counseling on fitness

evaluations are an example of a hygiene factor.  The act is expected. When it does not happen subordinates

become dissatisfied and may come to believe that superiors are not taking care of them.

Satisfiers (motivators) and dissatisfiers (hygiene factors) lie on completely different scales and must be considered independently.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

KITA versus “true” motivation Short-term movement versus long-term motivation

Job enrichment is an attempt to instill an internal generator in the employee

Studies of Herzberg’s theory have included employees working in a variety of industries and jobs Accountants, engineers, nurses, military officers,

and others

Hygiene Factors

Work environment & target basic needs Range from dissatisfaction to no

dissatisfaction The presence of hygiene cannot lead to

satisfaction or high levels of motivation Perception that hygiene is an entitlement

Hygiene Factors (cont)

Salary Can it ever be enough?

Benefits Health care costs, premium sharing

Company policy & administration Work conditions

Office space, equipment, etc.

Motivator Factors

Motivators Tap needs for psychological growth Job content: The work itself Lead to high levels of employee motivation

and satisfaction

Motivator Factors (cont)

Examples Recognition Responsibility Achievement Growth and learning

Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 6 88

Hygiene Factors(lower order needs)

Hygiene Factors(lower order needs)

Motivator Factors(higher order needs)

Motivator Factors(higher order needs)

• Salary• Company policies• Working conditions• Benefits• Job security

• Salary• Company policies• Working conditions• Benefits• Job security

• Career Advancement

• Personal growth

• Recognition

• Responsibility

• Achievement

• Career Advancement

• Personal growth

• Recognition

• Responsibility

• Achievement

High HighJob Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction0

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factor - work condition related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain maintenance factor contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied contributes to absence of complaints

Motivation Factor - work condition related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth job enrichment leads to superior performance & effort

Motivation–Hygiene Theory of Motivation

Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction

• Company policy & administration

• Supervision• Interpersonal relations• Working conditions• Salary• Status• Security

SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human . (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.

• Achievement• Achievement recognition • Work itself• Responsibility• Advancement• Growth

• Salary?

Motivation factors increase job satisfaction

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction = how positively or Job satisfaction = how positively or negatively individuals feel about their jobsnegatively individuals feel about their jobs

Observable informally through Observable informally through observation and interpretation of observation and interpretation of behaviour and wordsbehaviour and words

Measured formally in questionnairesMeasured formally in questionnaires E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction QuestionnaireE.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire E.g., Job Descriptive IndexE.g., Job Descriptive Index

Effects of Job Satisfaction

Link to absenteeism Link to absenteeism Satisfied have lower absenteeismSatisfied have lower absenteeism

Link to turnover Link to turnover Dissatisfied more likely to quitDissatisfied more likely to quit

Link to performance complexLink to performance complex Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual

performanceperformance Successful performance does seem to lead to Successful performance does seem to lead to

greater satisfactiongreater satisfaction Proper allocation of rewards can increase both Proper allocation of rewards can increase both

performance and satisfactionperformance and satisfaction

Systems Systems ApproachesApproaches

PREVIEWPREVIEW

Classical theorists – organizations could be best understood by comparing them to machines that are predictable and full of replaceable parts.

However, many theorists found this metaphor as unsatisfying and believed that organizations did not behave in predictable and machinelike ways.

A new metaphor emerged -- organizations as complex organisms that must interact with their environment to survive. Systems or organismic.

Organization theory has become a kind of biology in which the distinctions and relations among molecules, cells, complex organisms, species, and ecology are paralleled in those between individuals, groups, organizations, populations (species) of organizations and their social ecology.

Systems approaches – consider how an organismic metaphor can provide insight into organizational communication processes.

A systems approach shifts our attention to how we should study behavior in an organization.

Three theoretical concepts: 1.Cybernatics

2.Karl Weick’s theory of organizing

3.“new science” systems

The systems Metaphor and Systems Concepts1. System Components

2. Hierarchical Ordering

3. Interdependence

4. Permeability

5. System Processes

6. System Properties

The origins of Systems TheorySystems theory originated from the fields of

biology and engineering. Founded by Ludwig von Bertalanffy, a theoretical biologist who studied living systems. He published, General Systems Theory (1968) a book about systems theory that he believed as appropriate for social sciences.

Application of systems theory to organizational processes

The Social Psychology of Organizations -- Katz and Kahn (1966)

Organizations in Action – Thompson (1967)

Communicating and Organizing -- Farace, Monge, and Russell (1977)

The Social Psychology of Organizations – Katz and Kahn in 1966

“Organizations should be conceptualized as complex open systems that requires interaction among component parts and interaction with the environment to survive” (Katz and Kahn (1978).

System ComponentsSystem is made up of parts or components.

In a biological system the parts = cells and organs. In an organizational system, these components are people and departments, in society as a system, organizations, institutions make up the society.

Three concepts characterize system components:

1.Hierarchical Ordering

2.Interdependence

3.Permeability

Hierarchical OrderingSystem components are arranged in highly

complex ways that involve subsystems and supersystems. E.g. human body made up of cardiovascular system, the digestive systems, etc and these systems are made up of subsystems. E.g. cardiovascular system includes heart, lungs and blood vessels.

Organizational systeme.g. a hospital is made up of a

number of departmental subsystems including surgical units, recovery units, the emergency room, etc. these subsystems are composed of smaller work groups and individuals.

According to the classical theorists hierarchy is the relatively straightforward lines of authority represented by the organizational chart. While the system theorists refer to hierarchy as hierarchical ordering within a system. It is how the system is made up of smaller subsystems and is embedded within a larger supersystem.

InterdependenceThe functioning of one component of a

system relying on other components of the system. E.g. the brain needs a constant supply of blood to function, the heart relies on the lungs to bring in the oxygen that fuels the blood. Both heart and lungs rely on brain for neurological signals that facilitate the functioning.

An organization as a system is also interdependent. E.g. In our hospital the surgical units function effectively with the assistance of laboratories to provide test results. The lab. depend on supplies department for test tubes, etc.

PermeabilityPermeable boundaries allow information and

materials to flow in and out. Some degree of permeability is required to survive. Permeability to the system (open to its environment) and components within the system. e.g. human body open to its environment to take in air, food, water and the human body must also be permeable to allow the flow of materials among organs and organs system.

System ProcessesSystems are characterized by input-

throughput-output processes.

A system “inputs” materials or information from the environment through its permeable boundaries.

The system then works on these inputs with some kind of transformational process – “throughout”

The system returns the transformed “output” to the environment.

e.g.

Furniture Factory chairs public

Raw materials “input”

“throughput” “output”

Two kinds processes:1. Process of exchange -- input and output

require exchange processes with outside environment.

Exchange processes related to permeable boundaries. Some organizations have high permeable boundaries to facilitate change others may be relatively closed.

FeedbackFeedback – information that helps to facilitate

the interdependent functioning of system components.

a) negative feedback, corrective feedback, or deviation-reducing feedback.

b) Positive, growth, or deviation-amplifying

System PropertiesHolismEquifinalityNegative entropyRequisite variety

HolismTogetherness -- in a system there

is a need for interdependence. Members need to cooperate to ensure success of the system.

Instead of solving problems individually, members of a system should work it together.

EquifinalityThe system property states that “a system

can reach the same final state from differing initial conditions and by a variety of paths” components of a system is integrated in highly complex ways.

There are various ways to get to the end.

Negative entropyAbility to sustain and grow. An open system

that allow for the flow of information and materials between the environment and the system.

An open system engages in interchanges with the environment and that interchange is essential for the viability of the system.

Requisite varietyInternal workings of a system must be as

diverse and complicated as the environment in which it is embedded. Needs for “matching complexity”

Such would allow for organization to be able to deal with info and problems in the environment.

SummaryOrganization is a system made up of

collection of components that are hierarchically arranged, interdependent, and permeable to each other and the environment.

The organizational system is characterized by input– throughput – output processes.

Summary of Systems Basics

System Components Principle

Hierarchically ordered A system consists of smaller subsytems and is embedded within larger supersytems.

Interdependence System components depend on each other for effective functioning.

Permeable A system is open to its environment and system components are open to each other.

Input-throughput-output Processes

Principle

Exchange processes Input and output processes require exchange between the system and the environment. Throughput require exchange among system components.

Feedback processes System control is maintained through feedback. Corrective (negative) feedback serves to keep a system on a steady course. Growth (positive) feedback serves to transform or change a system.

System Properties Principle

Holism Because of component interdependence, a system is more than sum of its part.

Equifinality Because of component interdependence, there are multiple paths to any system outcome.

Negative entropy Because of system openness, a system has the ability to avoid deterioration and thrive.

Requisite variety Because of system openness, a system should maintain the internal complexity necessary to cope with external complexity.

CULTURAL APPROACHES

Classical approaches conceptualize organizations

as machine.System approaches look at the organismic aspects of

organizational structure and functioning.

Anthropological approaches regarded organization from the cultural perspectives.

What is Culture? When you think of Malaysia, what comes to mind? Values?

Cultural metaphor allow us to look at organization as “What it is” i.e. its qualities.

What makes McDonald’s different from Burger King?

Pizza Hut different from Domino Pizza?

What makes UPM different from UKM?

What makes Maxis different from Celcom?

Each organization has its own way of doing what it does and its own way of talking about what it is doing.

2 different perspective about culture

1.What an organization has

2.What an organization is

Prescriptive Views of Culture

Increasing interest to examine organizational culture during the last part of the 20th century.

The concept was accepted:

1.The cultural metaphor resonated with both academics and practitioners.

2.Cultural metaphor open up new and fruitful areas of research

Four components of a strong culture:

1.Values

2.Heroes

3.Rites and rituals

4.Cultural network

Excellent Cultures

1. A Bias for Action – Excellent organization react quickly and do not spend excess time planning and analyzing

2. Close Relations to the Customer – Excellent organizations gear decisions and actions to the needs of customers.

3. Autonomy and Entrepreneurship – Excellent organizations encourage positive and respectful relationships among management and employees.

4. Productivity through People – Excellent organizations encourage positive and respectful relationships among management and employees.

5. Hands-On, Value-Driven – Excellent organizations have employees and managers who share the same core value of productivity and performance

Excellent Cultures

6.Stick to the Knitting – Excellent organizations stay focused on what they do best and avoid radical diversification.

7.Simple Form, Lean Staff – Excellent organizations avoid complex structures and divisions of labor.

8.Simultaneous Loose-Tight Properties – Excellent organizations exhibit both unity of purpose and the diversity necessary for innovation.

Success in the business world can be achieved when employees hold on to strong culture.

Value engineering – effective cultural leaders could create “strong” cultures, built around their own values.

Weaknesses of prescriptive approaches:

1.There is no one single cultural formula that can ensure organizational success.

2.Prescriptive approaches treat “culture” as thing that an organization has.

Alternative Approaches to Culture

Culture is being seen as the emerging and sometimes fragmented values, practices, narratives, and artifacts that make a particular organization “what it is”

Louis (1980) stated that the approach seek to describe an organization’s unique sense of place.”

Putnam (1983) introduced this interpretive approach requires a consideration of “to the way individuals make sense of their world through their communicative behaviors.”

Four elements distinguishing between prescriptive approaches to culture and the approaches taken by most cultural scholars:

1. Culture is complicated

2. Culture is emergent

3. Culture is not unitary

4. Culture is often ambiguous

Organizational cultures are complicated

Beyer and Trice (1987) argue that an organization’s culture is revealed through its rites.

Rites of passage, rites of degradation, rites of enhancement, rites of renewal, rites of conflict reduction, and rites of integration.

Dandridge (1986) looks at organizational ceremonies as indicators of culture.

Quinn and McGrath (1985) focus on the role of values and belief systems in the transformation of organizational cultures.

Boje (1991) and Meyer (1995) contend that culture can best be revealed through stories that organizational members tell.

Organizational cultures can be studied through rites, ceremonies, values, belief systems, metaphors, stories, communication rules.

Schein’s Model of Organizational Culture

“Culture is a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problem of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid, and therefore to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems.”

A group phenomenon. An individual cannot have a culture. Always striving towards patterning and integration.

A pattern of basic assumptions. Encompasses values, behaviors, rules, and physical artifacts.

A learned or invented process.

A Model of CultureArtifacts and Creations

Technology

Art

Visible and audible behavior patterns

Values

Testable in the physical environment

Testable only by social consensus

Basic Assumptions

Relationship to environment

Nature of reality, time and space

Nature of human nature

Nature of human activity

Nature of human relation

Visible but often not decipherable

Greater level of awareness

Taken for granted Invisible Preconscious

Level 1: Behaviors & Artifacts

Relaxed, creative atmosphere Bonuses given for new ideas suggestion boxes throughout officeLevel 2: Values

Value for innovation

Level 3: Assumptions

“Change is good”

Describe the culture of the organization shown in the pictures given below.