mohd. ruswadi bin jusoh -...

COMMISSIONING OF A PILOT SCALE FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTOR

MOHD. RUSWADI BIN JUSOH

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

BAHAGIAN A – Pengesahan Kerjasama*

Adalah disahkan bahawa projek penyelidikan tesis ini telah dilaksanakan melalui

kerjasama antara _______________________ dengan _______________________

Disahkan oleh:

Tandatangan : Tarikh :

Nama :

Jawatan :

(Cop rasmi)

* Jika penyediaan tesis/projek melibatkan kerjasama.

BAHAGIAN B – Untuk Kegunaan Pejabat Sekolah Pengajian Siswazah

Tesis ini telah diperiksa dan diakui oleh:

Nama dan Alamat Pemeriksa Luar : _____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Nama dan Alamat Pemeriksa Dalam : _____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Nama Penyelia Lain (jika ada) : _____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Disahkan oleh Timbalan Pendaftar di SPS:

Tandatangan : Tarikh :

Nama :

COMMISSIONING OF A PILOT SCALE FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTOR

MOHD. RUSWADI BIN JUSOH

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Requirements for the award of the degree of

Master of Engineering (Environmental)

Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

OCTOBER 2008

iii

Ani, tiada ganti, diuji, penuh

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Associate

Professor Dr. Mohd. Rozainee bin Taib for his dedication, support and guidance

throughout the whole period of this study work. His knowledge and experience in

the field of fluidised bed combustor system has enlightened me and inspired me in

the area of my study. Without his guidance and constructive criticism, this study

would not have been gone that smoothly. I also appreciate the freedom that he had

given to me in finishing my study in my own space.

v

ABSTRACT

The main purpose of this study is to perform a test and commissioning on a

newly fabricated pilot scale fluidised bed combustor for the production of ash from

rice husk. The combustor with the height of 6.0 mH and diameter of 0.5 mD has been

designed and installed at the Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources, Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia. The scope of this study includes installation of the centrifugal

exhaust fan, modification of the combustor feeding system, observation on the

combustion temperature stability, oil palm shell usage as an igniter for the bed

combustor start-up and flue gas measurement from the firing of rice husk in the pilot

scale fluidised bed combustor. Under this study, a fluidising velocity of 4, 5, 6 and 7

Umf were applied for the combustion temperature stability observation on the

fluidised bed combustor. The oil palm shell obtained from the Kulai Palm Oil Mills

of Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) Johor, were used as an igniter to

pre-heat the bed combustor in order to start-up the combustion process in a safe

manner during the experimental works. In addition, an installation of the centrifugal

exhaust fan and a modification on the feeding system was performed as a trouble-

shooting measured during the study. The flue gas from the combustion of rice husk

was analysed using the MRU Gas Analyser which showed that the gas generated

consists of O2, CO2, CO, NOx and SO2 at the concentration of 7.7%, 11.2%, 0.5%,

189 ppm and 80 ppm, respectively. The newly fabricated pilot scale fluidised bed

combustor was successfully commissioned with the production of ash from the firing

of rice husk in the unit.

vi

ABSTRAK

Matlamat utama dalam kajian ini adalah untuk menjalankan ujian keupayaan

terhadap loji pandu pembakar lapisan terbendalir untuk menghasilkan abu daripada

sekam padi. Loji pandu pembakar lapisan terbendalir yang mempunyai ketinggian

6.0 meter dengan saiz diameter 0.5 meter telah berjaya direkabentuk di Fakulti

Kejuruteraan Kimia dan Kejuruteraan Sumber Asli, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

Skop kajian ini termasuklah pemasangan kipas ekzos terhadap loji pandu, modifikasi

terhadap sistem suapan bahan bakar, ujian kestabilan suhu pembakaran loji pandu,

penggunaan isirung kelapa sawit sebagai bahan pemula untuk pemanasan bahan

lapisan terbendalir dan analisis terhadap gas yang terhasil daripada pembakaran

sekam padi di dalam loji pandu pembakar lapisan terbendalir. Melalui kajian ini,

halaju terbendalir terdiri daripada 4, 5, 6 dan 7 Umf diaplikasi dalam proses

pembakaran untuk menguji kestabilan suhu pembakaran loji pandu tersebut. Bagi

memastikan keselamatan sepanjang proses ujikaji, isirung kelapa sawit yang

diperolehi daripada Felda Taib Andak, Kulai digunakan sebagai bahan pemula untuk

proses pemanasan bahan terbendalir di dalam loji pandu. Selain daripada itu,

penambahan kipas ekzos terhadap loji pandu dan modifikasi terhadap sistem suapan

bahan bakar dilakukan untuk mengatasi masalah yang dihadapi semasa proses ujian

keupayaan dijalankan. Produk gas daripada pembakaran sekam padi di analisa

menggunakan penganalisa Gas MRU, ujian analisis terhadap gas O2, CO2, CO, NOx

dan SO2 yang terhasil masing-masing adalah sebanyak 7.6%, 11.2%, 0.5%, 189 ppm

and 80 ppm. Ujian keupayaan telah berjaya dilakukan ke atas loji pandu pembakar

lapisan terbendalir dengan penghasilan abu daripada pembakaran sekam padi melalui

unit tersebut.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xi

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xvii

LIST OF APPENDICES xix

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction 1

1.2. Problem Statements 3

1.3. Objectives of Study 4

1.4. Scopes of Study 5

1.5. Significance of Study 6

viii

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction 7

2.2. Paddy Milling Operation 8

2.2.1. Rice Husk Generation 10

2.3. Thermal Treatment of Rice Husk in

Fluidised Bed Combustor 11

2.4. Effect of Fluidising Parameters on the

Combustion Efficiency of Rice Husk

in Fluidised Bed Combustor 13

2.4.1. Fluidising Velocity (Umf number) 14

2.4.2. Sand Size 15

2.4.3. Static Bed Height 18




2.5.1. Time 21

2.5.2. Temperature 22

2.5.2.1. Primary Stage 23

2.5.2.2. Secondary Stage 23

2.5.2.3. Tertiary Stage 23

2.5.3. Air Supply 24

2.5.3.1. Primary Air 25

2.5.3.2. Secondary Air 26

2.5.3.3. Pneumatic Air 27

2.5.4. Moisture Content in Rice Husk 27




2.6.1. Freeboard Height 29

2.6.2. Feeding Design and Position of

Feed Entry of the Fluidised bed

Combustor 31

2.6.2.1. Effect on Ash Quality

(Carbon Burnout) 32

ix

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction 34

3.2. Study Materials 34

3.2.1. Rice Husk 34

3.2.2. Oil Palm Shell 35

3.2.3. Silica Sand 36

3.3. Combustor System Equipments 37

3.3.1. Cyclone 37

3.3.2. Air Blower 37

3.3.3. Temperature Measuring System 38

3.3.4. Feeding System 38

3.3.5. Gas Analyser 38

3.3.5.1. Flue Gas Sampling

and Analysis 39

3.3.5.2. Measuring Principle 39

3.3.5.3. Technical

Specifications and

Measuring Ranges 40

3.4. Operating Parameters 44

3.4.1. Combustion Theoretical Air

Requirement 44

3.4.2. Combustion Air Flow Rate 46

3.4.3. Primary to Secondary Air Ratio 47

3.4.4. Bed Pre-Heating and Combustor

Start-up 48

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1. Introduction 51

4.2. Installation of the Centrifugal Exhaust Fan 52

4.3. Modification of Secondary Hopper on the

Combustor Feeding System 53

4.4. Bed Pre-heating and Combustor Start-up by

Using Oil Palm Shells 57

x

4.5. Combustion Temperature Stability 60

4.5.1. Rice Husk Combustion at 4, 5 and 6 Umf 60

4.5.2. Rice Husk Combustion at 7 Umf 62

4.5.3. Ash Production 63

4.6. Flue Gas Measurement 67

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusion 72

5.2. Recommendations for Future Study 73

5.2.1. Dry Air Supply for Bed Pre-heating and

Combustor Start-Up 73

5.2.2. Removal of Oil Palm Shell Ash

Obtained from Bed Pre-heating and

Combustor Start-Up 74

5.2.3. Structure Analysis of Ash Samples 74

REFERENCES 75

APPENDICES 83

xi

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

Table 2.1: Description of paddy milling process 8

Table 2.2: Properties of sewage sludge and rice husk

(wt% dry basis) 15

Table 2.3: Sand size and corresponding fluidisation

velocity for combustion rice husk in fluidised bed 16

Table 2.4: Minimum fluidising velocity of sand

of various size ranges 18

Table 2.5: Static bed height used for the combustion

of rice husk 19

Table 2.6: Optimum air factor reported in literature for

combustion of rice husk in fluidised bed 24

Table 2.7: Different rice husk feeding arrangements 32

Table 3.1: Chemical properties of rice husk 35

xii

Table 3.2: Chemical properties of oil palm shell 36

Table 3.3: Physical properties of silica sand 36

Table 3.4: General specification of SWG 300-1 gas analyser 41

Table 3.5: Measuring ranges and accuracy as given

by the manufacturer 41

Table 3.6: Fluidising velocity and air flow rate for various

fluidising numbers in cold run (25oC) 46

Table 3.7: Fluidising velocity and air flow rate for various

fluidising numbers in hot run (800oC) 47

Table 3.8: Primary to secondary air ratio for varies

fluidising numbers 48

Table 4.1: Feed rate input for a different fluidising numbers 54

Table 4.2: Feeding rate calibration 55

Table E.1: Fluidising velocity and air flow rate for various

fluidising numbers at room temperature (25oC) 95

Table E.2: Fluidising velocity and air flow rate for various

fluidising numbers at hot run (800oC) 95

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

Figure 2.1: Process flow diagram of paddy milling operation 9

Figure 2.2: Effect of secondary airflow on the temperature

distribution in the firebrick-insulated fluidised

bed combustor during the combustion of rice husk

(Chen et al., 1998) 26

Figure 2.3: Chart for transport disengaging height (TDH)

estimation of fine particle (Geldart A) beds (Zenz

and Weil, 1958) 30

Figure 3.1: Oxygen measurement principle 40

Figure 3.2: Schematic diagram of fluidised bed combustor 42

Figure 3.3: Schematic diagram of thermocouple position in the

pilot scale fluidised bed combustor 43

Figure 4.1: Installed centrifugal exhaust fan 53

Figure 4.2: Existing secondary hopper 55

xiv

Figure 4.3: Schematic diagram of dead zone in existing

secondary hopper 56

Figure 4.4: Modified secondary hopper 56

Figure 4.5: Schematic diagram of modified secondary hopper 57

Figure 4.6: Real time of temperature profile for bed pre-heating 59

Figure 4.7: Real time temperature profile of rice husk

combustion at 4, 5 and 6 Umf 61

Figure 4.8: Real time temperature profile of rice husk

combustion at 7 Umf 63

Figure 4.9: Ash product from rice husk combustion

at 4 Umf 65


at 5 Umf 66


at 6 Umf 66


at 7 Umf 67

Figure 4.13: Real time profile of CO, CO2 and O2 gas product

from rice husk combustion at 4, 5 and 6 Umf 69

Figure 4.14: Real time profile of NOx and SO2 gas product

from rice husk combustion at 4, 5 and 6 Umf 70

xv

Figure 4.15: Real time profile of O2 and CO2 and CO gas

product from rice rusk combustion at 7 Umf 70

Figure 4.16: Real time profile of NOx and SO2 gas

product from rice husk combustion at 7 Umf 71

Figure A.1: Real time temperature profiles for bed pre-heating

and combustor start-up 83

Figure A.2: Real time temperature profiles of rice husk

combustion at 4, 5 and 6 Umf 84

Figure A.3: Real time temperature profiles of rice husk

combustion at 7 Umf 84

Figure B.1: Ash product of rice husk combustion at 4 Umf 85




Figure C.1: Real time profile for CO, CO2 and O2 gas product

of rice husk combustion at 4, 5 and 6 Umf 88

Figure C.2: Real time profile for NOx and SO2 gas product

of rice husk combustion at 4, 5 and 6 Umf 89

Figure C.3: Real time profile for CO, CO2 and O2 gas

product of rice husk combustion at 7 Umf 89

Figure C.4: Real time profile for NOx and SO2 gas

xvi

product of rice husk combustion at 7 Umf 90

Figure F.1: Cyclone 96

Figure F.2: Air blower 97

Figure F.3: PICO data acquision 97

Figure F.4: Feeding system 98

Figure F.5: MRU gas analyser 98

Figure G.1: Rice husk 99

Figure G.2: Oil palm shell 100

Figure G.3: Silica sand 100

xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ASEAN - Association of South-East Asian Nations

ASTM - American Society for Testing Materials

BET - Brunauer, Emmett and Teller Method

C - Carbon

CDM - Clean Development Mechanism

CH4 - Methane

CO - Carbon monoxide

CO2 - Carbon dioxide

CREDA - Chhattisgarh Renewable Energy Development Agency

Dc - Column Diameter

FELDA - Federal Land Development Authority

FBC - Fluidised Bed Combustor

FKKKSA - Fakulti Kejuruteraan Kimia dan Kejuruteraan Sumber Asli

GHG - Green House Gas

GJ - Giga Joule

GWh - Giga Watt per Hour

H - Hydrogen

HP - Horse Power

H2O - Water

H2S - Hydrogen Sulphide

HCI - Hydrochloric Acid

HHV - Higher Heating Value

ID - Internal Diameter

LHV - Lower Heating Value, (MJ/kg)

LOI - Loss on Ignition

xviii

LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas

LPM - Litre per Minute

mD - Meters (inner diameter)

mH - Meters (height)

mm - Millimeters

m/s - Meter per Second

MSW - Municipal Solid Waste

MW - Mega Watt

N - Nitrogen

NA - Not Available

ND - Not Detectable

NO2 - Nitrogen Dioxide

NSTP - New Straits Times Press

O2 - Oxygen

OH - Hydroxyl

RHA - Rice Husk Ash

RM - Ringgit Malaysia

RMS - Root Mean Square

S - Sulphur

SEM - Scanning Electron Microscopy

SiO2 - Silica Dioxide

SO2 - Sulphur Dioxide

TDH - Transport Disengaging Height, (m)

TGA - Thermogravimetric Analysis

Umf - Fluidising Velocity (number)

Umf/m - Fluidising Velocities of the Mixture

USA - United State of America

USD - United States Dollar (USD 1 = RM 3.80)

UTM - Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

XRD - X-Ray Diffraction

z - Static Height of Bed Materials

xix

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Real time of temperature profile 83

B Ash product of rice husk combustion in the

pilot scale fluidised bed combustor 85

C Real time temperature profile of gas product

from combustion of rice husk 88

D Mass Balance to determine the amount

of stoichiometric air for combustion of rice husk 91

E Theoretical air requirement for rice husk combustion 93

F Picture of combustor system equipments 96

G Picture of materials used in study 99

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Rice covers 1% of the earth surface with approximately 600 million tonnes of

paddy produced per year with average 20% of the rice paddy is husk of 120 millions

tonnes. In majority of rice producing countries, most of the husk is either burnt or

dumped as a waste. According to the statistic from Padiberas Nasional Berhad

(BERNAS) in the year 2007, the potential energy generation in Malaysia from rice

husk is at 300 GWh per annum. This translates to, an estimated potential revenue

from electricity generation of RM44.7 million per annum.

The utilisation of rice husk for energy production added ‘value’ to rice husk,

which is otherwise deemed as a form of waste that have potential to create serious

environmental and health problems if not managed in a proper and effective manner.

Rice husk ash contains among the highest amount of biogenic silica still in its

amorphous form (in the excess of 95 wt% silica, SiO2) (James and Rao, 1986)

compared to other biomass materials, such as ash from sugarcane bagasse (57 – 73%

SiO2) (Natarajan et al., 1998a).

2

The quality of amorphous silica resulting from the thermal treatment of rice

husk is comparable with other expensive sources of silica. Furthermore, the

utilisation of rice husk producing value added material from waste agriculture

product as well as sodium silicate. The sodium silicate that could be produced in

much cheaper route using amorphous silica from rice husk ash compared to

conventional methods also has high market value. For example, the production of

one tonne of sodium silicate requires approximately 135 kg of amorphous silica as

raw material. Thus, one tonne of amorphous silica will produce an equivalent of 7.4

tonnes of sodium silicate, which in turn commands a price of RM 2,100 per tonne.

Further, the residue from the production of sodium silicate from rice husk ash is a

by-product which could be further processed into activated carbon or sold as it is as a

carbon source.

Production of rice is dominated by Asia, where rice is the only food crop that

can be grown during the rainy season in the waterlogged tropical areas. Most paddy

is produced by China (31%) followed by India (21%). Assuming a husk to paddy

ratio of 20% the total global husk production could be as high as 116,000,000 tonnes

per year. Globally, rice production is increasing from 1992 – 2002 with an increase

about 10%. Only China and Japan produced less rice in 2002 compared with 1992.

Yields are affected by several factors, including the agronomy of the crop. This is

influenced by the physical and cultural environment and scale under wish the rice is

grown. International co-ordination in technological advance of rice production is

providing alternatives to the limitation of cultures practices. Rice production is often

set by weather, monsoons and droughts, but the effect of this are increasingly being

limited by irrigation and water control systems.

In reality, it is estimated that only about 2% of the available rice husk is used

for energy production in Malaysia. Similarly, in other rice producing countries,

despite the huge potential, the utilisation of this abundant biomass is still very low.

However, in the last few years, the utilisation of rice husk as an energy source has

gained significant momentum. In reality, it is estimated that only about 2% of the

available rice husk is used for energy production in Malaysia. Similarly, in other rice

3

producing countries, despite the huge potential, the utilisation of this abundant

biomass is still very low. However, in the last few years, the utilisation of rice husk

as an energy source has gained significant momentum.

1.2 Problem Statements

A pilot scale fluidised bed combustor was successfully fabricated at Fakulti

Kejuruteraan Kimia dan Kejuruteraan Sumber Asli (FKKKSA), Universiti Teknologi

Malaysia. The combustor was of 0.5 mD (inner diameter) and 6.0 mH (height) which

was installed in February 2006. Commissioning of the pilot scale fluidised bed

combustor was carried out from March until July 2006.

The previous studies of rice husk combustion had been done in a lab scale of

80 mm inner diameter fluidised bed reactor (Ngo, 2002) to investigate the optimum

set of operating parameters such as temperature, sand size, fluidising velocity and

static bed height. A bed combustor pre-heating as a primary step in starting up the

combustor was pre-heated through premixed combustion of liquefied petroleum gas

(LPG) and air. An igniter such as kerosene or soaked tissue ball is dropped into the

bed. Then, the premixed LPG and air is passed through the bed with its flowrate

adjusted so as to enable the flame to remain in the bed. However, burning of the

premixed gas mixture in the bed region will emit a loud ‘popping’ noise due to the

eruption of bubbles in the bed during combustion.

In this study, the optimum set of operating parameters for production of

amorphous silica ash from rice husk (Ngo, 2002) could be applied to commission the

pilot scale fluidised bed combustor. Compared to the lab scale fluidised bed

combustor, the pilot scale fluidised bed combustor was of 0.5 mD (inner diameter)

and 6.0 mH (height) and the unit was facilitated with a gas analyser. During the

4

testing and commissioning activities, an evaluation, installation and modification was

carried out so as to ensure a good operation of the pilot scale fluidised bed

combustor.

1.3 Objectives of Study

The main objective of this study is to commission a newly fabricated pilot

scale fluidised bed combustor to produce ash from rice husk. The specific objectives

of this study were:

1. To investigate and overcome the leakage of smoke (hot flue gas) at

the combustor while the combustor is in operation.

2. To investigate the insufficient of the fuel feeding (rice husk) into the

combustor during the combustion process.

3. To evaluate a bed combustor pre-heating method for starting up the

pilot scale fluidised bed combustor by using an oil palm shell.

4. To investigate the combustion temperature stability of the fluidised

bed combustor by using a different of fluidising numbers (Umf).

5. To analyse a composition of flue gas generated from the rice husk

firing in the pilot scale fluidised bed combustor.

5

1.4 Scopes of Study

The study work focused on commissioning the newly fabricated pilot scale

fluidised bed combustor to produce ash from rice husk. The scopes of the study are

as below:

1. The installation of centrifugal exhaust fan on the top of the combustor

to provide the negative pressure on the chimney to prevent the escape

of the smoke (hot flue gas) at the combustor.

2. The modification of secondary hopper in the combustor feeding

system to avoid the insufficient of fuel feeding (rice husk) into the

combustor due to the dead zone in the existing secondary hopper

design.

3. The evaluation of combustor pre-heating method by using the oil

palm shell and the time to achieve a bed desire temperature (700oC)

will be observed.

4. The observation of combustion temperature stability will be carried

out for the rice husk firing in the combustor at fluidising numbers

applied from 4 to 7 Umf.

5. The measurement of flue gas will be carried out to determine a

composition of gases from the firing of rice husk in the combustor.

6

1.5 Significance of Study

This study will contribute on providing the effective technology (Fluidised

Bed Combustor) and solution for the utilisation of rice husk. It is in-line with the

Malaysia Budget 2008, which highlighted the continued emphasis to further

modernise and develop the agriculture sector industries. The study also explores the

potential utilisation of rice husk such as renewable energy source (heat and

electricity) and value added material (sodium silicate and activated carbon). The

most significant benefit that could be gained from such approach is that the zero or

most often negative investment that would have been expended to get rid of the

agricultural wastes could in fact be transformed into an income generating business

capable offering highly lucrative returns.

REFERENCES

Armesto, L.; Bahillo, A.; Veijonen, K.; Cabanillas, A. and Otero, J. (2002).

Combustion Behaviour of Rice Husk in a Bubbling Fluidised Bed. Biomass and

Bioenergy. 23: 171-179.

Ashish Bhat; Ram Bheemarasetti, J. V. and Rajeswara Rao, T. (2001). Kinetics of

Rice Husk Char Gasification. Energy Conversion and Management. 42: 2061-

2069.

Beagle, E. C. (1974). Basic and Applied Research Needs for Optimizing Utilization

of Rice Husk. In Proc. of the Rice Husk By-Products Utilization, Int. Conf.

Valencia. pp 1-43.

Beagle, E. C. (1978). Rice Husk, Conversion to Energy. FAO Agricultural Bulletin

31, Chap. 3. Rome.

Bingyan, X and Zhongnan, L. (1987). A Study of Fluidized Bed Gasification Rice

Hulls. Advances in Solar Energy Technology, Biennial Congress, Hamburg,

Germany. pp 2312-2316.

Bhattacharya, S. C. and Shah, N. (1987). Spouted Bed Combustion of Paddy Husk.

Energy Research. 11: 429-432.

76

Bhattacharya, S. C. and Wu, W. (1989). Fluidized Bed Combustion of Rice Husk for

Disposal and Energy Recovery. Energy from Biomass and Wastes. XII: 591-601.

Bhattacharya, S. C.; Shah, N. and Alikhani, Z. (1984). Some Aspects of Fluidized

Bed Combustion of Paddy Husk. Applied Energy. 16(4): 307-316.

Black and Veatch (Thailand). (2000). Thailand Biomass-Based Power Generation

and Cogeneration within Small Rural Industries. National Energy Policy Office

(NEPO). Chapter 5, pp 5-4.

Blasi, J. S. M.; Teoman, Y. and Yuriger, K. R. (1999). The Effect of Operating

Temperature on the Velocity of Minimum Fluidisation Bed Voidage and General

Behaviour. Powder Technology. 31: 101-110.

Boateng, A. A.; Walawender, W. P.; Fan, L. P. And Chee, C. S. (1992). Fluidized-

Bed Steam Gasification of Rice Hull. Bioresource Technology. 40: 235-239.

Briens, C. L.; Bergougnou, M. A. And Baron, T. (1988). Prediction of Entrainment

from Gas-Solid Fluidized Beds. Powder Technology. 54: 86-196.

Chakraverty, A. and Kaleemullah, S. (1991). Conversion of Rice Husk into

Amorphous Silica and Combustible Gas. Energy Convers. Mgmt. 32(6): 565-570.

Chakraverty, A.; Mishra, P. and Banerjee, H.D. (1988). Investigation of Combustion

of Raw and Acid-Leached Rice Husk for Production of Pure Amorphous White

Silica. J. Mater. Sci. 23: 21-24.

Chen, G. Y.; Fang, M. X.; Luo, Z. Y.; Yu, C. J.; Li, X. T.; Ni, M. J. and Cen, K. F.

(1998). The Study of Combustion Characteristics of Rice Husk-Fired Fluidized

Bed Boiler. Journal of Combustion Science and Technology. 4(2): 193-198. In

Mandarin language.

77

Chouhan, R. K.; Kujur, B.; Amritphale, S. S. and Chandra, N. (2000). Effect of

Temperature of Ashing of Rice Husk on the Compressive Strength of Lime-

Rice Husk Silica Mortar. Sil. Ind. 65(5-6): 67-71.

Davidson, J. F. and Harrison, D. (1963). Fluidised Particles. Cambridge University

Press, New York.

De Souza, M. F.; Batista, P. D. S. and Liborio, J. B. L. (2004). Oxides Extracted

from Vegetal Matter and Process Therefor. U. S. Patent Application Publication

No. US 2004/0175321 A1, Sept. 9, 2004.

Department of Statistics Malaysia (2007). Key Statistics. Website:

http://www.statistics.gov.my/English/keystats.htm (accessed on 05ft February

2008)

Dutta, S. and Wen, C. Y. (1977). Reactivity of Coal and Char and Ash 2. In Oxygen-

Nitrogen Atmosphere. Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev. 16(1): 31-37.

Fang, M.; Yang, L.; Chen, G.; Shi, Z; Luo, Z. and Cen. K. (2004). Experimental

Study on Rice Husk Combustion in a Circulating Fluidised Bed. Fuel Processing

Technology. 85: 1273-1282.

Flanigan, V. J.; Xu, B. Y. and Huang, E. (1987). Fluidized Bed Gasification of Rice

Hulls. The Tenth Annual Energy-Sources Technology Conference and Exhibition,

Dallas, Texas. pp 19-34.

Hamad, M. A. (1981 – 1982). Combustion of rice hulls in a static bed. Energy in

Agriculture. 1: 311-315.

Hamad, M. A. and Khattab, I. A. (1981). Effect of the Combustion Process on the

Structure of Rice Hull Silica. Thermochimica Acta. 48: 343-349.

78

Hartiniati, A.; Soemardjo, A. and Youvial, M. (1989). Performance of a Pilot-Scale

Fluidized Bed Gasifier Fuelled by Rice Husk. Proc. Int. Conf. Pyrolysis and

Gasification. pp 257-263.

Henrich, E.; Bürkle, S.; Meza-Renken, Z. I. And Rumpel, S. (1999). Combustion and

Gasification Kinetics of Pyrolysis Chars from Waste and Biomass. Journal of

Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis. 49: 221 – 241.

Ho, T. C.; Paul, K. and Hopper, J. R. (1988). Kinetic Study of Biological Sludge

Incineration in a Fluidized Bed. AIChE Symposium Series 84(262): 126-133.

Howard, J. R. (1989). Fluidized Bed Technology. New York: Adam Hilger.

Huang, S.; Jing, S.; Wang, J. F.; Wang, Z. W and Jin, Y. (2001). Silica White

obtained from Rice Husk in a Fluidized Bed. Powder Technology. 117: 232-238.

James, J. and Rao, M. S. (1986). Silica from Rice Husk through Thermal

Decomposition. Thermochimica Acta. 97: 329-336

Jenkins, B. M.; Baxter, L. L.; Miles Jr., T. R. and Miles, T. R. (1998). Combustion

Properties of Biomass. Fuel Processing Technology. 54: 17-46.

Kaupp, A. (1984). Gasification of Rice Hulls: Theory and Practices. Eschborn:

Deutsches Zentrum Fuer Entwicklungs Technologien (GATE).

Kapur, P. C. (1985). Production of Reactive Bio-Silica from the Combustion of Rice

Husk in a Tube-in-Basket (TiB) Burner. Powder Technology. 44: 63-67.

Kawser, J. and Farid, N. (2000). Oil Palm as a Source of Phenol. Journal of Oil Palm

Research Vol. 12 No. I, June 2000, p. 86-94.

79

Krishnarao, R. V.; Subrahmanyam, J. and Jagadish Kumar, T. (2001). Studies on the

Formation of Black Particles in Rice Husk Silica Ash. Journal of the European

Ceramic Society. 21: 99-104.

Kulasekaran, S.; Linjewile T. M.; Agarwal, P. K. and Biggs, M. J. (1998).

Combustion of a Porous Char Particle in an Incipiently Fluidized Bed. Fuel.

77(14): 1549-1560.

Levi, K. S. (1991). A Process Development for Gasification of Rice Husk. Fuel

Processing Technology. 55: 185-192.

Lim, S. Y. (2002). Combustion Efficiency of Palm Wastes in Spouting and Bubbling

Fluidised Beds. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia: Master Thesis.

Liou, T.H. (2004). Preparation and Characterization of Nano-Structured Silica from

Rice Husk. Materials Science and Engineering A364: 313-323.

Liu, H. and Lin, Z. (1995). Combustion Characteristics of Rice Husk in Fluidised

Beds. Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Fluidised Bed

Combustion. 1: 615-618.

Madhiyanon, T.; Piriyarungnoj, N. and Soponnarit, S. (2004). A Novel Vortex-

Fluidized Bed Combustor with Two Combustion Chambers for Rice-Husk

Fuel. Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technology. 26(6): 875-893.

Mahlia, T. M.; Abdulmuin, M. Z.; Alamsyah, T. M. And Mukhlisien, D. (2001). An

Alternative Energy Source from Palm Waste Industry for Malaysia and Indonesia.

Energy Conversion and Management 42 (2001): 2109-2118.

Mansaray, K. G. and Ghaly, A. E. (1997). Physical and Thermochemical Properties

of Rice Husk. Energy Sources. 19: 989-1004.

80

Mansaray, K. G., Ghaly, A. E.; Al-Taweel, A. M.; Hamdullahpur, F. and Ugursal, I.

(1999). Air Gasification of Rice Husk in a Dual Distributor Type Fluidized

Bed Gasifier. Biomass and Bioenergy. 17: 315-332.

Mukunda, H. S.; Shrinivasa, U.; Paul, P. J.; Dasappa, S. and Rajan, N. K. S. (1996).

Stand Alone Small Power Level Systems. Presented at the 7th Annual

Conference of India Nuclear Society on India’s Energy Needs and Options,

BARC, Mumbai, April 1996.

Muthukrishnan, G.P. and Sundarajan, N. A. (1995). Greenhouse-Gas Emission from

Biomass Energy Use: Comparison with other Energy Technologies. Presented at

the 7th Annual Conference of India Nuclear Society on India’s Energy Needs and

Options, BARC, Mumbai, April 1995.

Natarajan, E.; Nordin. A and Rao, A. N. (1998a). Overview of Combustion and

Gasification of Rice Husk in Fluidized Bed Reactors. Biomass and Bioenergy.

14(5/6): 533-546.

Ngo, S. P. (2002). Production of Amorphous Silica Ash from Rice Husk. Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia: Phd Thesis.

Niessen, W. R. (1995). Combustion and Incineration Processes: Applications in

Environmental Engineering. 2nd Edition. New Yorl: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Peel, R. B. and Santos, F. J. (1980). Fluidized Bed Combustion of Vegetable Fuels.

In Proc. of Int. Conf. On Fluidized Bed Combustion: Systems and

Applications. pp IIB.2.1-IIB.2.9.

Perry, R. H.; Green, D. W. and Maloney, J. O. (Eds.) (1997). Perry’s Chemical

Engineer’s Handbook. 7th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Pongsak, P. (1992). Preparation of Silica from Rice Husk by Fluidised Bed Method.

Chulalongkorn University (Dept. of Chemical Technology): Master Thesis.

81

Preto, F.; Anthony, E.J.; Desai, D. L. and Friedrich, F. D. (1987). Combustion Trials

of Rice Husk in a Pilot-Scale Fluidized Bed. Proceeding of the 9th International

Conference on Fluidized Bed Combustion. 2: 1123-1127.

Rao, T. R. and Bheemarasetti, J. V. R. (2001). Minimum Fluidization Velocities of

Mixtures of Biomass and Sands. Energy. 26: 633-644.

Real, C.; Alcala, M. and Criado, J.M. (1996). Preparation of Silica from Rice Husks.

J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 79(8): 2012-2016.

Rozainee, M.; Ngo, S. P.; Salema, A. A.; Tan, K. G.; Ariffin, M. and Zainura, Z. N.

(2007). Effect of fluidising velocity on the combustion of rice husk in a bench-

scale fluidised bed combustor for the production of amorphous rice husk ash.

Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 703–713.

Sen, R. and Ghosh, D. N. (1992). Fluidization and Combustion Characteristics of

Rice Husk. Indian Chemical Engineer. 34(4): 206-211.

Sridhar, G.; Sridhar, H. V.; Dasappa, S.; Paul, P. J.; Rajan, N. K. S.; Shrinivasa, U.

and Mukunda, H. S. (1996). Technology for gasifying pulverised bio-fuels

including agricultural residues. Energy for Sustainable Development. 3(2): July

1996.

Sumran, M. and Kongkachuichay, P. (2003). Synthesis of Silica from Rice Husk by

One-Step Combustion, Fluidised Bed Combustion and Alkaline Extraction. KKU

Engineering Journal. 30(2): 165-172.

Van den Aarsen, F. G.; Beenackers, A. A. C. M. and van Swaij, W. P. M. (1982).

Performance of a Rice Husk Fluidized Bed Pilot Plant Gasifier. In Producer

Gas 1982: First Int. Conf., Sri Lanka. pp 381-391.

Wen, C. Y. and Yu, Y. H. (1966). A Generalized Method for Predicting the

Minimum Fluidising Velocity. AIChE Journal. 12: 610-612.

82

Wu, G.; Wang, J.; Shen, J.; Tang, T.; Zhang, Q.; Zhou, B.; Deng, Z.; Bin, F.; and

Zhang, F. (2000). Properties of Sol–Gel Derived Scratch-Resistant Nano-Porous

Silica Films by a Mixed Atmosphere Treatment. Journal of Non-Crystalline

Solids. 275(3): 169-174.

Xia, J. L.; Yadigaroglu, G.; Liu, Y. S.; Schmidli, J. and Smith, B. L. (1998).

Numerical and Experimental Study of Swirling Flow in a Model Combustor. Int.

J. Heat Mass Transfer. 41(11): 1485-1497.

Xu, B. Y.; Huang, W. C.; Flanigan, V. J. and Sitton, O. C. (1985). Design and

Operation of a 6 Inch Fluidized Bed Gasifier for Rice Hulls. Symposium on

Energy from Biomass and Waste IX. Organised by IGT, Chicago, U. S. A. pp

595-613.

Yalçin, N. and Sevinç, V. (2001). Studies on Silica Obtained from Rice Husk.

Ceramics International. 27: 219-224.

Yin, X. L.; Wu, C. Z.; Zheng, S. P. and Chen, Y. (2002). Design and Operation of a

CFB Gasifier and Power Generation System for Rice Husk. Biomass and

Bioenergy. 23: 181-187.

Zenz, F. A. and Weil, N. A. (1958). A Theoretical-Empirical Approach to the

Mechanism of Particle Entrainment from Fluidised Beds. AIChE Journal.

4:472.

mohd. ruswadi bin jusoh -...

Documents