JUDUL

IJAZAH

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH

BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS TESIS

KESAN EFIKASI DIRI, PERANAN KERJA DAN JARAK BUDAYA TERHADAP PENYESUAIAN EKSPATRIAT DALAM SUBSIDIARI SYARIKAT ASING 01 MALAYSIA

MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION SESI PENGAJIAN 2008 - 2010

Saya, MAY LIN TZIA mengaku membenarkan tesis sarjana ini di simpan di perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah dengan syarat-syarat kegunaan berikut:

1. Tesis adalah hak milik Universiti Malaysia Sabah. 2. Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah dibenarkan membuat salinan untuk

tujuan pengajian sahaja. 3. Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat salinan tesis ini sebagai bahan

pertukaran institusi pengajian tinggi. 4. TIDAK TERHAD

Penulis: May Lin Tzia Alamat: Hse 8, Lot 84, Jln Bersatu,

Lrg Pokok Merbau, Tmn Kim Leng, 88300 Luyang, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah.

Penyelia: Raja Azimah Raja Omar Ainuddin

.. Wl AZDWI AllVDDIl PIvfwsor MeIty • .$tkoleh J-WTI~ " t-tOll&ltn,

Tarikh: 28 July 2010

Penyelia Bersama: Jaratin Lily

Catatan: Tesis dimaksudkan SEBAGAI TESIS ijazah Doktor Falsafah dan Sarjana secara penyelidikan atau disertasi bagi pengajian secara kerja kursus dan penyelidikan atau laporan Projek Sarjana Muda (LPSM)

THE INFLUENCE OF WORK ROLES, SELF­EFFICACY AND CULTURAL DISTANCE ON EXPATRIATE ADJUSTMENT IN FOREIGN

OWNED MALAYSIAN COMPANIES

MAY LIN TZIA

THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF BUSINESS

ADMINISTRATION

SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH

2010

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the material in this dissertation is my own and original work except for quotations, excerpts, summaries and references which have been duly acknowledged.

21 July 2010

ii

May Lin Tzia PE 2008-8207C

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First, I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor, Associate P.M Dr. Raja Azimah Raja Omar, and my co-supervisor, Mr Jaratin Lily. Their kind support and help, the advice and guidance provided by them were extremely beneficial to accomplish my dissertation. I thank also for their unwavering patience and sincerity along the journey until I completed my dissertation.

I also would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my family for their constant support and understanding. My thanks to all my MBA course mates for their support and inputs which eventually led to the betterment of my research.

Finally, my thanks to all who have assisted me in one way or another, without whom this study would not have been completed.

iii

ABSTRAK

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk meneliti kesan ciri kerja, efikasi diri dan jarak budaya terhadap penyesuaian ekspatriat di kalangan ekspatriat yang bekerja di subsidiari syarikat asing di Malaysia. Data untuk kajian ini telah dikumpul melalui survei silang rentas ekspatriat yang bekerja di syarikat yang dimiliki sepenuhnya atau sebahagiannya oleh syarikat asing. Soalselidik yang boleh diisi sendiri telah diagihkan kepada responden yang berpotensi melalui emel dan berhubung secara terus dengan responden. 8erdasarkan sampel seramai 47 orang responden, keputusan kajian menunjukkan tahap penyesuaian expatriat yang agak tinggi, pada tahap 4.06 berdasarkan skala 5-poin skel Likert. Keputusan daripada analisis regresi menunjukkan kesamaran kerja mempunyai kesan yang negatif dan signifikan terhadap penyesuaian ekspatriat semen tara efikasi diri dan jarak budaya menunjukkan kesan yang positif dan signifikan terhadap penyesuaian ekspatriat. 8agaimanapun, kesan satu lagi dimensi ciri kerja iaitu, pembaharuan dalam kerja, terhadap penyesuaian ekspatriat adalah negatif tetapi tidak signifikan. Keputusan analisis regresi berhierarki menunjukkan kesan penyederhana daripada pengalaman lama berkaitan antarabangsa adalah tidak signifikan bagi hubungan an tara penyesuaian ekspatriat dengan setiap pembolehubah bebas - beban tugas, efikasi diri dan jarak budaya. Kekangan kajian dan implikasi dapatan kajian dibincangkan. Cadangan untuk penyelidikan masa depan berkaitan dengan penyesuaian ekspatriat juga dikemukakan.

iv

ABSTRACT

EFFECTS OF SELF-EFFICACY, WORK ROLES AND CULTURAL DISTANCE ON EXPATRIATE ADJUSTMENT IN SUBSIDIARIES OF FOREIGN

COMPANIES IN MALAYSIA

This study aims to examine the effects of work roles, self-efficacy and cultural distance on expatriate adjustment among expatriates employed in subsidiaries of foreign companies in Malaysia. Data for the study were collected from a cross­sectional survey of expatriates working in companies that are owned wholly or partly by foreign companies. A self-administered study questionnaire was distributed to potential respondents via email and direct contacts with respondents. Based on a sample of 47 respondents, the results show that the level of expatriate adjustment is quite high, at 4.06 based on as-point likert scale. Results from the regression analyses show that role ambiguity has a negative and significant effect on expatriate adjustment while self-efficacy and cultural distance seem to have positive and significant effects on expatriate adjustment. However, the effect of the other dimension of work role, role novelty, on expatriate adjustment is negative but not significant. Hierarchical regression results show that the moderating effects of prior international experience are not significant for the relationships between expatriate adjustment and each of the independent variables - work roles, self-efficacy, and cultural distance, are not significant. Limitations of the study and implications of the findings are discussed. Suggestions for future research related to expatriate adjustment are also provided.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE

DECLARATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRAK

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURE

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF APPENDIX

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Problem Statement

1.3 Research Questions

1.4 Research Objective

1.5 Scope of Study

1.6 Importance of Study

Summary

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Literature Review

2.2.1 Expatriate Adjustment

2.2.2 Job Factor

2.2.3 Organizational Factor

2.2.4 Non-work Factor

2.2.5 Individual Factor

2.2.6 Research Gap

Summary

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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Research Model and Hypothesis

3.2.1 The Influence of Work Roles and Self-Efficacy on

Expatriate Adjustment

3.2.1.1 Work Roles

3.2.1.2 Self-efficacy

3.2.1.3 Cultural Distance

3.2.2 Moderating Relationship

3.2.2.1 Prior International Experiences as

Moderator

3.3 Research Design

3.3.1 Sampling Frame

3.3.2 Survey Instrument

3.3.3 Survey Implementation

3.4 Analytical Technique

3.4.1 Descriptive Statistic Analysis

3.4.2 Correlation Analysis

3.4.3 Factor Analysis

3.4.4 Reliability Test

3.4.5 Multiple Regression

3.4.6 Hierarchical Regressions

3.5 Operation of Construct

3.5.1 Measures of Dependent Variable

3.5.2 Measures of Independent Variables

3.5.3 Measures of Moderator

Summary

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Profile of Respondents

4.3 Factor Analysis

4.4 Correlation Analysis

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4.5 Reliability Test 44

4.6 Regression Analysis 45

4.6.1 Multiple Regression 45

4.6.2 Hierarchical Regression 46

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Introduction 50

5.2 Discussion 51

5.3 Limitations of Study and Suggestion for Future Research 53

5.4 Implication of Study 54

5.5 Conclusion 55

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

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56

63

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 3.1: Research Framework on the influence of work roles, 29

self-efficacy and cultural distance on expatriate

adjustment in foreign owned Malaysian companies

ix

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 4.1: Profile of Respondents 39

Table 4.2: Results of the factor analysis for expatriate adjustment 40

Table 4.3: Results of the factor analysis for Work Roles 42

Table 4.4: Descriptive statistics and correlations of study variables

(n=47) 43

Table 4.5: Reliability coefficients for the major variables 44

Table 4.6: Results of multiple regression analysis 45

Table 4.7: Hierarchical regression using prior international experiences

as a moderator in the relationship between work roles,

self-efficacy and cultural distance on expatriate adjustment 47

Table 4.8: Summary of the Hypotheses 49

x

LIST OF APPENDIX

APPENDIX Al: Instrument (Questionnaire)

APPENDIX A2: Previous Research on Expatriate Adjustment

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68

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

An 'expatriate' can be defined as an individual who is not a citizen of the county of

which he/she is assigned to work in (Black, 1988). The expatriates are expected to

extend their knowledge and skills in technology transfer and the role of expatriates

is regarded as distinctively significant since the main task is to act upon

maintaining the organizational structure and philosophy of MNCs while following

the rules and regulations of work within the host country (Stephard, 1996).

Today, businesses can no longer hide in their home country and still be

profitable. International business is playing an important role in the global

economy as it dominates a major part of global commercial activities. The concern

that there may not be enough culturally effective individuals filling leadership

pipelines today is a serious one (Caligiuri & Tarique, 2009; Littrell, Salas, Hess,

Paley & Riedel, 2006).

In the Malaysian context, globalization of markets led foreign countries to

an increasing awareness and recognition of opportunities in the booming

economies of a developing country due to the advantages of tax incentives, access

to raw materials and lower labor cost. Stephard (1996) expected that Malaysia still

needs foreign expertise for 10 to 20 years to come. Hiring expatriates from abroad

is one of the ways to expose Malaysian workforce towards foreign expertise. It is

reported that there were 21,859 approved expatriates' postings in Malaysia in 1999

alone, as compared to 20,625 in the previous year (Tahir & Ismail, 2007).

Finding and selecting the best possible expatriates is a complicated process

but absolutely critical to future success of multinational corporations (MNCs)

(Pollock & Reken, 2001). A successful global manager must possess a complex set

of technical, political, social, organizational and cultural competencies (Harrison &

Shaffer, 2004). However, acquiring these collective competencies may be one of

the most challenging tasks faced by rapidly expanding global organizations

(Takeuchi, Tesluk & Lepak, 2005). Therefore, the increasing importance of

expatriate management has led to a substantial demand for relevant research.

1.2 Problem Statement

The concern that there may not be enough culturally effective individuals filling

leadership pipelines today is a serious one (Caligiuri, Tarique & Jacobs, 2009;

Littrell, Salas, Hess, Paley & Riedel, 2006). "Managing diverse cultures" was one of

the top concerns sited in the PriceWaterhouseCoopers' 10th Annual Global CEO

Survey (Pollock & Reken, 2001). According to the Global Relocation Trends Survey

(2008) conducted by GMAC Global Relocation Services, 67% of companies

reported an increase in the size of their current expatriate population, compared to

31 % in 2004. Furthermore, 68% of these companies told GMAC that they

anticipated additional growth in the following year.

In Malaysia, many multinational companies (MNCs) have established their

subsidiary companies and have staffed these subsidiaries with foreign nationals.

These expatriate managers may be nationals of the parent company or third

country nationals. Tahir and Ismail (2007) reported there was approximately

0.06% growth rate of expatriates coming in to Malaysia in a year (21,859 in 2000

compared to 20,625 in 1999). It is expected that Malaysia still needs foreign

expatriates for 10-20 years to come (Tahir & Ismail, 2007), yet very little research

have been done involving them - how they have adjusted to the Malaysian

environment and what factors have influenced their success or failure in their

adjustments. While previous studies have examined issues related to expatriate

adjustment in countries such as the US, Europe, Japan and Brazil, similar issues

within the Malaysian context still remain relatively under-researched.

Tung (1982) defined expatriate failure as an inability of the expatriate to

perform effectively resulting in either being fired or recalled home. Overall, studies

suggest that expatriate failure rates vary and increasing over the years. Estimate

of expatriate failure rates range from 25% - 70% (Grainger & Nankervis, 2001).

2

Expatriates represent a major investment for MNCs. Sending an expatriate

for international assignment is costly. It has been estimated that the first year

costs of sending expatriates are at least 3 times the base salaries of their domestic

counterparts (Wederspahn, 1992). For US firm, averagely, cost has rise from as

much as $250,000 to $1 million per failure (Shannonhouse, 1996). In addition to

significant economic cost, failure in adjustment may result in human cost, which

reflected under performance (Black, Gregersen & Mendenhall, 1999; Harris &

Brewster, 1999) and invisible costs such as loss of self-confidence and loss of

prestige among peers (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985).

Due to the increasing number of expatriates coming in to Malaysia, the

significant high failure rates as well as high economic and human cost, this had led

to the study of this topic. The present study proposes to address the issues related

to expatriates in Malaysia by focusing on their adjustment ability and how factors

such as their work roles, previous overseas experiences, self-efficacy and cultural

distance affects their adjustment in Malaysia.

1.3 Research Questions

This study attempts to address the following research questions:

a. What is the level of expatriate adjustment in Malaysia?

b. To what extent work roles influence expatriate adjustment in

foreign owned Malaysian companies?

c. To what extent self-efficacy influence expatriate adjustment in

foreign owned Malaysian companies?

d. To what extent cultural distance influence expatriate adjustment in

foreign owned Malaysian companies?

e. What is the moderator between work roles, self-efficacy and cultural

distance on expatriate adjustment?

3

1.4 Research Objectives

a. To gauge the level of expatriate adjustment among expatriates in

Malaysia.

b. To determine the extent to which work roles influence expatriate

adjustment.

c. To determine the influence of self-efficacy on expatriate adjustment.

d. To determine the influence of cultural distance on expatriate

adjustment.

e. To investigate the moderating effect of prior international

experience on the relationships between work roles, self-efficacy

and cultural distance on expatriate adjustment.

1.5 Scope of Study

This is a cross-sectional study and is conducted on expatriates in Malaysian foreign

owned companies. Much of the research has been done especially in Japan,

Europe, Brazil and America. But studies on the factors of how to achieve successful

expatriate adjustment in Malaysia context remain scarce. The scope of study

focuses on the expatriates from different countries around the world who work in

foreign owned Malaysian companies.

The lists of factors suggested to lead to successful foreign assignments are

abundant and include such as individual, organizational and environment factors

(Aycan, 1997; Black, 1990a; Caligiuri, 2000; Church, 1982; Harris & Brewster,

1999; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; Selmer, 2000). Within this area, the factors

related to individual work roles and previous track records will be examined under

this scope of study. Studies have found work roles to be significantly related to

expatriate adjustment especially towards work adjustment (Black & Gregersen,

1999; Black & Stephens, 1989; Shaffer et al., 1999). When someone is not given

a clear work role, conflict may happen and thus fail to adjust in their international

assignment (Black 1988). Numerous researches have lead to the conclusion that

cultural distance creates challenges when expatriates adapt to different culture and

result in greater adjustment difficulties (Kogut & Singh, 1988; Ward & Kennedy,

1992). In addition, according to Aycan (1997), Black (1990a, b) and Caligiuri

4

(2000), there are several individual factors that influence expatriate adjustment.

Some of these factors are self-efficacy and previous international assignment.

These variables will be examined in more detail in the subsequent Chapters.

Black, Mendenhall and Odou (1991) and Caligiuri (2000) models are

adopted in this study for the assessment of expatriate adjustment in the Malaysian

context. It is expected from the results of this study may provide evidence for the

possible effect on expatriate adjustment on the one hand and a further validity test

for Black et ai's on the other. Moreover, this study further investigates the

moderating effect of prior international experiences between the work roles, self­

efficacy and cultural distance on expatriate adjustment in Malaysia (Caligiuri, 2000).

1.6 Importance of Study

This research is useful for expatriates who currently working in Malaysia and also

for those intends and are going to work in Malaysia. The findings of this research

intended to benefit not only for the upper management of the host and Parents

Company, but also the Ministry of home Affairs and Employment Pass Division for

being the policy maker. The aim of this study is to specifically examine the

influence of work roles, individual factors such as self-efficacy as well as cultural

distance on expatriate adjustment in Malaysian companies.

According to Adler and Bartholomew (2002), the area of expatriation is very

important, especially for organizations that operate internationally and globally.

Statistical value has shown that international trade has been very essential towards

Malaysia's economy. The scenario has indicated that the IHRM has becoming more

and more important in the Malaysian context. There is a need for a study in the

critical factors that influence the expatriates' adjustment. This is because given the

numerous lists of the factors posting from previous study on foreign expatriates in

US, Brazil, Japan and Europe; the perception might be different for expatriates in

Malaysia. Thus, it is necessary to identify the right candidates with the right traits

and competenCies that can best suit expatriates adjustment in foreign owned

Malaysian companies.

5

Summary

In Malaysia, many MNCs have established their subsidiary companies and have

staffed these subsidiaries with foreign nationals. Yet very little research have been

done involving how they have adjusted to the Malaysian environment and what

factors have influenced their success or failure in their adjustments. Significant

economic and social costs are associated with the failed expatriates' adjustment.

Thus, the present study proposes to address the issues related to expatriates in

Malaysia by focusing on their adjustment ability and how factors such as their work

roles, individual experience related factors such as self efficacy as well as cultural

distance affect their adjustment in Malaysia by controlling their length of prior

international experiences.

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The inability of expatriates to successfully adjust to international environments has

been cited as one of the most frequent reasons for unsuccessful expatriate

adjustment (Caligiuri, 2000; Shaffer & Harrison, 1998). Tremendous research

found that by understanding the determinants of expatriate adjustment would

decrease the failure rates amongst the expatriates (Black, 1988; Harrison, Shaffer

& Bhaskar-Shrinivas, 2004; Huang, Chi & Lawler, 2005; Nicholson & Imaizumi,

1993). It is a necessary effort to take precautions before failure is experienced by

MNCs. As a result, attentions in identifying the factors that influence expatriates'

international assignments are important to be studied.

2.2 Literature Review

2.2.1 Expatriate Adjustment

Conceptually, an 'expatriate' is a voluntary, temporary migrant who resides

abroad for a particular purpose and ultimately goes back to his or her home

country (Black, 1989). Expatriates represent a potential competitive advantage for

MNCs by carry out assignments such as facilitating the operation of foreign

subsidiaries, establishing new international markets, spreading and sustaining

corporate culture, and transferring technology, knowledge and skills (Huang et al.,

2005). 'Adjustment' is the degree of a person's psychological comfort with a

variety of aspects of a new environment (Black, 1988; Nicholson & Imaizumi,

1993). Previous literatures on expatriates suggest that the reduction of uncertainty

is central of adjustment (Black & Gregersen, 1991a). Throughout the international

assignment, expatriates interact with new environments in which they are often

uncertain as to what is acceptable and unacceptable behaviour (Adler &

Bartholomew, 2002). Previous research have shown that the variables reduce this

7

uncertainty will facilitate adjustment, while factors that increase uncertainty will

inhibit adjustment (Shaffer et aI., 1999; Black et aL, 1991).

Scholars use the term 'expatriate adjustment' to refer to a process

through which an expatriate comes to feel comfortable with a new environment

and harmonizes with it (Black, 1988; Black & Gregersen, 1991b; Black, Mendenhall

& Oddou, 1991; Nicholson & Imaizumi, 1993; Shaffer et ai, 1999). Research in the

area of expatriate adjustment has been ongoing for over 50 years. Probably the

most influential author in this field, John Stewart Black, whose research with his

colleagues in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Black, 1988; Black et al., 1991; Black

& Gregersen, 1991a,b) brought about some level of consensus to the construct of

expatriate adjustment. It is Black and colleagues' description and operationalisation

of expatriate adjustment that continues to be most widely regarded and used

amongst researchers of expatriates (Harrison et aI., 2004).

One of the major challenges to expatriate adjustment is overcoming

cultural barriers. That is to say, an expatriate must accommodate his or her

attitudes/behaviours to fit into the new culture in order to increase effectiveness

(Black et aI., 1999; Black & Gregersen, 1991b; Harrison et aL, 2004). The

theoretical foundation of expatriate adjustment can be traced back to a stressor­

stress-strain formulation. Researchers have cast stressors as uncertainties and

demands in a foreign environment that are mismatched with an expatriate's

personal resources (Black & Gregersen, 1991b). When employees fail to cope with

these stressors in an adaptive manner, stress emerges. In expatriate research, the

experience of stress follows a response pattern expressed in adjustment or

maladjustment to various aspects of international assignments (Black et aL, 1991).

Strains are reactions to the experience of stress that, for expatriates, include

affective, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes such as job dissatisfaction,

psychological withdrawal cognitions, early return, and poor performance (Black &

Gregersen, 1991b).

Black and Stephens (1989) identified three relevant facets of expatriate

adjustment: work, general, and interaction. Work adjustment refers to the

expatriate's psychological comfort with the job tasks of the foreign assignment.

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General adjustment addresses the general living conditions and culture of the

foreign country with regards to issues of living in the foreign environment, to

include housing, shopping and food. Interaction adjustment focuses on the

interaction with the host country nationals (Black, 1988). The original adjustment

model proposed by Black (1988) was later expanded by Shaffer et al. (1999) and

recently reviewed by Andreason and Kinneer (2003). Black et al.'s three

dimensional model has received much empirical support (Parker & McEvoy, 1993;

Shaffer et aI., 1999). Aycan (1997), Black, et al (1991), Mendenhall and Oddou

(1985), Parker and McEvoy (1993), and Shaffer, et ai, (1999) suggest that the

related variables to adjustment facets can be organized into personal/individual,

job, organizational and contextual factors. An effective selection criterion could be

set and a better expatriate assignment could be achieved if clear relationships

between specific determinants and expatriate adjustment were found.

2.2.2 lob Factor

Job factors refer to a specific set of tasks and their duties performed by an

individual. Andreason and Kinneer (2003) and Nicholson and Imaizumi (1993) state

that an individual's role in an organization is being taken as a function of what

roles he or she occupies in, the extent to which the various components of a given

role become difficult to reconcile and the amount of work stress may be

encountered by the expatriates. Shaffer et ai's (1999) study provide evidence of

the three dimensions of adjustment and found that job factors are antecedents of

expatriate adjustment. Black (1988) is concern solely with job factors in the form

of work role characteristics and their relationship with different adjustment

domains. Work role transition research (Nicholson, 1984) has focused on several

job factors that may affect expatriate work outcomes including role novelty, role

discretion, role overload, role conflict and role ambiguity.

Role novelty describes the difference between the past and the new role.

In the situation where the new position is substantially different to the previous

pOSition, the expatriates may experience greater feelings of uncertainty and

unpredictability thus they may be more difficult to adapt to the new situation

(Black 1998). Teagarden and Gordon (1995) also point out that if the job is novel

to the expatriate during the overseas assignment, they would expect Significant

9

learning curves and this would influence the expatriate's success in the early

stages of the expatriate posting. Several studies had found the evidence for role

novelty is inconsistent. Although domestic studies of work-role transitions (Munton

& West, 1995) and an expatriate study by Black (1988) do not support the

relationship between role novelty and adjustment, Nicholson and Imaizumi (1993)

found role novelty to be a significant predictor of work adjustment for Japanese

expatriates. This also supported by Pinder and Schroede (1987).

Role discretion was defined as the flexibility to modify the role to fit their

abilities and habits therefore making the roles more familiar, predictable and

controllable (Black, 1988). Black (1998) defined role discretion as the individual's

opportunities to alter the components and relationships of role demands. Studies

have found that role discretion enables individuals to more easily utilize successful

past behaviors in the new role by having the freedom to modify the role to fit their

abilities and habits in the new role (Tung, 1982). Black (1988) belief that the

greater the role discretion or role flexibility, the easier the adjustment.

Role overload has a negative relationship with expatriate performance. In

other words, role overload will have negative impact when excessive demands are

placed upon the expatriate in the new position (Black, 1998). Role overload may

occur due to the parent company's lack of awareness of what the overseas position

actually involves (Tung, 1982). According to Black (1988), if managers have

overloaded demands placed upon them, they will be less able to respond

adequately to the demands. The expatriate's ability to perform the job satisfactorily

might reduce therefore making adjustment more difficult (Tung, 1982).

Role conflict is defined as a "collection of roles that do not precisely fit"

and eventually results from the necessity for a person to carry out one or more

roles in a given situation (Black, 1988). According to Rizzon et al (1970), role

theory states that when the behaviors expected of an individual are inconsistent,

one kind of role conflict, he/she will experience stress, become dissatisfied and

perform less effectively. Black (1988) suggests that researchers have found that

the greater role conflict that exists the greater the difficulty of the role transition.

10

This is also supported by Rizzo et al. (1970). However, Shaffer et al. (1999) found

that there is no impact between role conflict and expatriate adjustment.

Black (1999) defined role ambiguity as associated with one's need for

certainty and predictability, especially regarding one's goals and means of

accomplishing them. It may occur, that if an individual lacks sufficient information

to accomplish required tasks and activities, such as when information is restricted

or not clearly defined or articulated (Bhanugopan & Fish, 2004), that the work

environment becomes ambiguous. Lack of clarity regarding proper procedures for

performing job tasks or criteria for performance evaluations (Black, 1999) can also

result in role ambiguity. Black (1988) defines that role ambiguity as the lack of the

necessary information available to a given organizational position. He highlights

that there will be a degree of role ambiguity if their conception of the role differs

from that of the others in his role set, the group of people with whom he interacts.

The four most frequently cited instances of role ambiguity in a work situation are:

uncertainty about how one's work is evaluated; uncertainty about scope for

advancement; uncertainty about scope of responsibility; and uncertainty about

others' expectations' performance (Black, 1988).

Most major role transitions have some associated role ambiguity. Black

(1988) highlighted that the greater the role ambiguity, the less the individual is

able to predict the outcome of various behaviors, and thus the less the individual is

able to utilize past successful behaviors to predict and carry out their new roles.

This also supported by Andreason and Kinneer (2003). Role ambiguity was also

significantly associated with job burnout (Bhanugopan & Fish, 2004) which

indirectly could influence expatriate adjust in work role. Shaffer et al. (1999)

argued that the role clarity (opposite of job ambiguity) appeared to be the

strongest (twice as large as other predictor) determinant of work adjustment. This

is also supported by Black at al. (1991) and Black (1988).

2.2.3 Organizational Factor

Organizational factors include organizational culture novelty which includes social

support from co-workers and superiors; and logistical support (Andreason &

11

Kinneer, 2003). According to Waxin (2004), cross-cultural training is also one of

the variables in organizational antecedents. Black et al. (1991) propose that

organizational culture novelty would be related only to the facet of work

adjustment. In addition, social support in the new organization, by both

supervisor and colleagues, would also provide information regarding acceptable

behaviors through which uncertainty could be reduced and related to work

adjustment (Reynolds, 2005). Organization social support has been shown to

reduce the time to proficiency of French expatriates in Norway and to be positively

related to the three facets adjustment (Waxin, 2004). Logistical support refers

more to non-work aspects of the international assignment inclusive of housing,

shopping and school. Therefore, greater level of logistical support would reduce

uncertainty and facilitate adjustment in interaction and general adjustment

(Reynolds, 2005).

According to Shaffer et. al. (1999), co-worker and logistical support were

found facilitated interaction adjustment and that co-worker support had the

strongest influence of any variable. In contrast, supervisor support did not

significantly affect adjustment. Social support defined in terms of the sources and

quality of helping relationships (Reynolds, 2005), does seem to be a unique and

measurable factor (Shaffet et. aI., 1999).

Cross-cultural training has long been advocated as a means of

facilitating effective cross-cultural interaction (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; Tung,

1998). Reynolds (2005) stated training supplies information needed to reduce the

uncertainty that would be experienced in an unfamiliar environment. The

importance of such training in preparing an individual for an intercultural work

assignment has become increasingly apparent (Tung, 1998).

Littrell et al. (2006) stated that the role of cross-cultural training becomes

increasingly important as international companies begin to compete with each

other in the global market. A comprehensive literature review by Black and

Mendenhall (1991) found strong evidence for a positive relationship between

cross-cultural training and adjustment. In addition, another survey revealed that

12

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