minggu 1 pendahuluan dan kontrak

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MKBO7005PSIKOLOGI FAAL

materi• Minggu 1-Mind-body relationship• Minggu 2-Sel saraf dan impuls saraf• Minggu 3-Sinapsis dan hormon• Minggu 4-Anatomy sistem saraf (pusat dan tepi)• Minggu 5-Otak dan perkembangannya• Minggu 6-Regulasi internal tubuh• Minggu 7-Gerakan• Minggu 8-Emosi• Minggu 9-Belajar dan ingatan• Minggu 10-Perilaku reproduktif• Minggu 11-Tidur dan bangun• Minggu 12-Alkoholism, mood disorder, dan skizofrenia

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Buku teks

• Brain and Behavior

• Biological psychology edisi 7, James KALAT, Wadsworth

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penilaian

• Mid tes 50%• Final tes 50%• Tugas

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• Penjelasan biologis perilaku• Filosof dan neuroscientist yakin bahwa mind-

brain adalah satu. Mengapa dan bagaimana otak berhubungan dengan kesadaran masih tanda tanya

• Ekspresi gen tergantung pada lingkungan dan interaksi antar gen

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Mind-brain relationship

• Psikoneuroimunologi• Efek do’a• Membunuh dengan pujian

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Mengapa mempelajari otak?

• Otak adalah ‘tempat’ perilaku• Banyak masalah psikologis berasal dari

masalah biologis dan kadang-kadang) membutuhkan intervensi biologis mis• mis. Alzheimers, Parkinsons, epilepsi,

schizophrenia, depresi, ketergantungan obat• Pemahaman tentang biologi membantu untuk

menjelaskan fenomena psikologis (mis. persepsi)

Bagaimana mempelajarinya?

• perilaku• luka• anatomi• Elektrofisiologi• Imaging• multidisiplin

Some questions

• How does anatomy help us understand brain function?• What can studies of patients with brain damage tell us about

normal brain function?• What can studies of animals with brain damage tell us about brain

function?• Can we learn about brain function by non-invasive study of

normal humans?• What can we learn from micro-electrode recording?• How do chemistry and physics of nerve cells influence

psychological processes?• Will fMRI and PET scanners make other techniques for the study

of brain function obsolete?

perilaku

• We can often deduce a lot about brain function simply from behaviour

• It’s cheap and non-invasive and should be the starting point for most studies

Perilaku (mis. Visual psikofisik)

perilaku (mis. after-effects)

Behaviour (e.g. Interferensi ingatan)

• Could measure the independence of different memory systems• e.g. measure recalled words from a memory

test after reading a passage versus recalled words after doing maths

• Then measure recalled numbers after reading a passage versus doing maths

• 415• 692• 793• 318• 562

Luka di otak

• Mengukur pengaruh kerusakan otak (luka, lesions)

• Disebabkan oleh• Disease, trauma, stroke• Surgery (frontal lobotomies,

commisurotomies…)• misalnya

• Paul Broca• Phineas Gage (pasien frontal lobe)• Patient ‘HM’ (anterograde amnesia)

Masalah dan luka -

• We can only study what we get!• Lesions terjadi biasanya pada daerah tertentu (mis. dimana

saluran aliran darah tertentu berjalan)• Biasanya daerah luas dan multiple rusak• Kadang-kadang neuron rusak• Jarang terjadi (small n)

• Recovery• Otak dapat menyambung kembali (apalagi ketika masih muda)• Individu belajar strategi kognitif baru• Hard to know what the original function was

Lesions – pada binatang

• Secara sengaja membuat lesion• Secara kimiawi, electrikal atau dengan didinginkan

• Memilih daerah yang ingin dipelajari• Secara selektif

• Regional• Chemical

• Repeatability• Lesi yang sulit terjadi pada manusia

• Kelemahan• Perbedaan antar spesies• Invasive

Lesions - TMS

• Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) involves creating a strong focal magnetic field over the scalp of a (healthy) subject

• Creates a disturbance of activity near the probe, which goes away when the probe is turned off!

• Pros:• Reversible, repeatable and (relatively) non-invasive

• Cons:• Not clear what its doing or exactly where the ‘disruption’ is

Anatomi

• Mempelajari lapisan otak dari post-mortem• Menggunakan pelacak untuk mengetahui

daerah mana yang saling berhubungan• Anterograde: travels forward showing which area this

cell projects to• Retrograde: travels back showing where inputs are

coming from• Both help us know about the function of an area

• Dengan ‘electron microscopes’ yang sangat kuat, dapat dipelajari anatomi sel saraf secara individual

Electrophysiology (neurophysiology)

• With electrophysiology we can insert microelectrodes into the brain and record form individual neurons, or clusters of them

• By measuring the rate at which it releases action potentials we can determine what the cell is used for• e.g. a motor neuron might fire during a hand-

movement, a visual neuron during the presentation of a particular stimulus…

Electrophys – pros and cons

• Pros• The firing of neurons, ultimately is often what

we want to know about• Can be used to study almost any area of the

brain• Cons

• Invasive• Animal work• If a cell responds to a stimulus is it

necessarily needed for that stimulus? (interpretation is harder than it sounds sometimes)

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Electrophys and microstimulation

• Microelectrodes can also be used for stimulation• Can simulate the response of a neuron• e.g. in a motion detection task (below) we can

bias which direction the dots appear to move by microstimulation (of neurons that prefer that motion)!!

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Salzman et al (1992) Stim correlA

nim

al’s

Res

pons

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with

without

Imaging

• Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT/CT)

• Basically just X-ray, rarely used now

• Positron Emission Topography (PET)

• Inject with radioactive isotope (!) and measure where it goes

• Electro-encephalography (EEG)

• Measure the local electrical activity with scalp electrodes

• Magneto-encephalography (MEG)

• Measure magnetic field and infer where electrical activity occurs

• (Functional) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

• Measure the amount of oxygenated blood in an area

Imaging – EEG

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Imaging – EEG

• Pros:• Very good temporal resolution (no delay at all)• Non-invasive (but a bit uncomfortable)• Useful for measuring patterns in activity (e.g.

sleep research)• Also for measuring ‘Event-Related Potentials’

(ERPs)• Cons:

• Poor spatial resolution (a few cm around the electrode)

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Imaging - fMRI

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (anatomical scans)• fMRI – same basic technique to measure Blood

Oxygenation Level Dependent (BOLD) signal• BOLD signal is related to activity in the brain

(presumably increased metabolism in active areas?)• E.g.:

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Subject making finger movement

Subject imagining finger movement

JWP’s brain!

Using anatomical MRI

fMRI – pros and cons

• Non-invasive and can repeat measures for a subject

• Good spatial resolution (measure activity in voxels of ~1mm3)

• Not great temporal resolution (BOLD signal lags around 6secs behind activity)

• We aren’t really sure what the BOLD signal represents

Other methods

• Genetics• Family studies• Genetic mutation

• Microdialysis• Insert small porous probe into the brain and

measure local fluid concentrations

Multidisiplin

• Idealnya menggunakan beragam metode• Measure the behavioural characteristics of a

phenomenon• Use fMRI (or patients) to see which brain

structures are involved• Use electrophysiology to see what the

responses of the cells are like• Then use anatomy to see how they are

interconnected