C A T E N A I VOL. 2, 337 - 350 I G I E S S E N 1975

THE G E O M O R P H O L O G Y OF KELANTAN D E L T A (MALAYSIA)

by

A. S. Z a k a r i a

U n i v e r s i t y of New E n g l a n d , Dept. of G e o g r a p h y

A r m i d a l e , N. S. W . , A u s t r a l i a , 2351

SUMMARY

The l a n d s c a p e of the K e l a n t a n De l t a i s of v a r y i n g c o m p l e x i t y . Morpholog ica l ly , , two m a j o r r e g i o n s , l o c a t e d on e i t h e r s i d e s of the K e l a n t a n R i v e r , a r e o b s e r v e d . The m a i n l a n d a r e a of the w e s t e r n s e c t o r i s m a d e up of t h r e e c o n s p i c u o u s and a l m o s t p a - r a l l e l r i d g e s and two d i s t i n c t p a r a l l e l d e p r e s s i o n s . The m a r i n e a r e a i s c h a r a c t e r - i s e d by an a s s e m b l a g e of p a r a l l e l b a r s and s p i t s . The e a s t e r n s e c t o r i s m a d e up of a h igh ly d i s s e c t e d s u r f a c e f e a t u r e w i th a d e p r e s s i o n r u n n i n g f r o m w e s t to e a s t b e t - w e e n l a t i t u d e s 609 1/21N and 6°11 'N . T h i s d e p r e s s i o n i s t r a v e r s e d by n u m e r o u s e x i s t i n g and a b a n d o n e d s t r e a m s wi th l e v e e s on bo th b a n k s . K e l a n t a n R i v e r i t s e l f has bu i l t up m a s s i v e n a t u r a l l e v e e s a long i t s b a n k s . E v i d e n t l y , the m o r p h o l o g y of the d e l t a i s t he p r o d u c t of n u m e r o u s i n t e r r e l a t e d g e o m o r p h i c and h y d r o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s - es of e r o s i o n and d e p o s i t i o n w h i c h o p e r a t e d i f f e r e n t l y , bo th in the m a i n l a n d and m a - r i n e a r e a s , in t i m e and s p a c e . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s a r e s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by the s e a - s o n s / c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . D u r i n g the n o r t h e a s t m o n s o o n ( O c t o b e r - F e b r u a r ) h igh r a t e of d e v e l o p m e n t i s o b s e r v e d whi le d u r i n g the o t h e r p a r t of the y e a r no m a j o r de- v e l o p m e n t i s p e r c e i v e d .

Z U S A MMENFASSUNG

Die L a n d s c h a f t des K e l a n t a n D e l t a s b e s i t z t u n t e r s c h i e d l i c h e K o mp lex i t~ t . Das L a n d - g e b i e t des w e s t l i c h e n A b s c h n i t t e s b e s t e h t aus d r e i d e u t l i c h e n und n a h e z u p a r a l l e l e n Rf icken sowie zwei D e p r e s s i o n e n ; das K f i s t e n g e b i e t w i r d d u r c h e ine S e r i e p a r a l l e l e r W~l le und Haken g e k e n n z e i c h n e t . D e r 6 s t l i c h e A b s c h n i t t b e s t e h t aus e i n e m s t a r k z e r s c h n i t t e n e n G e b i e t m i t e i n e r yon z w i s c h e n 609 1 / 2 ' und 6°11 t n 6 r d l i c h e r B r e i t e yon W n a c h O v e r l a u f e n d e n D e p r e s s i o n . D i e s e D e p r e s s i o n w i r d d u r c h z a h l r e i c h e ak- t i r e sowie v e r l a s s e n e F l u 6 b e t t e n m i t Uferw~il len auf b e i d e n S e i t e n b e g r e n z t . D e r K e l a n t a n R i v e r s e l b s t b e s i t z t m a s s i v e n a t ( i r l i c h e U f e r w ~ l l e . Das R e l i e f des D e l t a s i s t das E r g e b n i s z a h l r e i c h e r m i t e i n a n d e r v e r k n f i p f t e r g e o m o r p h o l o g i s c h e r und hy- d r o l o g i s c h e r A b t r a g u n g s - und A b l a g e r u n g s p r o z e s s e , die s t e t s yon den j a h r e s z e i t - l i c h e n V e r ~ i n d e r u n g e n b e e i n f l u 6 t w e r d e n : w e s e n t l i c h e V e r~ in d e ru n g en v o l l z i e h e n s i c h n u t z u r Z e i t des N o r d o s t m o n s u n s ( O k t o b e r - F e b r u a r ) .

337

1. INTRODUCTION

The 117 km 2 Kelan tan De la t a i s s i tua ted in the n o r t h - e a s t e r n p a r t of P e n i n s u l a r M a l a y s i a bounded by la t i tude 6°7WN, longi tude I02°14WE and la t i tude 6°14rN, l ong i - tude 102o9 1/2~E. The Kelan tan r i v e r , the t h i rd l a r g e s t r i v e r in P e n i n s u l a r Ma lay - s ia , f o r m s a l a r g e m e a n d e r at Kota Bharu changing i ts d i r e c t i o n of f low f r o m n o r t h - ea s t to n o r t h w e s t to debouch into the South China Sea. The de l t a i s c r o s s e d by nu- m e r o u s d i s t r i b u t a r i e s n o r t h of l a t i tude 6°11 1 /2 iN and is p a r t l y c lad with p o o r l y d ra ined low humic g ley so i l s , whi le only the e a s t e r n c o a s t a l e x t r e m i t y has c o a r s e - t ex tu red g r e y b rown podzo l s . The long spi t and n u m e r o u s o f f sho re b a r s at the s e a - ward m a r g i n r e f l e c t the i n t e r a c t i o n of f l uv i a l s e d i m e n t a t i o n and wave ene rgy . It i s u n d e r l a i n Q u a t e r n a r y A l luv ium. The n a t u r a l vege t a t i on in the de l t a i s only conf ined to s m a l l a r e a s a long r i v e r banks. O the r p a r t s have been i n t e n s i v e l y u t i l i s e d f o r so - c io - e c o n o m i c p u r p o s e s .

2. AIM AND SCOPE

This p a p e r d e s c r i b e s and exp la ins the g e o m o r p h o l o g i c a l evo lu t ion of the Ke lan tan Del ta , ana lys ing both the types of l a n d f o r m and the na tu re of g e o m o r p h i c p r o c e s s ope ra t i ng in i t . Though the de l t a i s taken as a s e p a r a t e ent i ty , i t i s by no m e a n an independent unit . I ts dynamic g e o m o r p h o l o g y is g r e a t l y in f luenced by e x t e r n a l f lu - v i a l and m a r i n e f o r c e s . Th is is so s ince the de l t a i s a t r a n s i t o r y f e a t u r e be tw een the land and the s e a at a r i v e r mouth. Thus to p r o v i d e a background to the g e o m o r - phology of the de l ta , the p h y s i c a l and c l i m a t i c condi t ions of both Sungai Ke lan tan (Kelantan R i v e r ) c a t c h m e n t and the m a r i n e a r e a s a r e ana lysed .

3. PREVIOUS WORKS

The g e o m o r p h i c s tudy of M a l a y s i a n coas t has been taken s e r i o u s l y only l a t e l y by NOSSIN (1961, 1962, 1964a, 1964b and 1965), BURTON (1964), HILL (1966), SWAN (1968) and KOOPMANS (1972). A l l the s tud ie s , excep t KOOPMANS t, c o n c e n t r a t e d along the P a h a n g and J o h o r e c o a s t s . KOOPMANS worked in the Ke lan tan Del ta in- v e s t i g a t i n g the m o v e m e n t , d i s p l a c e m e n t and depos i t ion of m a t e r i a l s . The only o the r g e o g r a p h i c a l s tudy of the Kelan tan Del ta was the l a r g e l y s o c i o - e c o n o m i c w o r k of DOBBY (1951).

4. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE MARINE AND THE C A T C H M E N T AREAS

The s ta te of Ke lan tan is c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a s e a s o n a l humid t r o p i c a l c l i m a t e wh ich has been a s s o c i a t e d with i n t ense c h e m i c a l denudat ion, high r a t e s of e r o s i o n and copious s e d i m e n t loads in r i v e r s . It is wide open to the d i r e c t i m p a c t of the n o r t h - eas t monsoon which g e n e r a l l y se t s in dur ing the month of N o v e m b e r t h rough to l a te J anua ry o r e a r l y F e b r u a r y . The ful l i m p a c t is f e l t g r e a t l y dur ing the months of De- c e m b e r and J a n u a r y when the high v e l o c i t y n o r t h e a s t winds b r i n g much r a i n to the s ta te . The m a r i n e a r e a i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by b ig d e s t r u c t i v e waves . Dur ing the o the r pa r t of the y e a r the p r e v a i l i n g winds a r e south and sou thwes t wi th v e l o c i t y v a r y i n g between 1 and 7 on Beau fo r t s c a l e . The s e a i s c a l m .

P r e c i p i t a t i o n is not u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d th roughou t the y e a r , t h e r e be ing a r a i n y

338

,5o

.AU \ Alor ( 0 ~ w , \ ' s . . | I " -- r f

renggonu

60,

¢, ~'Se,

4e

.30 o 80 L ! KILOMETRES

E N I WS 4

M A L A Y '

.~ .Kualo Lumpur

LAR

IA

4e.

.z¢, ~ ' J KELANTAN DRAINAGE BASIN

STUDY AREA

2 ° .

i00 o iOiO iOZO 103o ~,,.v~, , I I I I I

Fig. I: Locality map of Kelantan drainage basin

z~=.3

°o. 1 ~d,.o

~ 0 5 I "~ 0 F M M J J A S 0 N-D

Fig. 2: Meon montNy dischorge of Kelonton river ot Guillemord B r i d ~ over the period 1949-1965.

339

..it j ~.~ ~ ~.. ~ \ .,4, , ~ ~ , ~ , ~ , ~ \

i G. ULU ..' S EP/~T~

I

2 GENAH~

i+ (+

5~'+ ~/+ +

.J G. YONG ,I'-I--I- "..G Y O N G B E I

G. SWE T TENH A't~..~ ./

OU~,T ERNARY ~-~ - ~ " ~ Alluvium

LNWER CRETACEOUS ~ Flat-lying continental sandstone

and shakes. (Gagau Formation) JURASSIC

Tembelln 9 For morion and probable equlvglents.

TRIASSIC.

O 25 = i

KIlo "

R E F E R E N C E

Marine sediments and metosediments.

LOWER PALAEOZOIC Shales, radiolorion cherts, pelitic and psomm=tic schists~ turfs and subordinate limestone

PALAEOZOIC Kelantan schist.

Mortne Elastics and pyroclostics with ~ Cotazone gneissic granitic rock some rodiolarion cherts and subordi- nate hmestone (Gunong Rabong Formation)

UPPER PALAEO-TRIAS51C INTRUSIVES ? TRIASSIC Andesdic and rhyolitic lava. ~ Mainly granite and granodinrite

with marginal development of Mainly quortzites with subordinate rater- tonalite in many places, and bedded grit~ greywacke, conglomerate &shale quartz diorite rarely. Include

uPPER PALAEOZOIC granite porphyry, aplite andpegma Limestonej mostly crystatline~ compact, welt- tire as well as the many hybrid

i bedded, with massive jointing. Generally rock-typ.ps of fhe"Strong nject or forms outstanding features Complex',a portion of the Marine hmestones and shales and Main Range granite. pyroclashcs (Gua Musong Formation) IGNEOUS ROCK ? TRIASSIC

[ ~ " - - ' ~ Quarry porphyry.

Fig. 3: Geology of Kelantan

3 4 0

p e r i o d and r e l a t i v e l y d ry pe r iod . The r a iny p e r i o d co inc ides with the i n t e r m o n s o o n ( S e p t e m b e r - November} and n o r t h e a s t monsoon ( N o v e m b e r - J a n u a r y / F e b r u a r y ) dur ing which t i m e the s ta te r e c e i v e s m o r e than 250 m m of r a in e v e r y month. The r e l a t i v e l y d ry p e r i o d is c h a r a c t e r i s e d by weak p r e v a i l i n g winds o r often by c o m p l e - t e l y c a l m a t m o s p h e r i c condi t ions . The m e a n month ly r a in f a l l v a r i e s be tween 50 mm and 250 ram. N o v e m b e r and D e c e m b e r a r e the months with r e l a t i v e l y high r a in f a l l in tens i ty , r ang ing f r o m 17.8 r a m / d a y to 36.6 m m / d a y . The m e a n annual r a i n f a l l is 3119 ram.

The m e a n month ly t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i e s s e a s o n a l l y by _+ i . 3°C f r o m 26 .7 ° C , with the m i n i m u m in J a n u a r y and the m a x i m u m in Apr i l . The d iu rna l r ange is m o r e than 8°C. At Kota Bharu , the m a x i m u m d iu rna l r ange value r e c o r d e d was 9 .2°C in May 1963.

The to ta l a r e s of the c a t c h m e n t f r o m which d ra in w e a t h e r e d p roduc t s and w a t e r t h rough the de l t a to South China Sea is about 11,922 k s 2, which c o v e r s a l m o s t the e n t i r e s t a te of Ke lan tan ( F i g u r e 1). The m e a n month ly d i s c h a r g e m e a s u r e d o v e r the p e r i o d f r o m 1948 to 1985 v a r i e s be tween 906,510 m e g a l i t r e s fo r A p r i l to 2 ,767 ,500 m e g a l i t r e s dur ing D e c e m b e r ( F i g u r e 2). The peak d i s c h a r g e is o b s e r v e d dur ing the months of D e c e m b e r and J a n u a r y when the s ta te is unde r the full i m p a c t of the n o r t h e a s t monsoon .

G e o l o g i c a l l y Kelan tan s ta te is c o m p r i s e d of about 25 % gran i t e and i n t e r m e d i a t e i n t r u s i v e r o c k s , with the r e m a i n d e r be ing s e d i m e n t a r y rocks ( a r g i l l a c e o u s , a r e n a - ceous , r u d a c e o u s and c a l c a r e o u s ) of v a r i o u s f o r m s and c o m p o s i t i o n (F igu re 3).

The areas of granite and intermediate intrusive rocks are characterised by steep gradient while other areas, except for marine shale and limestone, are of gentle gradient. EYLES (1968) and ZAKARIA (1970, 1972 b) pointed out that only the first order drainage basins have steep gradients and they are confined to short distances near the periphery of the Kelantan River catchment. The gradient of the higher o1"- der basins are much lower and in most cases lower than the average slope of the catchment. Extensive flood plains and low river terraces are formed in the lower s t r e t c h e s of the ma in t r i b u t a r i e s (Leb i r , Nengg i r i , Galas and P e r g a u ) , thus r e s t r i c t - ing the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of m a t e r i a l in su s pens ion to the de l t a ic a r e a except dur ing pe- r i ods of e x t e n s i v e f looding, when t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of c o a r s e m a t e r i a l s o c c u r s . Only 10 % of the c a t c h m e n t is in i n e q u i l i b r i u m s tage whe re s lope t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is in ten- s i v e l y tak ing p lace . The d r a i n a g e dens i ty is high which ind ica tes low t r a n s m i s s i b i - l i ty . Nor th of Kuala K r a i the Kelantan R i v e r e n t e r s the coas t a l p la in where it m e a n - d e r s o v e r a d i s t ance of 40 km b e f o r e debouching into the South China Sea th rough Kelan tan Del ta .

5. PROCEDURE

This s tudy is based on the one inch to one m i l e t opograph ic m a p s con toured at 50- foot (15.25 m) i n t e r v a l , the 1:25,000 a e r i a l pho tographs made in 1966 told f ie ld ob- s e r v a t i o n s . Though the m a p s a r e of l a r g e s ca l e , they adequa te ly give the g e n e r a l a l t i tud ina l and p l a n i m e t r i e i n f o r m a t i o n s . Deta i l s tudy of the l andscape is made th rough the a e r i a l pho tographs .

341

Lo

oo

on

-- 6"0S

' " 0 I

I IO

ZeO

S '

,% O

E

p

DE

PR

ES

SIO

N

IMIL

E

I

I Kr'n

SO

UT

H

R

E

S

i oz°~

O ¢

~ ~

,~,

'=~

CH

INA

PANT

&I S

UR

I ~

K[

I 0

N

DE

PR

ES

SIO

N

~do~

'rem

be~

iO~=

ls'

SE

A

~'zo'

1 LA

.ES

~ S'

N"~ C

OAS~

A.~

.S

EXIS

TIN

G S

TREA

MS

rrr]

R

IDG

ES

ASAN

DO.~

~ NA

TURA

L LEV

SES

STR

EA

MS

I

I ALL

UVZA

L ~A

DS

m

FL

ATS

(TID

AL

8, A

LLU

VIU

M|

USE

TTLE

O A

ND

UN

CU

LTI~

VA

TED

FLU

VIA

L IS

LAN

D '

Pl

L1:/'2

".:.'1

DR

Y R

IVER

BED

S

m

MAN

GR

OVE

SW

AMPS

~,

~

N

,PA.

SA

ND

Y A

RE

A W

ITH

t'.

~

STU

NTE

D G

RAS

S

Fig.

4~

G

EO

MO

RP

HO

LO

GY

O

F

KE

LA

NT

AN

D

EL

TA

6. M O R P H O L O G Y O F T H E D E L T A

T h e l a n d s c a p e of t h e d e l t a i s of v a r y i n g c o m p l e x i t y ( F i g u r e 4) . V a r i a t i o n s and c o n - t r a s t s a r e t h e r e s u l t of i r r e g u l a r s e d i m e n t a t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e s e a s o n a l c l i m a - t i c c o n d i t i o n s . T h e S u n g a l K e l a n t a n d i v i d e s t h e d e l t a i n t o two m a r k e d l y d i s t i n c t r e - g i o n s . T h e w e s t e r n p a r t h a s a s i m p l e , c l e a r cu t l a n d f o r m p a t t e r n , w h e r e a s t h e e a s - t e r n p a r t h a s a c o m p l e x a n d h i g h l y d i s s e c t e d s u r f a c e .

6 . 1 . W e s t e r n S e c t o r

T h i s p a r t of t h e d e l t a i s m a d e up of t h r e e c o n s p i c u o u s , a h n o s t p a r a l l e l m a j o r r i d g e s and two d i s t i n c t p a r a l l e l d e p r e s s i o n s s e p a r a t i n g t h e t h r e e r i d g e s in t h e m a i n l a n d a r e a , a n d p a r a l l e l b a r s and s p i t s i n t h e m a r i n e a r e a . T h e r i d g e s r e p r e s e n t o ld o f f - s h o r e b a r s ( S C R I V E N O R , 1931; NOSSIN, 1961) and a r e t h e p r o d u c t of t h e e p e i r o g e - n i c u p l i f t (VAN B E M M E L E N , 1949; F I T C H , 1949 , 1952) .

T h e i n n e r m o s t r i d g e c a n b e t r a c e d e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e b a n k of S u n g a i K e l a n t a n , b e t - w e e n K a m p o n g P a s i r P e k a n and P e l e k b a n g , in a w e s t - n o r t h w e s t d i r e c t i o n to P e n g - k a l a n K u b o r t a p e r i n g f r o m a b o u t 3 . 2 k m w i d e at t h e r i v e r b a n k to a b o u t 0 . 8 k m a t t h e w e s t - n o r t h w e s t end . T h e p o r t i o n of t h e r i d g e n e a r t h e r i v e r b a n k i s i n t e r r u p t e d b y n u m e r o u s l o n g , n a r r o w s i n u o u s o ld r i v e r c h a n n e l s . N a t u r a l l e v e e s c a n s t i l l b e w i d e l y s e e n a l o n g s i d e t h e s e . T h e r i d g e d o e s n o t o n l y d e c r e a s e in w i d t h w e s t - n o r t h - w e s t w a r d b u t a l s o in h e i g h t f r o m a m a x i m u m of 6 . 1 m a t t he r i v e r b a n k to 2 . 7 5 m a t t h e w e s t - n o r t h w e s t t i p .

T h e s e c o n d r i d g e w h i c h i s a b o u t 2 . 4 1 k m n o r t h of t h e f i r s t r i d g e e x t e n d s f r o m P u l a u K e r b a u i n t h e w e s t - n o r t h w e s t d i r e c t i o n to K u a l a T a b a l . U n l i k e t h e f i r s t r i d g e , t h i s r i d g e h a s a m o r e c o n s o l i d a t e d s h a p e and i s n o t a s h i g h l y d i s s e c t e d . I t i s a l s o r e l a - t i v e l y l o w e r w i t h t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t b e i n g 4 . 8 8 m and t h e l o w e s t p o i n t 2 . 4 4 m a t P u l a u K e r b a u and t h e w e s t - n o r t h w e s t end r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e w i d t h t a p e r s f r o m a b o u t 2 . 4 1 k m a t P u l a u K e r b a u to a b o u t 0 . 4 k m a t t h e w e s t - n o r t h w e s t end .

T h e t h i r d r i d g e , w h i c h i s n a r r o w e r and l o w e r t h a n t h e l a s t two i s o b s e r v e d t r e n d i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e s e c o n d r i d g e f r o m t h e b a n k of S u n g a i P u l a u S e r a t u s to T u m p a t . T h e r i d g e i s o n l y a b o u t 1 5 2 . 5 m w i d e w i t h t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t of 2 . 4 4 m a t T u m p a t . A l l t h e t h r e e m a j o r r i d g e s a r e t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of s e r i e s of b e a c h r i d g e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n m o s t l y c o n c e a l e d b y t h e p r o c e s s of s e d i m e n t a t i o n ( K O O P M A N S , 1972) .

T h e m a r i n e f e a t u r e s n o r t h of t h e o u t e r m o s t r i d g e a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by a n a s s e m b l a g e of i s l a n d s , b a r s a n d s p i t s w h i c h a r e d i v i d e d i n t o two d i s t i n c t g r o u p s b y S u n g a i P u l a u S e r a t u s , a m a j o r d i s t r i b u t a r y of S u n g a i K e l a n t m a . T h e s e g r o u p s of m a r i n e f e a t u r e s a r e c o m p a r a b l e to t h e r i d g e s and d e p r e s s i o n i n l a n d . T h e y w i l l f o r m h i g h l y d i s s e c t e d r i d g e s and d e p r e s s i o n s i f t h e r e i s a n e p e i r o g e n i c u p l i f t o r t h e l o w e r i n g of s e a l e v e l . T h o u g h t h e i r m a g n i t u d e i s no t c o m p a r a b l e to t h o s e f o u n d i n t h e m a i n l a n d a r e a s , t h e y a r e n o n e t h e l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h i n t h e d e l t a i c l a n d s c a p e .

S w a m p s a r e v e r y l i m i t e d in t h e m a i n l a n d a r e a . T h e e x i s t i n g o n e , e a s t of T u m p a t , i s of t i d a l t y p e and a r e d o m i n a n t l y v e g e t a t e d w i t h n i p a f r u t i c a n s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e m a r i n e a r e a a r e c o v e r e d w i t h s w a m p of m a n g r o v e t y p e .

The effect of deposition is well illustrated within the Sungai Kelantan proper. River

343

b e d s a r e a g g r a d e d a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s a l o n g i t s c o u r s e s u c h t h a t m a n y d r y b e d s a r e o b s e r v e d . B a r s a n d f l a t s w h i c h a r e s u b m e r g e d d u r i n g h i g h t i d e a r e f o u n d a l l a l o n g S u n g a i K e l a n t a n . N a t u r a l l e v e e s a r e f o u n d a l o n g m o s t of t h e e x i s t i n g and a b a n d o n e d r i v e r b a n k s .

6 . 2 . E a s t e r n S e c t o r

T h i s p a r t of t h e d e l t a h a s a c o m p l i c a t e d a n d h i g h l y d i s s e c t e d s u r f a c e f e a t u r e . B e t - w e e n l a t i t u d e 6 ° l l t N , i s a l ow a r e a w h i c h i s c o m p a r a b l e to t h e d e p r e s s i o n of t h e w e s t e r n p a r t of t h e d e l t a , t h o u g h t h e s h a p e i s n o t i d e n t i c a l . T h e d e p r e s s i o n i s t r a - v e r s e d b y n u m e r o u s e x i s t i n g and a b a n d o n e d s t r e a m w i t h l e v e e s on b o t h s i d e s of t h e i r b a n k s .

T h e a r e a s n o r t h a n d s o u t h of t h i s d e p r e s s i o n a r e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r a n d a r e a l s o h i g h - ly d i s s e c t e d b y r i v e r c o u r s e s . T h e y a r e f o r m e d b y t h e p r o c e s s of s e d i m e n t a t i o n w h e n t h e S u n g a i K e l a n t a n o v e r f l o w s i t s b a n k s d u r i n g f l o o d . A s e r i e s of b e a c h r i d g e s a r e o b s e r v e d a l l a l o n g t h e c o a s t , and in a r e a s s o u t h of P a n t a i C h i n t a B e r a h i ( B e a c h of P a s s i o n a t e L o v e } , i n K a m p o n g B a n g g o l and e a s t of t h e d e p r e s s i o n . T h e p r o c e s s of s e d i m e n t a t i o n h a s o b l i t e r a t e d t h e b e a c h r i d g e s i n m a n y p l a c e s e x c e p t a l o n g t h e c o a s t w h e r e t h e i n t e r s p a c e d s w a l e s c a n s t i l l b e o b s e r v e d .

T h e l e v e e a l o n g t h e S u n g a i K e l a n t a n b a n k o n t h i s e a s t e r n p a r t of t h e d e l t a i s l o w e r t h a n t h o s e a l o n g t h e w e s t e r n p a r t ( T a b l e 1). T h u s t h e w e s t e r n l e v e e , i n a w a y ,

f o r m s a n o b s t a c l e to T a b l e 1: A l t i t u d e of N a t u r a l L e v e e s a l o n g S u n g a i K e l a n t a n

L o c a t i o n H e i g h t ( in m e t r e s } W e s t E a s t

K a m p o n g T e n d o n g ( 6 ° 4 ' N ) _ 9 . 0 3 6 . 4 2 K a m p o n g W a k a f C h e Y e h ( 605 ' N ) 8 . 7 2 7 . 8 7 K a m p o n g P a s i r P e k a n (6u7 1 / 2 I N ) 6 . 1 0 5 . 7 3 P e l e k b a n k ( 6 O 8 3 / 4 1 N ) 6 . 4 1 5 . 4 3

f l ow t h r o u g h l ow l y i n g a r e a s . T h e y a r e t i d a l s w a m p s c o v e r e d

t h e f l o w of t h e w a t e r o n t o t h e w e s t e r n f l o o d p l a i n a t s t a g e s a b o v e t h e b a n l ~ u l l l e v e l w h e n t h e e a s t e r n p l a i n i s a l r e a d y f l o o d e d .

S w a m p s a r e c o n f i n e d o n l y to t h e c o a s t a l a r e a s a n d a l o n g t h e r i v e r c o u r s e s w h i c h

w i t h n i p a f r u t i c a n s .

T h e s e d i m e n t i n t h e d e l t a a s a w h o l e i s g e n e r a l l y s a n d y . Z A K A R I A (1970 , 1 9 7 2 a ) , i n a s t u d y on s e d i m e n t s of K e l a n t a n D e l t a f o u n d t h a t m o r e t h a n 80 % of t h e s a m p l e s c o l l e c t e d c o n t a i n 50 % o r m o r e s a n d in t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n . C l a y and s i l t a r e o n l y d o - m i n a n t i n t h e l o w e r d e l t a i c a r e a , w h i l e g r a v e l i s f o u n d o n l y o n t h e h i g h e r p a r t s of t h e r i v e r b a n k s w h i c h a r e o n l y a f f e c t e d h y d r o l o g i c a l l y d u r i n g f l o o d .

7. P R O C E S S E S A N D F O R M S

T h e K e l a n t a n R i v e r m o u t h i s a f f e c t e d b y two f o r c e s o p e r a t i n g f r o m t w o o p p o s i t e d i - r e c t i o n s . One i s t h e r i v e r f low to t h e s e a and t h e o t h e r i s t h e t i d a l c u r r e n t f l o w i n g i n l a n d f r o m t h e s e a . W a t e r s t o w a g e in S o u t h C h i n a S e a d u r i n g t h e o n s h o r e n o r t h e a s t m o n s o o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y in D e c e m b e r , J a n u a r y and F e b r u a r y , c a u s e s t h e m e a n l e v e l of S u n g a i K e l a n t a n i n t h e K o t a B h a r u a r e a t o r i s e to 3 0 - 4 0 c m h i g h e r t h a n d u r i n g t h e s o u t h w e s t m o n s o o n . T h i s c o n s e q u e n t l y c a u s e s a r i s e of t h e m e a n f l o o d l e v e l i n t h e

344

d e l t a and a g r e a t e r p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e t i d e up r i v e r . S e d i m e n t a t i o n and e r o s i o n a r e w i d e s p r e a d d u r i n g t h i s p a r t of t h e y e a r . D u r i n g M a r c h t h r o u g h to S e p t e m b e r t h e r i - v e r d i s c h a r g e i s l ow w i t h o n l y l i t t l e s e d i m e n t a t i o n and e r o s i o n o c c u r i n g .

T h e v a r i a b i l i t y in t h e a m o u n t of l o a d s u p p l i e d t o t h e r i v e r c h a n n e l s and t h e v a r i a b i l i - t y i n t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e t w o o p p o s i n g f o r c e s w i t h s e a s o n s b r i n g a b o u t s e a s o n a l c h a n - g e s i n t h e r i v e r c h a n n e l g e o m e t r y . T h e o b v i o u s c h a n g e s s e e n a r e in t h e c h a n n e l w i d t h and s h a p e a n d w a t e r v e l o c i t y a n d d e p t h . D u r i n g t h e n o r t h e a s t m o n s o o n , t h e a m o u n t of d i s c h a r g e p a s s i n g a n y p o i n t a l o n g t h e r i v e r c h a n n e l in t h e d e l t a i s l a r g e . O w i n g to t h e p r e s e n c e of n a t u r a l l e v e e s w h i c h f o r m s t e e p - s i d e d b a n k s a l l a l o n g t h e K e l a n t a n r i v e r , no l a r g e s c a l e c h a n g e s i n t h e w i d t h of t h e r i v e r a t b a n l d u l l s t a g e a p p e a r to o c c u r . T h e v e l o c i t y a n d d e p t h of w a t e r i n c r e a s e d r a s t i c a l l y and a s l i g h t c h a n g e in t h e c h a n n e l s h a p e i s o b s e r v e d w h e n f l a t s a l o n g t h e c o n v e x b a n k s , f l u v i a - t i l e i s l a n d s a n d b a r s i n t h e r i v e r a r e s u b m e r g e d . W h e n t h e r i v e r o v e r f l o w s i t s l e - v e e s and f l o o d s t h e p l a i n , i t s v e l o c i t y i s r e d u c e d .

A n o t h e r a d j u s t m e n t n o t e d i s in t h e c h a n n e l p a t t e r n . I t d o e s no t o c c u r as f r e q u e n t l y a s t h e a d j u s t m e n t to t h e c h a n n e l g e o m e t r y . A l l t h e s t r e a m s w i t h i n t h e d e l t a a r e e i - t h e r s i n u o u s o r b r a i d e d . T h e h i g h l y b r a i d e d and s i n u o u s p a t t e r n s a r e o b s e r v e d w i t h - in t h e l o w e r d e l t a i c a r e a . T h e s e p a t t e r n s o f f e r g r e a t e r r e s i s t a n c e to t h e r i v e r f l ow and b r i n g a b o u t c o n d i t i o n of e q u a l e n e r g y p e r u n i t a r e a a l o n g t h e c h a n n e l . If t h e r e i s no s u c h r e s i s t a n c e , t h e e n e r g y p e r u n i t a r e a w i l l i n c r e a s e d o w n s t r e a m due to t h e e f - f e c t of t h e g r a v i t a t i o n s / f o r c e s . T h e c h a n g e of p a t t e r n s u b s e q u e n t l y c a u s e s t h e c h a n - g e s in t h e c h a n n e l s h a p e and w i d t h a n d w a t e r v e l o c i t y and d e p t h w h i c h w i l l c o u n t e r l a r g e s c a l e e r o s i o n . T h e s i t u a t i o n i s , h o w e v e r , no t c o n s i s t a n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r . D u r i n g t h e n o r t h e a s t m o n s o o n t h e a m o u n t of w a t e r and w e a t h e r e d m a t e r i a l s b r o u g h t d o w n S r o m t h e s o u r c e a r e a i s t o o l a r g e and t oo s u d d e n to be w h o l l y t r a n s p o r t e d to t h e s e a . A d j u s t m e n t s of t h e c h a n n e l p r o p e r t i e s and p a t t e r n s a r e i n a d e q u a t e to e n - c o u n t e r t h e p r o c e s s e s of e r o s i o n and d e p o s i t i o n . T h e p r o c e s s of e r o s i o n w i t h i n t h e d e l t a i s n o t a s w i d e s p r e a d as t h e p r o c e s s of d e p o - s i t i o n . H o w e v e r , i t i s n o n e t h e l e s s one of t h e i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s h a p i n g of t h e d e l t a . I t c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d a s (i) e r o s i o n of t h e r i v e r b a n k s and f l u v i a t i l e i s l a n d s and b a r s and (ii) b r e a c h i n g of n a t u r a l l e v e e s .

E r o s i o n of t h e r i v e r b a n k s i s o b s e r v e d a l l a l o n g S u n g a i K e l a n t a n and i t s m a i n d i s t r i - b u t a r i e s . T h e m a i n e r o s i o n a l p r o c e s s e s a r e l a t e r a l c u t t i n g and u n d e r c u t t i n g w h i c h v a r y i n i n t e n s i t y f r o m one s e c t i o n of t h e b a n k to t h e o t h e r . C o n c a v e b a n k s s u f f e r g r e a t e r r a t e of e r o s i o n t h a n c o n v e x b a n k s . T h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y c l a y e y s e c t i o n s of t h e b a n k s a r e l e s s i n t e n s i v e l y e r o d e d a s t h e s e c t i o n s w i t h l o o s e c l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s . T h e v a r i a t i o n s s u b s e q u e n t l y r e s u l t i n a h i g h l y i r r e g u l a r b a n k s . D u r i n g b a n l d u l l d i s - c h a r g e t h e e n t i r e r i v e r b a n k i s s u b j e c t e d to l a t e r a l e r o s i o n . D u r i n g l ow s t a g e s o n l y t h e w e t t e d p a r t of t h e b a n k s a r e s u b j e c t e d to e r o s i o n w h e n t h e p r o c e s s of u n d e r c u t - t i n g t a k e s p l a c e . T h i s r e s u l t s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of s p a r o d i c n o t c h e s o v e r t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h of t h e r i v e r b a n k s . I n t e n s i v e u n d e r c u t t i n g h a s c a u s e d t h e t o p p a r t of t h e b a n k to s l i p d o w n w h i c h c o n s e q u e n t l y f o r m s t e e p - s i d e d b a n k s a s c o m m o n l y o b s e r v e d a l o n g t h e c o n c a v e b a n k s of K o t a B h a r u , K a m p o n g B a n g g o l , K a m p o n g K i j a n g , K a m - p o n g K e d a i B u l o h , K a m p o n g C h e k e r i n g and K a m p o n g C h i k L a t i f .

T h e p r o c e s s of e r o s i o n w i t h i n r i v e r c h a n n e l i s t h e w e a r i n g a w a y of t h e u p s t r e a m p o r t i o n of f h v i a t i l e i s l a n d s and b a r s . T h o u g h l e s s i n t e n s i v e i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e s l o p e of t h i s p a r t of i s l a n d s a n d b a r s i s v e r y s t e e p a n d n e a r t h e w a t e r e d g e i s v e r - t i c s / . T h e l o n g c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s of e r o s i o n u p s t r e a m and d e p o s i t i o n d o w n s t r e a m

345

b r i n g s a b o u t v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s to t h e s e i s l a n d s a n d b a r s . T h e y a r e g r a d u a l l y b e i n g p u s h e d d o w n s t r e a m and i n s o m e c a s e s h a v e j o i n e d t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g i s l a n d s o r b a r s to f o r m l a r g e r i s l a n d s . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s c a n o n l y b e o b s e r v e d t h r o u g h a l o n g p e r i o d of t i m e .

D u r i n g t h e n o r t h e a s t m o n s o o n w h e n t h e d i s c h a r g e a n d t h e v e l o c i t y of r i v e r s a r e h i g h , t h e p r o c e s s of b r e a c h i n g t h e l e s s c o h e s i v e l e v e e s of d i s t r i b u t a r i e s i n t h e e a s t e r n p a r t of t h e d e l t a o c c u r s ( D r a i n a g e a n d I r r i g a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t , 1967) . T h e c o h a s i v e l e v e e s a l o n g t h e b a n k s of S u n g a i K e l a n t a n a r e n o t a f f e c t e d b y t h i s p r o c e s s .

T h e p r o c e s s of c h a n n e l d e p o s i t i o n i s c l e a r l y o b s e r v e d a l o n g t h e c o n v e x s i d e of t h e r i v e r a n d in t h e l o w e r d e l t a i c a r e a w h e r e f l a t s and b a r s a r e f o r m e d . T h e p r o c e s s h a s a l s o i n c r e a s e d t h e s i z e of t h e e x i s t i n g f l u v i a t i l e i s l a n d s . I t i s m o r e i n t e n s i v e i n t h e l o w e r d e l t a i c a r e a d u r i n g t h e n o r t h e a s t m o n s o o n . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t o o , s e d i - m e n t a t i o n o c c u r s o n t h e f l o o d p l a i n s on e i t h e r s i d e s of S u n g a i K e l a n t a n . T h e d i f f e - r e n c e in t h e l e v e e h e i g h t s and t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e r i v e r f l o w h a s c a u s e d t h e e a s t e r n d e l t a i c a r e a to b e f i r s t a f f e c t e d d u r i n g f l o o d and g e t s g r e a t e r s h a r e of t h e s e d i m e n t . A f t e r t h e 1 9 6 6 / 6 7 f l o o d i t w a s o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e t h i c k n e s s of s e d i m e n t d e p o s i t e d o n t h e e a s t e r n p l a i n i s m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e b e i n g d e p o s i t e d o n t h e w e s t e r n p l a i n . T h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a t e of d e p o s i t i o n h a s r e s u l t e d in t h e d i f f e r e n c e of h e i g h t of t h e s e a r e a s . L a r g e a r e a s of t h e w e s t e r n p l a i n a r e l e s s t h a n 3 . 0 5 m a b o v e m e a n s e a l e v e l w h e r e a s m o s t a r e a of t h e e a s t e r n p l a i n i s o v e r 3 . 0 5 m . T h e l e v e e on t h e e a s - t e r n b a n k of S u n g a i K e l a n t a n s l o p e s v e r y g e n t l y to t h e f l ood p l a i n and a t m o s t p l a c e s t h e s l o p e i s h a r d l y o b s e r v e d ,

T h e m a r i n e p r o c e s s e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b e a c h d r i f t . T h e h i g h v e l o c i t y n o r t h e a s t m o n s o o n w ind d e v e l o p s d e s t r u c t i v e p l u n g i n g w a v e s c a u s i n g i n t e n s i v e c o a s t a l e r o s i o n and b a c k w a s h of w a t e r on t h e b e a c h . T h e s e w a v e s s t r i k e t h e c o a s t o b l i q u e l y c a u s i n g l a t e r a l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of m a t e r i a l s a l o n g t h e b e a c h in a n o r t h w e s t a n d w e s t e r n d i r e c - t i o n s . T h e s e m a t e r i a l s a r e l a t e r d e p o s i t e d a s o f f s h o r e b a r s and s u b m a r i n e b a r s off K u a l a B e s a r . T h e a c t i v e r e m o v a l of t h e b e a c h m a t e r i a l s h a s p r o d u c e d s t e e p b e a c h - e s a s s e e n a l l a l o n g t h e c o a s t f r o m P a n t a i K u n d o r to P a n t s / C h i n t a B e r a h i . T h e b e a c h at P a n t a i C h i n t a B e r a h i h a s r e t r o g r a d e d b y a t l e a s t 24 m s i n c e 1958 .

The active and strong northeast monsoon wind and waves are also responsible for pushing the offshore bars and the main spit of Pantai Laut landward and westward.

The spit has moved some 0.81 km landward at its neck and 2.41 km westward dur- ing t h e p e r i o d 1 9 3 9 - 1 9 6 6 . W i t h t h e l a n d w a r d m o v e m e n t of t h e s p i t t h e T u m p a t l a g o o n h a s n a r r o w e d . S e d i m e n t a t i o n i s u b i q u i t o u s , r e s u l t i n g in t h e g r o w t h of t h e e x i s t i n g i s l a n d s and t h e f o r m a t i o n of m o r e m u d f l a t s w h i c h s u b s e q u e n t l y f o r m l a r g e i s l a n d s . T h e s i l t i n g of t h e l a g o o n h a s c a u s e d an e n c r o a c h m e n t of l a n d o v e r t h e s e a o v e r a d i s t a n c e of 2 . 8 k m b e t w e e n 1939 and 1966. C o m p a r e d to t h e g r o w t h of o t h e r d e l t a s in A s i a , e x c e p t H~vang Ho and Cho Shui , K e l a n t a n d e l t a h a s a r e l a t i v e l y f a s t e r a v e r - age r a t e ( T a b l e 2). T h i s c a n b e e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s of c l i m a t i c d i f f e r e n c e s , b a s i n s i z e and s h a p e and t h e m o r p h o m e t r y of t h e s o u r c e a r e a w h i c h g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e t h e a m o u n t of m a t e r i a l s u p p l i e d , m o d e s of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and d e p o s i t i o n . To c e r t a i n e x t e n t t h e p e r i o d of s t u d y c a n a l s o i n f l u e n c e t h e r e s u l t .

346

Tab le 2: Rate of De l t a D e v e l o p m e n t in A s i a 8. CONCLUSION

Del t a E q u i v a l e n t m e t r e s / y e a r

Yangtze (China) x 22.87 Hwang Ho (China) x 243.90 Mekong (S. Vie tnam) × 60.98 I r r a w a d y ( B u r m a ) , 50.00 Cho Shui ( T a i w a n ) , 150.00 Nobi (Japan) • 43 .90 Kelan tan (Malays ia ) 104.00

x F r o m Sh i r l ey and Rogsda l e (1966) F r o m United Nat ions W a t e r R e s o u r c e s S e r i e s No. 25 (1963)

The g e o m o r p h o l o g y of Ke- lantan del ta is ev iden t ly the p roduc t of v a r i o u s phy- s i c a l and h y d r o l o g i c a l p r o - c e s s e s which act d i f f e r en t - ly dur ing d i f fe ren t p a r t s of of the y e a r and at d i f f e ren t p l a c e s within the del ta . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s a r e g r e a t - ly in f luenced by the s e a s o n - al v a r i a t i o n s in the c l i m a t i c condi t ions . The r a t e of de - ve lopmen t i s a c c e l e r a t e d dur ing the n o r t h e a s t mon-

soon. Dur ing the o the r p a r t of the y e a r t h e r e i s no m a j o r deve lopmen t p e r c e i v e d . The shape of the de l t a has been af fec ted by the l i t t o r a l beach dr i f t .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

G r a t e f u l thanks a r e a c c o r d e d to P r o f e s s o r I. Douglas and Dr. B. StC. Swan, D e p a r t - m e n t of Geography , U n i v e r s i t y of New England, A r m i d a l e , who took g rea t deal of t i m e to i m p r o v e the e a r l i e r v e r s i o n of this p a p e r , and to Mr. A. K a r i m Shaharum, C a r t o g r a p h i c Unit , D e p a r t m e n t of Geography , Nat iona l U n i v e r s i t y of Ma lays i a , who d rew the i l l u s t r a t i o n s .

REFERENCES

ALEXANDER, J.B. (1963): Geological map of Malaya. Geological Survey, Ipoh, Ma- laysia.

ALLEN, J. R. L. (1964): Sedimentation in the modern delta of the River Niger, West Africa. In Deltaic and shallow marine deposits (ed. Van Straten, L. M. J. U. ). Proceeding sixth International Sedimentological Congress, Amsterdam, 28-34.

BEMMELEN, R. W. Van (1949): The geology of Indonesia. M. Nijhoff, the Hague.

BIRD, E.C.F. (1964): Coasts. The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

BHECK, B. J.J. (1964): Sedimentation of an alluvial fan in southern Nevada. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 3_~4, 395-400.

BURTON, C.K. (1964): The older alluvium of Johore and Singapore. Journal of Tro- picalGeography, 18_, 30-42.

BURTON, C.K. (1972): Outline of the geological evolution of Malaya. Journal of Geo- logy, 80, 293-309

CARLSTON, C.W. (1960): Drainage density and stream flow. United States Geologi- cal Survey Professional Paper 422-C.

CHARLTON, F.G. (1961): Hydrology in Malaya - rainfall. Malayan Forester, 2_~4, 180-185.

347

DALE, W.L. (1959a): Wind and drift currents in South China Sea. Journal of Tropi- cal Geography, 13___, 1-22.

DALE,W. L. (1959b): The rainfall of Malaya, Part 1. Journal of Tropical Geogra- phy, 13, 23-37.

DALE,W. L. (1960): The rainfall of Malaya, Part 2. Journal of Tropical Geography, 1_4. 11-28.

DALE, W.L. (1963): Surface temperature in Malaya. Journal of Tropical Geogra- phy, 1_/7. 57-71

DOBBY, E. H.G. (1951): Kelantan Delta. Geographical Review, 41, 226-255.

DOUGLAS, I. (1968): Erosion in the Sungai Gombak catchment, Selangor, Malaysia. Journal of Tropical Geography, 26, 1-16.

DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT, KELANTAN (1967): Flood repor t (unpublished).

EYLES, R.J. (1968): A morphometric analysis of West Malaysia (unpublished). Ph. D. thesis, University of Malaya.

FITCH, F. H. (1949): Evidence for recent emergence of the land in East Pahang. Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of British Malaya, 2__22, 115-122.

GUY, H.P. (1964): An analysis of some storm-period variables affecting stream se- diment transport. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, 462- E.

HILL, R.D. (1966): Changes in beach form at Sri Pantai, Northeast Johore, Malay- sia. Journal of Tropical Geography, 2_~3, 19-27.

KING, C.A.M. (1959): Beaches and coasts. Edward Arnold Ltd., London.

KOOPMANS, B.N. (1972): Sedimentation in the Kelantan Delta (Malaysia). Sedimen- tary Geology, _7, 65-84.

LEAMY, M. L. and PANTON, W.P. (1966): Soil survey manual for Malayan condi- tions. Ministry of Agriculture and Co,operatives, Malaysia, Bulle- tineNo. I19.

LEOPOLD, L.B. and WOLMAN, M.G. (1957): River channel patterns: braided, meandering and straight. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Pa- per 282-B, 39-84.

LEOPOLD, L. B. , WOLMAN, M.G. and MILLER, J.P. (1964): Fluvial processes in geomorphology. Freeman, San Francisco.

M-TRICK, R.M. and LEOPOLD, L.B. (1963): Hydraulic geometry of a small tidal estuary. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 422-B.

NOSSlN, J.J. (1961): Relief and coastal development in northeast Johore (Malaya). Journal of Tropical Geography, 1__5, 27-39.

NOSSIN, J. J. (1962): Coastal sedimentation in north eastern Johore (Malaya). Zeit. f~r Geomorphologie, 6, 298-317.

NOSSIN, J. J. (1964): Geomorphology of the surrounding of Kuantan. Geol. en Mijn. 4~. 1 5 7 - 1 8 3 .

OH, K.Y. (1965): Hydrology in Malaya, rainfall and r ive r discharge. Malayan Agri - cultural Journal, 45, 182-190.

348

SCHUMM, S.A. and LICHTY, R .W. (1963): Channel widening and flood pla in c ons t r uc - t ion a long C i m a r r o n R i v e r in sou thwes t e rn Kansas . U.S. Geological Survey P r o f e s s i o n a l P a p e r , 352-D.

SCRIVENOR, J . B . (1949): Geolog ica l and geograph ica l ev idences for changes in s ea - l eve l du r ing anc ien t Malayan h i s t o r y and la te p r e r h i s t o r y . Jou rna l of the Royal As ia t i c Society of B r i t i s h Malaya, 2_/2, 107-115.

SHIRLEY, M . L . and RAGSDALE, J . A . (1966): Del tas in t he i r geologic f r amework . Houston Geolog ica l Society.

SWAN, B. St. C. (1968): Coas ta l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n with r e f e r e n c e to the eas t coast of Malaya. Zei t . ffir Geomorpholog ie , 7_, 114-132.

UNITED NATIONS (1963): P r o c e e d i n g s of the r eg iona l s y m p o s i u m on flood cont ro l , r e c l a m a t i o n , u t i l i z a t i on and deve lopment of del ta ic a r e a s . Wate r R e s o u r c e s Se r i e s No. 25, United na t ions , New York.

WOLMAN, M.G. and LEOPOLD, L . B . (1957): R ive r flood p la ins : some obse rva t ions on t h e i r f o rma t ion . U.S. Geologica l Survey P r o f e s s i o n a l P a p e r 282-C.

WOLMAN, M.G. and MILLER, J . P . (1960): Magnitude and f r equency of fo rces in geomorph ic p r o c e s s . J o u r n a l of Geology, 68, 54-74.

WYATT-SMITH, J. (1964): A p r e l i m i n a r y vege ta t ion map of Malaya with d e s c r i p - t ions of the vege ta t ion types . Jou r na l of T r o p i c a l Geography, 1__88, 200-213.

ZAKARIA, A. S. (1970): Geomorpho logy of Ke lan tan Delta (unpublished) , M.A. t hes i s , U n i v e r s i t y of Malaya.

ZAKAI~IA, A. S. (1972a): Sed imen t s of Ke lan tan Delta: g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i bu t i on in diffe- r en t e n v i r o n m e n t a l condi t ions . N u s a n t a r a , 2, 169-187.

ZAKARIA, A. S. (1972b): M o r p h o m e t r y of Ke lan tan R i ve r Catchment . Sains Malays i - a n a / E a r t h S c i e n c e , 1(1), 59-76.

349