Luluhawa Luluhawa batuan mendak batuan mendak

Learning objectivesLearning objectives

luluhawa

1 Apa itu

2 Bagaimana

terjadi

3 Jenis2 luluhawa4 Faktor2 yg mempengaruhi luluhawa

5 Impak/kesan

6 hasil

7 kepentingan

LuluhawaLuluhawa – suatu proses yang – suatu proses yang berlaku di permukaan bumi untuk berlaku di permukaan bumi untuk memecah dan menguraikan memecah dan menguraikan batuan (break and decompose batuan (break and decompose rocks) rocks) EnviromenEnviromen: terhad kepada sejauh : terhad kepada sejauh mana air tanah (groundwater) mana air tanah (groundwater) boleh menusuk masuk (penetrate) boleh menusuk masuk (penetrate) ke dalam permukaan bumike dalam permukaan bumi

luluhawaluluhawa

Boleh dilihat sebagai Boleh dilihat sebagai destructive forcesdestructive forces

- yang memecah, mengurai, mengubah - yang memecah, mengurai, mengubah bentuk dan keadaan fizikal dan kimia batuanbentuk dan keadaan fizikal dan kimia batuan

Boleh dilihat sebagai Boleh dilihat sebagai constructive forcesconstructive forces – – yang menghasilkan sedimen, membentuk yang menghasilkan sedimen, membentuk batuan mendak, mineral, mendapan batuan mendak, mineral, mendapan mineral, landform barumineral, landform baru

Fakta asas luluhawaFakta asas luluhawa

Berlaku perlahan sepanjang masaBerlaku perlahan sepanjang masa Mengambil masa yang lamaMengambil masa yang lama Semua jenis luluhawa berlaku kadang2 Semua jenis luluhawa berlaku kadang2

serentak dan tak terpisah satu sama lain. serentak dan tak terpisah satu sama lain. Dipisahkan untuk memudahkan Dipisahkan untuk memudahkan pemahaman sahajapemahaman sahaja

Keadaan di keliling menentukan segalanyaKeadaan di keliling menentukan segalanya

Jenis2 luluhawaJenis2 luluhawa

1.1. Luluhawa fizikalLuluhawa fizikal

2.2. Luluhawa kimiaLuluhawa kimia

3.3. Luluhawa biologiLuluhawa biologi

1. Luluhawa fizikal1. Luluhawa fizikal

Memecahkan batuan yang bersaiz besar kepada Memecahkan batuan yang bersaiz besar kepada bahagian yang lebih kecilbahagian yang lebih kecilcontoh: wedging (pembajian), exfoliation contoh: wedging (pembajian), exfoliation (pengelupasan), thermal expansion (kembang (pengelupasan), thermal expansion (kembang haba), lelasan (abrasion), (wetting and drying (esp haba), lelasan (abrasion), (wetting and drying (esp in shales), pressure release by erosion of in shales), pressure release by erosion of overburdenoverburden

Luluhawa fizikalLuluhawa fizikal

11 Frost wedging (pembajian ibun) – water Frost wedging (pembajian ibun) – water expands when it freezes, breaking rocks expands when it freezes, breaking rocks into angular fragments; lazim berlaku into angular fragments; lazim berlaku dalam iklim temperat (ada ais)dalam iklim temperat (ada ais)

Nota: apabila air menjadi ais, isipadu Nota: apabila air menjadi ais, isipadu meningkat sebanyak 10% => mebungkah meningkat sebanyak 10% => mebungkah (pries) batuan(pries) batuan

talus – terdapat di kaki bukittalus – terdapat di kaki bukit

Luluhawa fizikalLuluhawa fizikal

22 Exfoliation (pengelupasan) – bedrocks Exfoliation (pengelupasan) – bedrocks (batuan hampar) breaks into flat sheets (batuan hampar) breaks into flat sheets along joints (kekar) which parallel the along joints (kekar) which parallel the ground surface. This phenomenon is ground surface. This phenomenon is caused by expansion of rock when the caused by expansion of rock when the pressure of overlying rock is removed by pressure of overlying rock is removed by erosion => sometimes called unloadingerosion => sometimes called unloading

Apa itu kekar?

Exfoliation Stone MtExfoliation Stone Mt

exfoliationexfoliation

exfoliation

Active exfoliation Stone MtActive exfoliation Stone Mt

goblingoblin

Mt KinabaluMt Kinabalu

Mt KinabaluMt Kinabalu

Mt Kinabalu

Luluhawa fizikalLuluhawa fizikal

33 Thermal expansion (kembang haba) – heat Thermal expansion (kembang haba) – heat causes action; cooling causes contraction causes action; cooling causes contraction => expand and contract at different rate => expand and contract at different rate causes stresses along mineral boundaries. causes stresses along mineral boundaries. Repeated heating and cooling => batuan Repeated heating and cooling => batuan pecahpecah

44 Lelasan (abrasion)Lelasan (abrasion)

Batuan menjadi lebih kecil hasi drpd Batuan menjadi lebih kecil hasi drpd pergeseran dan pelanggaran semasa pergeseran dan pelanggaran semasa terangkut, contohnya di dasar sungaiterangkut, contohnya di dasar sungai

Glasial, ombak dan angin juga boleh Glasial, ombak dan angin juga boleh menjadi agen lelasanmenjadi agen lelasan

Kelebihan kimia fizikalKelebihan kimia fizikal

Luluhawa fizikal memecahkan batuan ke Luluhawa fizikal memecahkan batuan ke saiz yg lebih kecil => menyediakan lebih saiz yg lebih kecil => menyediakan lebih banyak luas permukaan batuan bersaiz banyak luas permukaan batuan bersaiz kecil untuk tindakbalas kimia berlakukecil untuk tindakbalas kimia berlaku

2. Luluhawa kimia2. Luluhawa kimia

Memecahkan batuan secara kimia dgn Memecahkan batuan secara kimia dgn menambah atau menanggalkan (removing) menambah atau menanggalkan (removing) unsur2 kimia, mengubah unsur2 tersebut unsur2 kimia, mengubah unsur2 tersebut menjadi bahan2 barumenjadi bahan2 baru

contoh: dissolution (pelarutan), hydrolysis contoh: dissolution (pelarutan), hydrolysis (hidrolisis), oxidation (pengoksidaan)(hidrolisis), oxidation (pengoksidaan)

Luluhawa kimiaLuluhawa kimia

11 Dissollution (pelarutan) – alters rocks by Dissollution (pelarutan) – alters rocks by removing soluble minerals => soluble ions removing soluble minerals => soluble ions and insoluble ions => precipitate and and insoluble ions => precipitate and crystallize (dalam tasik atau laut)crystallize (dalam tasik atau laut)

Ex: pembentukan garam, batu kapur, Ex: pembentukan garam, batu kapur, travertinetravertine

Batuan => ion larut/ tak larut => pemendakan

Luluhawa kimiaLuluhawa kimia

22 Hydrolisis – proses di mana feldspar are Hydrolisis – proses di mana feldspar are weathered to form clayweathered to form clay

Note: clay make up half of sedimentary Note: clay make up half of sedimentary rocks on Earthrocks on Earth

(Berapa jenis feldspar kita ada? Apakah (Berapa jenis feldspar kita ada? Apakah komposisinya?)komposisinya?)

Weathering of feldsparWeathering of feldspar

Beberapa contoh t/b kimiaBeberapa contoh t/b kimia

A.A. Solution of carbon dioxide in water to form Solution of carbon dioxide in water to form acidacid

COCO22 + H + H22O O HH22COCO33 H H++ + HCO + HCO33--

B.B. Solution of calciteSolution of calcite

CaCOCaCO33 + CO + CO22 + H + H22O O CaCa2+2+ + 2HCO + 2HCO33--

C.C. CaCOCaCO33 + H + H++ HCO HCO33-- CaCa2+2+ + +

2HCO2HCO33--

D.D. Chemical weathering of feldspar to form Chemical weathering of feldspar to form clay mineralclay mineral

2KAlSi2KAlSi33OO88 + 2H + 2H++ + 2HCO + 2HCO33-- + H + H22OO

K feldsparK feldspar

AlAl22SiSi22OO55(OH)(OH)44 + 2K + 2K++ + 2HCO + 2HCO33-- + 4SiO + 4SiO22

clay mineralclay mineral Silica in solution or as fine solid particles

2KAlSi2KAlSi33OO88

AlAl22SiSi22OO55(OH)(OH)44

K2OAl2O3

6SiO2

Al2O3

2SiO2

2H2O

Cara jurutera bahan mengungkap formula untuk memudahkan kefahaman

Luluhawa kimiaLuluhawa kimia

3 oxidation – the process by which iron-3 oxidation – the process by which iron-bearing minerals (pyroxene, amphibole, bearing minerals (pyroxene, amphibole, biotite) weather to produce iron oxidesbiotite) weather to produce iron oxides

Di kawasan tropik iron bearing Di kawasan tropik iron bearing aluminosilicate => lateritic soils, red clayey aluminosilicate => lateritic soils, red clayey soils soils

Oxidation reactionOxidation reaction

4FeSiO4FeSiO33 + O + O22 +10H +10H22O 4FeO.OH + O 4FeO.OH +

4H4H44SiOSiO44

2Fe2Fe22SiOSiO44 + 2O + 2O22 + 4H + 4H22O 4FeO.OH + O 4FeO.OH +

2H2H44SiOSiO44

Fe pyroxene

Fe olivine

Goetite

3. Luluhawa biologi3. Luluhawa biologi

Pemecahan batuan disebabkan oleh Pemecahan batuan disebabkan oleh tindakan organisma hidup spt tumbuh2an, tindakan organisma hidup spt tumbuh2an, haiwan dalam tanah dan lichen (kulat? yang haiwan dalam tanah dan lichen (kulat? yang hidup di atas batuan dan kayu)hidup di atas batuan dan kayu)

Pengaruh => minimum

Hasil luluhawaHasil luluhawa

Weathering productsWeathering products

Average daily temperatures range from a Average daily temperatures range from a minimum of 25minimum of 25oo C to a maximum of 33 C to a maximum of 33oo C. C.

has an average annual rainfall of more has an average annual rainfall of more than 2500 mmthan 2500 mm

Malaysia

Hujan dan suhuHujan dan suhu

driest

wettest

Mineral stability in the weathering Mineral stability in the weathering environmentenvironment

Mineral didapati tak stabil dalam enviromen Mineral didapati tak stabil dalam enviromen tertentu tertentu Minerals which formed at high temperature Minerals which formed at high temperature and pressures are and pressures are least stableleast stable in the in the weathering environment and weather most weathering environment and weather most quicklyquicklyMinerals which formed at lower temperatures Minerals which formed at lower temperatures and pressures are and pressures are most stablemost stable under under weathering conditionsweathering conditions

Rates of weatheringRates of weathering

Soil profileSoil profile

D horizonFresh rocks

Soil profileSoil profile

Eluviationilluviationleaching

Leaching/larutlesapLeaching/larutlesap: proses kimia yang : proses kimia yang menghasilkan unsur larut dan tak larut. menghasilkan unsur larut dan tak larut. Yang larut akan lesap ke bawah dalam Yang larut akan lesap ke bawah dalam profil tanah sementara yang tak larut akan profil tanah sementara yang tak larut akan terkumpul di bahagian atas profil tanah => terkumpul di bahagian atas profil tanah => warna membezakan lapisan tanahwarna membezakan lapisan tanah

EluviationEluviation: removal of materials dissolved : removal of materials dissolved or suspended in wateror suspended in water

IlluviationIlluviation: horizon of maximum : horizon of maximum accumulation of suspended material or accumulation of suspended material or clayclay

ChelationChelation: pembentukan kompleks kimia: pembentukan kompleks kimia

Laterite profileLaterite profile

Acid run-off at gold mineAcid run-off at gold mine

brycebryce

Oxidation effect

Oxidation effectsOxidation effects

Staglatite-staglamite

sinkholessinkholes

Gred luluhawa (weathering grade), kekuatan Gred luluhawa (weathering grade), kekuatan ekapaksi dan rock-soil ratioekapaksi dan rock-soil ratio

UCS(MPa)UCS(MPa) RSRRSR

GredGred VI VI tanah/soiltanah/soil

Gred VGred V completely weatheredcompletely weathered <0.15<0.15 0-300-30

Gred IVGred IV highly weatheredhighly weathered 0.2-0.15 0.2-0.15 30-6030-60

Gred IIIGred III moderately weatheredmoderately weathered 0.4-0.20.4-0.2 60-9060-90

Gred IIGred II slightly weatheredslightly weathered 0.9-0.40.9-0.4 90-9590-95

Gred IGred I Fresh rockFresh rock 95-10095-100

Tengok transparensi lain

Sinkholes (tanah benam)Sinkholes (tanah benam)

Bagaimana terjadi?Bagaimana terjadi? Enviromental problem?Enviromental problem?

Jenis2 tanahJenis2 tanah

Residual soil - laterit, iklim tropikResidual soil - laterit, iklim tropik Transported soil – till, loess, iklim temperatTransported soil – till, loess, iklim temperat

Tanih - pelbagai jenis tanah contoh: laterit, pedalfer, latosol,paleosol

Wentworth scaleWentworth scale - - grain size scalegrain size scale Particle nameParticle name Particle diameter GravelParticle diameter Gravel BouldersBoulders > 256 mm> 256 mm CobblesCobbles 64 - 256 mm64 - 256 mm PebblesPebbles 2 - 64 mm2 - 64 mm GranulesGranules 2 - 4 mm2 - 4 mm SandSand Very coarse sandVery coarse sand 1 - 2 mm1 - 2 mm Coarse sandCoarse sand 0.5 - 1 mm0.5 - 1 mm Medium sandMedium sand 0.25 - 0.5 mm0.25 - 0.5 mm Fine sandFine sand 0.125 - 0.25 mm0.125 - 0.25 mm Very fine sandVery fine sand 0.0625 - 0.125 mm 0.0625 - 0.125 mm  SiltSilt 1/256 - 1/16 mm 1/256 - 1/16 mm

(or 0.004 - 0.0625 mm)(or 0.004 - 0.0625 mm) ClayClay < 1/256 mm < 1/256 mm

(or < 0.004 mm) (or < 0.004 mm) sesetengah sesetengah buku guna takrif <2 mikronbuku guna takrif <2 mikron

Kitar batuan (Rock cycle)Kitar batuan (Rock cycle)

Hakisan (erosion)Hakisan (erosion)

The movement of weathered material from The movement of weathered material from the site of weathering. Primary agent is the site of weathering. Primary agent is gravity, but gravity acts in concert with gravity, but gravity acts in concert with running waterrunning water

pergerakan bahan terluluhawa dari tempat pergerakan bahan terluluhawa dari tempat luluhawa berlaku ke tempat ia ditemuiluluhawa berlaku ke tempat ia ditemui

Sedimentary cycleSedimentary cycle

Malaysia bagaimana?

Faktor yang mempengaruhi Faktor yang mempengaruhi pembentukan tanahpembentukan tanah

1.1. Iklim (climate)Iklim (climate)2.2. Batuan induk (parent material)Batuan induk (parent material)3.3. Relief (keadaan permukaan bumi)Relief (keadaan permukaan bumi)4.4. Vegetation (tumbuhan)Vegetation (tumbuhan)5.5. Masa (time)Masa (time)

Sambung => batuan mendakSambung => batuan mendak

(lihat beberapa transparensi mengenai luluhawa)

Batuan mendak

apa

Bagaimana terjadi

Perubahan sebelum, semasa dan selepas pembentukan

jenis2

kepentingan

Apa kesudahannya?

Ciri2 utama Di mana

SedimentSediment = loose particulate material (clay, = loose particulate material (clay, sand, silt, gravel, etc.) sand, silt, gravel, etc.)

Sediment becomes sedimentary rock Sediment becomes sedimentary rock through through lithificationlithification, which involves: , which involves:

Compaction Compaction Cementation Cementation Recrystallization (of carbonate sediment) Recrystallization (of carbonate sediment)

Hasil drpd luluhawa ialah sedimen

Wentworth scaleWentworth scale - - grain size scalegrain size scale Particle nameParticle name Particle diameter GravelParticle diameter Gravel BouldersBoulders > 256 mm> 256 mm CobblesCobbles 64 - 256 mm64 - 256 mm PebblesPebbles 2 - 64 mm2 - 64 mm GranulesGranules 2 - 4 mm2 - 4 mm SandSand Very coarse sandVery coarse sand 1 - 2 mm1 - 2 mm Coarse sandCoarse sand 0.5 - 1 mm0.5 - 1 mm Medium sandMedium sand 0.25 - 0.5 mm0.25 - 0.5 mm Fine sandFine sand 0.125 - 0.25 mm0.125 - 0.25 mm Very fine sandVery fine sand 0.0625 - 0.125 mm 0.0625 - 0.125 mm  SiltSilt 1/256 - 1/16 mm 1/256 - 1/16 mm

(or 0.004 - 0.0625 mm)(or 0.004 - 0.0625 mm) ClayClay < 1/256 mm < 1/256 mm

(or < 0.004 mm) (or < 0.004 mm) sesetengah sesetengah buku guna takrif <2 mikronbuku guna takrif <2 mikron

Ternary diagram Sand-Silt-ClayTernary diagram Sand-Silt-Clay

Kitar batuan (Rock cycle)Kitar batuan (Rock cycle)

11 TerrigenousTerrigenous ( (detritaldetrital or or clasticclastic)) – bumi/benua – bumi/benua– Conglomerate or Breccia Conglomerate or Breccia – SandstoneSandstone – Siltstone Siltstone – Shale Shale

22 Chemical/biochemicalChemical/biochemical – EvaporitesEvaporites – Carbonate sedimentary rocks (limestones and dolostone) Carbonate sedimentary rocks (limestones and dolostone) – Siliceous sedimentary rocks Siliceous sedimentary rocks

33 Organic (coals) Organic (coals) – Other - ironstonesOther - ironstones

Pengelasan batuan mendak

Classification of sedimentary rocksClassification of sedimentary rocks

Hjulstrom Curve

Menghubungkait vel-size dgn proses (1939)

AA. Terrigenous (also called detrital or clastic). Terrigenous (also called detrital or clastic)Terrigenous sedimentary rocks are derived from Terrigenous sedimentary rocks are derived from the weathering of pre-existing rocks, which have the weathering of pre-existing rocks, which have been been transported to the depositional basintransported to the depositional basin. They . They have a have a clasticclastic (broken or fragmental) texture (broken or fragmental) texture consisting of: consisting of:

1.1. Clasts Clasts (larger pieces, such as sand or gravel) (larger pieces, such as sand or gravel) 2.2. Matrix Matrix (mud or fine-grained sediment (mud or fine-grained sediment

surrounding the clasts) surrounding the clasts) 3.3. CementCement (the glue that holds it all together), such (the glue that holds it all together), such

as: as: 1.1.calcite calcite 2.2.iron oxide iron oxide 3.3.silicasilica

Clasts and matrix (labelled),and iron oxide cement (reddish brown color)

SandSand: Grain size 1/16 to 2 mm : Grain size 1/16 to 2 mm Sandstone Sandstone If dominated by quartz grains = If dominated by quartz grains = quartz quartz

sandstonesandstone (also called (also called quartz arenitequartz arenite) ) If dominated by feldspar grains = If dominated by feldspar grains = arkosearkose If dominated by sand-sized rock fragment If dominated by sand-sized rock fragment

grains = grains = lithic sandstonelithic sandstone (also called (also called litharenite litharenite or or graywackegraywacke) )

conglomerateconglomerate

brecciabreccia

Quartz sandstoneQuartz sandstone

Arkose (mengandungi banyak feldspar)Arkose (mengandungi banyak feldspar)

Greywacke (sand-sized rock Greywacke (sand-sized rock fragments)fragments)

SiltSilt: Grain size 1/256 to 1/16 mm (gritty) : Grain size 1/256 to 1/16 mm (gritty) SiltstoneSiltstone

ClayClay: Grain size less than 1/256 mm : Grain size less than 1/256 mm (smooth) (< 2 micron)(smooth) (< 2 micron)

ShaleShale (if fissile) (if fissile) ClaystoneClaystone (if massive) (if massive)

Note: Mud is technically a mixture of silt and Note: Mud is technically a mixture of silt and clay. It forms a rock called mudstone (or clay. It forms a rock called mudstone (or mudshale if fissile). mudshale if fissile).

shaleshale

kaolinkaolin

B. Chemical/biochemical Sedimentary B. Chemical/biochemical Sedimentary RocksRocks

This group includes the This group includes the evaporitesevaporites, the , the carbonatescarbonates (limestones and dolostone), (limestones and dolostone), and the and the siliceous rockssiliceous rocks. These rocks. These rocks form form within the depositional basinwithin the depositional basin from chemical from chemical components dissolved in the seawatercomponents dissolved in the seawater

Evaporites - Evaporites - The evaporites form from the The evaporites form from the evaporation of water (usually seawater). evaporation of water (usually seawater).

Rock saltRock salt - composed of halite (NaCl). - composed of halite (NaCl). Rock gypsumRock gypsum - composed of gypsum - composed of gypsum

(CaSO(CaSO44.2H.2H220) 0) Travertine Travertine - composed of calcium - composed of calcium

carbonate (CaCOcarbonate (CaCO33), and therefore, also ), and therefore, also technically a carbonate rock; travertine technically a carbonate rock; travertine forms in caves and around hot springs. forms in caves and around hot springs.

Bonneville Salt Flats of the Great Salt Lake, Utah. The lake Bonneville Salt Flats of the Great Salt Lake, Utah. The lake bed is covered with rock salt which gives it the white color. bed is covered with rock salt which gives it the white color.

The salt is mined by the Morton Salt Company.The salt is mined by the Morton Salt Company.

gypsumgypsum

Gypsum crystals, Marion lake, Gypsum crystals, Marion lake, AustraliaAustralia

CarbonatesCarbonates - The carbonate sedimentary rocks - The carbonate sedimentary rocks are formed through both chemical and are formed through both chemical and biochemical processes. They include thebiochemical processes. They include the limestoneslimestones (many types) and (many types) and dolostonesdolostones. .

Two minerals are dominant in carbonate rocks: Two minerals are dominant in carbonate rocks:

– CalciteCalcite (CaCO (CaCO33) ) ((batu kapurbatu kapur)-mudah berbuih )-mudah berbuih dgn asid lemahdgn asid lemah

– DolomiteDolomite (CaMg(CO (CaMg(CO33))22) – ) – perlu digores jadi perlu digores jadi serbuk, baru bertindakbalas dgn asidserbuk, baru bertindakbalas dgn asid

Carbonate rock names:Carbonate rock names: MicriteMicrite (microcrystalline limestone) - very fine- (microcrystalline limestone) - very fine-

grained; may be light gray or tan to nearly black in grained; may be light gray or tan to nearly black in color. Made of lime mud, which is also called color. Made of lime mud, which is also called calcilutite. calcilutite.

Oolitic limestoneOolitic limestone (look for the sand-sized oolites) (look for the sand-sized oolites) Fossiliferous limestoneFossiliferous limestone (look for various types of (look for various types of

fossils in a limestone matrix) fossils in a limestone matrix) CoquinaCoquina (fossil hash cemented together; may (fossil hash cemented together; may

resemble granola) resemble granola) ChalkChalk (made of microscopic planktonic organisms (made of microscopic planktonic organisms

such as coccolithophores; fizzes readily in acid) such as coccolithophores; fizzes readily in acid) Crystalline limestoneCrystalline limestone TravertineTravertine (see evaporites) (see evaporites) Others - intraclastic limestone, pelleted limestone Others - intraclastic limestone, pelleted limestone

Stromatolitic limestoneStromatolitic limestone

Batuan karbonat di MexicoBatuan karbonat di Mexico

Siliceous rocksSiliceous rocks - The siliceous rocks are those - The siliceous rocks are those which are dominated by silica (SiO2). They which are dominated by silica (SiO2). They commonly form from silica-secreting organisms commonly form from silica-secreting organisms such as diatoms, radiolarians, or some types of such as diatoms, radiolarians, or some types of sponges. Chert is formed through chemical sponges. Chert is formed through chemical reactions of silica in solution replacing reactions of silica in solution replacing limestones. limestones.

DiatomiteDiatomite - looks like chalk, but does not fizz in - looks like chalk, but does not fizz in acid. Made of microscopic planktonic organisms acid. Made of microscopic planktonic organisms called diatoms. May also resemble kaolinite, but called diatoms. May also resemble kaolinite, but is much lower in density and more porous). is much lower in density and more porous). Also referred to as Also referred to as Diatomaceous Earth.Diatomaceous Earth.

ChertChert - Massive and hard, microcrystalline - Massive and hard, microcrystalline quartz. May be dark or light in color. Often quartz. May be dark or light in color. Often replaces limestone. Does not fizz in acid. replaces limestone. Does not fizz in acid.

. Organic Sedimentary Rocks (Coals). Organic Sedimentary Rocks (Coals) This group consists of rocks composed of organic This group consists of rocks composed of organic

matter (mainly matter (mainly plant fragmentsplant fragments). Because of this, they ). Because of this, they lack minerals (which must be inorganic, be definition). lack minerals (which must be inorganic, be definition). These are the These are the coals.coals. In order of increasing depth of In order of increasing depth of burial (temperature and pressure): burial (temperature and pressure):

PeatPeat (porous mass of brownish plant fragments (porous mass of brownish plant fragments resembling peat moss) resembling peat moss)

LigniteLignite (crumbly and black) (crumbly and black) Bituminous coalBituminous coal (dull to shiny and black; sooty; (dull to shiny and black; sooty;

layers may be visible) layers may be visible) Anthracite coalAnthracite coal (extremely shiny and black, may (extremely shiny and black, may

have a slight golden shine; low density; not sooty; have a slight golden shine; low density; not sooty; technically a metamorphic rock due to high technically a metamorphic rock due to high temperatures and pressures to which it has been temperatures and pressures to which it has been subjected) subjected)

othersothers

There are several other interesting There are several other interesting sedimentary rock types: Ironstones - sedimentary rock types: Ironstones - Oolitic hematite, banded iron formations Oolitic hematite, banded iron formations

Abundance of sedimentary rocksAbundance of sedimentary rocks

SoalanSoalan

Maklumat apakah yang boleh dicerap dari Maklumat apakah yang boleh dicerap dari pemerhatian batuan mendak?pemerhatian batuan mendak?

Senaraikan…Senaraikan…

Sedimentary structures form in the basin of Sedimentary structures form in the basin of deposition, as a result of the action of deposition, as a result of the action of natural processes such as waves, currents, natural processes such as waves, currents, drying events, etc. drying events, etc.

Beds or strata Beds or strata Cross-bedding Cross-bedding Graded beds Graded beds Ripple marksRipple marks

-Current ripple marks (asymmetrical ripples) -Current ripple marks (asymmetrical ripples) Oscillation or wave ripple marks Oscillation or wave ripple marks (symmetrical ripples) (symmetrical ripples)

Mud cracks Mud cracks

Sedimentary Structures

Structures formed during deposition Structures formed during deposition 1-4, after deposition 5,61-4, after deposition 5,6

1 2 3

4 5 6

Ripple marksRipple marks

Graded bedding, Jurassic of New Graded bedding, Jurassic of New JerseyJersey

Graded beddingGraded bedding

kasar

halus

kasar

halus

mudcracksmudcracks bagaimana terjadi?

ripplesripples

roundingrounding

sortingsorting

High energy enviroment Low energy enviroment

varvesvarves

Cross stratification (berlaku semasa Cross stratification (berlaku semasa transgression-regression air laut)transgression-regression air laut)

Important noteImportant note

Descriptive properties => interpretive Descriptive properties => interpretive propertiesproperties

Geology => engineeringGeology => engineering Objective: to aid planning, design, Objective: to aid planning, design,

construction, mitigation, conservation, construction, mitigation, conservation, preservationpreservation

Sedimentary EnvironmentsSedimentary Environments Sedimentary environments are places where Sedimentary environments are places where

sediments accumulate and sedimentary rocks sediments accumulate and sedimentary rocks form. They can be grouped into: form. They can be grouped into:

Terrestrial environments Terrestrial environments (non-marine) (non-marine) – Rivers (fluvial environment)/sungai) Rivers (fluvial environment)/sungai) – Alluvial fans (kipas lanar)Alluvial fans (kipas lanar)– Lakes (lacustrine environment)/tasik Lakes (lacustrine environment)/tasik

- Swamps/paya- Swamps/paya- Deserts (aeolian environment) - Deserts (aeolian environment) - Glacial environments - Glacial environments

Transitional environments Transitional environments (at the (at the transition between the marine and non-transition between the marine and non-marine environments) marine environments)

Beach and barrier islands Beach and barrier islands Delta Delta Lagoons Lagoons Estuaries Estuaries

Marine environmentsMarine environments Continental shelf Continental shelf Continental slope and rise (deep sea fans) Continental slope and rise (deep sea fans) Abyssal plain Abyssal plain Reefs (karang) Reefs (karang)

Alluvial fanAlluvial fan

Enviroment of sedimentary rxEnviroment of sedimentary rx

SEDIMENTARY ENVIROMENTSSEDIMENTARY ENVIROMENTS

AGENTS & AGENTS & ENERGY ENERGY

SOURCESSOURCES

ALLUVIALALLUVIAL

WIND ACTION (Eolian)WIND ACTION (Eolian)

Continental enviroment: fluvialContinental enviroment: fluvial

layeringlayering

beachbeach

Marine environmentMarine environment

Depositional environmentsDepositional environments

Model for landform developmentModel for landform development

FossilsFossils

Fossils are the remains or traces of Fossils are the remains or traces of prehistoric life.prehistoric life.

Outcrop in Nova Scotia, Canada of the McCoy Outcrop in Nova Scotia, Canada of the McCoy Brook Formation of Early Jurassic age in which Brook Formation of Early Jurassic age in which a dinosaur skeleton was found (box) Drawing of a dinosaur skeleton was found (box) Drawing of the outcrop on left, emphasizing layering. the outcrop on left, emphasizing layering.

FaciesFacies - the characteristics of a unit of - the characteristics of a unit of sediments, which can be used to interpret sediments, which can be used to interpret the depositional environment. the depositional environment.

Batuan mendakBatuan mendak

Batuan hos kepada petroleum dan gas asliBatuan hos kepada petroleum dan gas asli Mendapan mineral spt Cu, Pb, Zn, TungstenMendapan mineral spt Cu, Pb, Zn, Tungsten dlldll

a bit about Sia bit about Si

1414SiSi28.0855(3)The essentials28.0855(3)The essentials

Name: silicon Name: silicon Symbol: Si Symbol: Si Atomic number: 14 Atomic number: 14 Atomic weight: 28.0855 (3) r Atomic weight: 28.0855 (3) r CAS Registry ID: 7440-21-3 CAS Registry ID: 7440-21-3 Group number: 14 Group number: 14 Group name: (none) Group name: (none) Period number: 3 Period number: 3 Block: p-block Block: p-block Description     Description     Here is a brief description of silicon.Here is a brief description of silicon. Standard state: solid at 298 K Standard state: solid at 298 K Colour: dark grey with a bluish tinge Colour: dark grey with a bluish tinge Classification: Semi-metallic Classification: Semi-metallic

www.webelements.com

Silicon is present in the sun and stars and is a Silicon is present in the sun and stars and is a principal component of a class of meteorites known principal component of a class of meteorites known as aerolites. Silicon makes up 25.7% of the earth's as aerolites. Silicon makes up 25.7% of the earth's crust by weight, and is the second most abundant crust by weight, and is the second most abundant element, exceeded only by oxygen. element, exceeded only by oxygen. It is found It is found largely as silicon oxides such as sand (silica), largely as silicon oxides such as sand (silica), quartz, rock crystal, amethyst, agate, flint, jasper quartz, rock crystal, amethyst, agate, flint, jasper and opal. Silicon is found also in minerals such as and opal. Silicon is found also in minerals such as asbestos, feldspar, clay and mica.asbestos, feldspar, clay and mica.Silicon is important in plant and animal life. Silicon is important in plant and animal life. Diatoms in both fresh and salt water extract silica Diatoms in both fresh and salt water extract silica from the water to use as a component of their cell from the water to use as a component of their cell walls. walls. Silicon is an important ingredient in steel. Silicon is an important ingredient in steel. Silicon carbide is one of the most important Silicon carbide is one of the most important abrasivesabrasives. Workers in environments where . Workers in environments where silicaceous dust is breathed may develop a serious silicaceous dust is breathed may develop a serious lung disease known as silicosis. lung disease known as silicosis.

Hydrolysis and condensation of substituted Hydrolysis and condensation of substituted chlorosilanes can be used to produce a very chlorosilanes can be used to produce a very great number of polymeric products, or great number of polymeric products, or siliconessilicones. These range from liquids to hard, . These range from liquids to hard, glasslike solids with many useful properties.glasslike solids with many useful properties.

Elemental silicon transmits more than 95% Elemental silicon transmits more than 95% of all wavelengths of infrared and and has of all wavelengths of infrared and and has been used in lasers to produce coherent been used in lasers to produce coherent light at 456 nm.light at 456 nm.

Important facts

IsolationIsolation Here is a brief summary of the isolation of silicon. Here is a brief summary of the isolation of silicon. There is normally no need to make silicon in the There is normally no need to make silicon in the

laboratory as it is readily available commercially. Silicon laboratory as it is readily available commercially. Silicon is readily available through the treatment of silica, SiO2, is readily available through the treatment of silica, SiO2, with pure graphite (as coke) in an electric furnace.with pure graphite (as coke) in an electric furnace.

SiO2 + 2C Si + 2COSiO2 + 2C Si + 2CO Under these conditions, silicon carbide, SiC, can form. Under these conditions, silicon carbide, SiC, can form.

However, provided the amount of SiO2 is kept high, However, provided the amount of SiO2 is kept high, silicon carbide may be eliminated.silicon carbide may be eliminated.

2SiC + SiO2 3Si + 2CO2SiC + SiO2 3Si + 2CO Very pure silicon can be made by the reaction of SiCl4 Very pure silicon can be made by the reaction of SiCl4

with hydrogen, followed by zone refining of the resultant with hydrogen, followed by zone refining of the resultant silicon.silicon.

SiCl4 + 2H2 Si + 4HClSiCl4 + 2H2 Si + 4HCl

Fakta penting mengenai MalaysiaFakta penting mengenai Malaysia

Most cities and large towns in the Most cities and large towns in the Peninsula are located on a thin Peninsula are located on a thin surface alluvium over limestone surface alluvium over limestone

and granite. and granite.

Malaysia is generally formed by highland, Malaysia is generally formed by highland, floodplain, and coastal zones (Figure 1.2floodplain, and coastal zones (Figure 1.2 ). ). In the Peninsula, the Banjaran Titiwangsa In the Peninsula, the Banjaran Titiwangsa from north to south divides the West Coast from north to south divides the West Coast and East Coast states, while in Sarawak the and East Coast states, while in Sarawak the Banjaran Kapuas Hula and Banjaran Iran Banjaran Kapuas Hula and Banjaran Iran border Indonesia. All of these ranges are border Indonesia. All of these ranges are governed by virgin forestgoverned by virgin forest

Malaysia is warm and humid throughout the Malaysia is warm and humid throughout the year, as characterised by the equatorial year, as characterised by the equatorial climate, and has an average annual rainfall climate, and has an average annual rainfall of more than 2500 mm with spatial variation of more than 2500 mm with spatial variation shown in Figure shown in Figure  11 .. 33 . .

In the Peninsula wettest area is Taiping in Perak In the Peninsula wettest area is Taiping in Perak whilst the driest is Kuala Pilah in Negeri Sembilan whilst the driest is Kuala Pilah in Negeri Sembilan (Figure (Figure  11 .. 55 ).).

  Average daily temperatures range from a Average daily temperatures range from a minimum of 25o C to a maximum of 33o C. minimum of 25o C to a maximum of 33o C. Relative humidity is high, sometimes exceeding Relative humidity is high, sometimes exceeding 80%. Daytime cloudy hours are also high while 80%. Daytime cloudy hours are also high while haze lately is a frequent occurrence that will haze lately is a frequent occurrence that will contribute to acid rains.  contribute to acid rains.  

Urbanisation poles are formed in many different Urbanisation poles are formed in many different ways including; ways including;

·          centrally in dense arrangements such as ·          centrally in dense arrangements such as towns, cities, ports, commercial/business centres, towns, cities, ports, commercial/business centres, and new development areas and new development areas

·          linearly along road, highway, railway, river, ·          linearly along road, highway, railway, river, estuary, and coastal areas estuary, and coastal areas

·          randomly located, including villages and ·          randomly located, including villages and high class residential areas high class residential areas

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on metamorphic rockson metamorphic rocks