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PROPER NOUNS

Proper nouns are nouns that refer to specific entities. Writers of English capitalize proper nouns like

Nebraska, Steve, Harvard, or White House to show their distinction from common nouns.

Using Capital Letters with Proper Nouns

We always use a Capital Letter for the first letter of a proper noun (name). This includes names of

people, places, companies, days of the week and months. For example:

They like John. (not *They like john.)

I live in England.

She works for Sony.

The last day in January is a Monday.

We saw Titanic in the Odeon Cinema.

Proper Nouns without THE

We do not use "the" with names of people. For example:

first names Bill (not *the Bill)

Hilary

surnames Clinton

Gates

full names Hilary Gates

We do not normally use "the" with names of companies. For example:

Renault, Ford, Sony, EnglishClub.com

General Motors, Air France, British Airways

If the full (registered) name of a company starts with "The", then we use "The" if we use the full name,

for example:

The Post Publishing Public Co., Ltd

We do not normally use "the" for shops, banks, hotels etc named after a founder or other person (with -

's or -s). For example:

shops Harrods, Marks & Spencer, Maceys

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banks Barclays Bank

hotels, restaurants Steve's Hotel, Joe's Cafe, McDonalds

churches, cathedrals St John's Church, St Peter's Cathedral

We do not normally use "the" with names of places. For example:

towns Washington (not *the Washington), Paris, Tokyo

states, regions Texas, Kent, Eastern Europe

countries England, Italy, Brazil

continents Asia, Europe, North America

islands Corsica

mountains Everest

Exception! If a country name includes "States","Kingdom", "Republic" etc, we use "the":

states the United States, the US, the United States of America, the USA

kingdom the United Kingdom, the UK

republic the French Republic

We do not use "the" with "President/Doctor/Mr etc + Name":

the president, the king President Bush (not *the President Bush)

the captain, the detective Captain Kirk, Detective Colombo

the doctor, the professor Doctor Well, Dr Well, Professor Dolittle

my uncle, your aunt Uncle Jack, Aunt Jill

Mr Gates (not *the Mr Gates), Mrs Clinton, Miss Black

Look at these example sentences:

I wanted to speak to the doctor.

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I wanted to speak to Doctor Brown.

Who was the president before President Kennedy?

We do not use "the" with "Lake/Mount + Name":

the lake Lake Victoria

the mount Mount Everest

Look at this example sentence:

We live beside Lake Victoria. We have a fantastic view across the lake.

We do not normally use "the" for roads, streets, squares, parks etc:

streets etc Oxford Street, Trenholme Road, Fifth Avenue

squares etc Trafalgar Square, Oundle Place, Piccadilly Circus

parks etc Central Park, Kew Gardens

Many big, important buildings have names made of two words (for example, Kennedy Airport). If the

first word is the name of a person or place, we do not normally use "the":

people Kennedy Airport, Alexander Palace, St Paul's Cathedral

places Heathrow Airport, Waterloo Station, Edinburgh Castle

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Proper nouns with the

We normally use "the" for country names that include "States","Kingdom", "Republic" etc:

States the United States of America/the USA

Kingdom the United Kingdom/the UK

Republic the French Republic

We normally use "the" for names of canals, rivers, seas and oceans:

canals the Suez Canal

rivers the River Nile, the Nile

seas the Mediterranean Sea, the Mediterranean

oceans the Pacific Ocean, the Pacific

We normally use "the" for plural names of people and places:

people (families, for example) the Clintons

countries the Philippines, the United States

island groups the Virgin Islands, the British Isles

mountain ranges the Himalayas, the Alps

Look at these sentences:

I saw the Clintons today. It was Bill's birthday.

Trinidad is the largest island in the West Indies.

Mount Everest is in the Himalayas.

We normally use "the" with the following sorts of names:

hotels, restaurants the Ritz Hotel, the Peking Restaurant

banks the National Westminster Bank

cinemas, theatres the Royal Theatre, the ABC Cinema

museums the British Museum, the National Gallery

buildings the White House, the Crystal Palace

newspapers the Daily Telegraph, the Sunday Post

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organisations the United Nations, the BBC, the European Union

We normally use "the" for names made with "of":

the Tower of London

the Gulf of Siam

the Tropic of Cancer

the London School of Economics

the Bank of France

the Statue of Liberty

COMMON NOUNS

A noun that can be preceded by the definite article (the) and that represents one or all of the members

of a class. As a general rule, a common noun does not begin with a capital letter unless it appears at the

start of a sentence. Contrast withproper noun.

Common nouns refer to general, unspecific categories of entities. Whereas Nebraska is a proper noun

because it signifies a specific state, the word state itself is a common noun because it can refer to any of

the 50 states in the United States. Harvard refers to a particular institution of higher learning, while the

common noun university can refer to any such institution.

These are words for people. They are common nouns.

artist, clown, acrobat, astronaut, actor, lawyer, aunt, judge, baby, man, baker, nurse, cook, police

officer, dentist, singer, doctor, soldier, giant, teacher, etc

These are words for animals. They are common nouns.

bird, crocodile, deer, cat, goose, cow, hen, dog, horse, dolphin, mouse, duck, parrot, fish, shark, goat,

whale, zebra, eagle, bear, etc

These are words for places. They are common nouns.

shop, beach, park, library, airport, market, cave, mountain, church, playground, farm, restaurant, hill,

school, hospital, seashore, hotel, stadium, house, supermarket, island, temple, mall, zoo, etc

These are words for things. They are common nouns.

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basket, bed, cake, drum, blanket, gate, bag, kite, box, ladder, bread, lamp, can, picture, chair, radio, cot,

television, cup, train, desk, truck, door, watch, egg, window, etc

ABSTRACT NOUNS

More ethereal, theoretical concepts use abstract nouns to refer to them. Concepts like freedom, love,

power, and redemption are all examples of abstract nouns.

Example 1:

When Joseph dived into the violent waves to rescue a drowning puppy, his bravery amazed the

crowd of fishermen standing on the dock.

Bravery, one of the nouns in this sentence, is an example of an abstract noun. You can seeJoseph, the

water, and the crowd. But you cannot see bravery itself. Bravery has no color, size, shape, sound, odor,

flavor, or texture; it has no quality that you can see, hear, smell, taste, or touch. Any noun that escapes

your five senses is an abstract noun.

Example 2:

They hate us for our freedom. All you need is love. We must fight the power.

In these sentences, the abstract nouns refer to concepts, ideas, philosophies, and other entities that

cannot be concretely perceived.

Don't confuse an abstract noun with a concrete noun.

Many nouns are concrete, not abstract. Concrete nouns register on your five senses. Here is an example:

Joseph cuddled the wet puppy under his warm jacket.

Puppy is an example of a concrete noun. You can see a puppy, stroke its fur, smell its breath, and listen

to it whine. You can even taste the puppy if you don't mind pulling dog hair off your tongue! Because a

puppy will register on all five senses, puppy is a concrete noun.

PRONOUNS

Demonstrative Pronouns

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These pronouns are used to demonstrate (or indicate). This, that, these and those are all demonstrative

pronouns.

Examples:

This is the one I left in the car.

(In this example, the speaker could be indicating to a mobile phone, in which case, the pronoun this

replaces the words mobile phone.)

Shall I take those?

Indefinite Pronouns

Unlike demonstrative pronouns, which point out specific items, indefinite pronouns are used for non-

specific things. This is the largest group of pronouns. All, some, any, several, anyone, nobody, each,

both, few, either, none, one and no one are the most common.

Example:

Somebody must have seen the driver leave.

(somebodynot a specific person)

We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars. (Oscar Wilde)

I have nothing to declare except my genius. (Oscar Wilde)

Interrogative Pronouns

These pronouns are used in questions. Although they are classified as pronouns, it is not easy to see

how they replace nouns. Who, which, what, where and how are all interrogative pronouns.

Example:

Who told you to do that?

Which dog won the race

Personal Pronouns

The personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, they, and who. More often than not (but not

exclusively), they replace nouns representing people. When most people think of pronouns, it is the

personal pronouns that usually spring to mind.

Example:

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We can't all be heroes because somebody has to sit on the curb and clap as they go by.

I bought some batteries, but they weren't included.

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns are used to show possession. As they are used as adjectives, they are also known

as possessive adjectives. My, your, his, her, its, our and their are all possessive pronouns.

Example:

Have you seen her book?

(In this example, the pronoun her replaces a word like Sarah's.)

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns are used to add more information to a sentence. Which, that, who (including whom

and whose) and where are all relative pronouns.

Examples:

Dr Adam Sissons, who lectured at Cambridge for more than 12 years, should have known the

difference.

(In this example, the relative pronoun who introduces the clause who studied at Cambridge for 12 years

and refers back to Dr Adams Sissons.)

The man who first saw the comet reported it as a UFO.

(In this example, the relative pronoun who introduces the clause who first saw the comet and refers

back to the man.)

Absolute Possessive Pronouns

These pronouns also show possession. Unlike possessive pronouns (see above), which are adjectives to

nouns, these pronouns sit by themselves. Mine, yours, his, hers, ours and theirs are all absolute

possessive pronouns.

Examples:

The tickets are as good as ours.

Shall we take yours or theirs?

Reciprocal Pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns are used for actions or feelings that are reciprocated. The two most common

reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another.

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Examples:

They like one another.

They talk to each other like they're babies.

Reflexive Pronouns

A reflexive pronoun ends ...self or ...selves and refers to another noun or pronoun in the sentence

(usually the subject of the sentence). The reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself,

ourselves, yourselves and themselves.

Examples:

The dog bit itself.

(In this example, the intensive pronoun itself refers back to the noun the dog.)

Are you talking to yourself?

Intensive (or Emphatic) Pronouns

An intensive pronoun (sometimes called an emphatic pronoun) refers back to another noun or pronoun

in the sentence to emphasise it (e.g., to emphasise that it is the thing carrying out the action).

Examples:

John bakes all the bread himself.

(In this example, the intensive pronoun himself refers back to the noun John.)

The cat opened the door itself.

SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

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The subject and the verb must agree in number: both must be singular or both must be plural. Students

have problems with subject verb agreement when the verb is a form of be or have, or when the verb is

in present tense.

Rules for subject verb agreement

1. When words like the following are used as subjects, they take singular verb.

Everybody Anybody Somebody Nobody Each

Everyone Anyone Someone No one Either

Everything Anything Something Nothing Neither

Everybody knows the answer.

Nobody speaks German here.

Somebody was in the room.

2. When every and each come before a singular subject joined by and, the verb is singular.

Every man and woman has the right to vote.

Each student and teacher was aware of the difficulty.

3. Prepositional phrases that come between the subject and the verb do not change the number of

the subject.

The teacher as well as the students was working on the problem.

The mother together with her children is waiting.

Some examples of prepositional phrases that function like that are:

As well as

In addition to

Together with

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Along with

Except

4. When the verb comes before the subject as in there or here sentences, it agrees with the

subject that immediately follows the verb.

There is a tree in the garden.

There are many trees in the garden.

There is a pine tree and some oaks in the garden.

There goes the cat.

There seems to be a relationship.

There arise problems.

There arises a problem.

5. Introductory it is always singular.

It is my sister who works in the hospital.

It is my cats which cause the trouble.

6. Subjects joined by and take a plural verb (except for number 2).

My sister and brother live in Berlin.

Both the teacher and the student were surprised.

7. Several, many, both, few are plural words and take a plural verb.

Both are happy with the grades they got.

Many were lost on the way.

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Few have done their homework.

8. Some nouns are always plural and always take a plural verb.

Trousers, pants, slacks, shorts, briefs, jeans

Glasses, sunglasses

Scissors, pliers, tweezers

My jeans are old.

This year shorts are in fashion.

Where are my scissors?

9. Some words such as none, any, all, more, most, some, majority, half may take either singular or

plural verbs depending on the meaning.

All the money has been spent.

All of the students know the answer.

10. When subjects are joined by words such as neither, either, not only the verb must agree with

the closer subject.

Either the man or his wife knows the answer.

Either the man or his friends know the answer.

Either the children or the man knows the answer.

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11. Collective nouns are usually singular when regarded as a unit.

My family lives in Ankara.

Our team has won every game this year.

Sometimes when the members are seen as functioning independently, these collective nouns may be

plural.

My family have a lot of money. (members of my family)

Our team are working hard to win every game they play. (team members)

12. Some nouns have the same singular and plural form. They take singular or plural verb depending

on the meaning.

This species of monkeys lives only in India.

There are many species of monkeys.

Some nouns in this group are:

Species, series, deer, fish, sheep

13. Expressions stating amount of time, money, weight, volume are plural in form but take a

singular verb as in:

Three weeks is a long time.

Two hundred dollars is a lot of money.

14. Some nouns look plural withs but they take a singular verb.

Sciences Abstract nouns Diseases

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Physics

Mathematics

Statistics

Economics

News

Politics

Ethics

Measles

Mumps

Maths is found difficult by many students.

Statistics requires complicated methods.

15. Generic references with the require plural verb.

The rich are not always happy.

The young like to listen to loud music.

The old hate loud music.

The English are distant and the French are humorous.

16. Note the use of foreign plurals.

SingularPlural

Analysis

Thesis

Crisis

Basis

Parenthesis Analyses

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Theses

Crises

Bases

Parentheses

Curriculum

Memorandum

Datum

Bacterium

Medium

Curricula

Memoranda

Data

Bacteria

Media

Criterion

Phenomenon

Criteria

Phenomena

Stimulus

Radius

Syllabus

Stimuli

Radii

Syllabi

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17. Dont forget that some common English words have irregular plurals.

Plural Singular

Child

Person Children

People

ADVERB

Adverb is a word which modifies (gives more information about) a verb or adjective or other adverb.

For example,

He replied - He replied quickly.

The word quickly is an adverb which gives more information about verb reply in the above example.

The adverb quickly in above example tells us about the verb reply that the reply was given quickly or

with no time delay.

Similarly an adverb may also modify adjective or other adverb or other part of speech except the noun.

Examples (adverbs modifying verbs).

He was driving carelessly.

John can speak French fluently.

They live happily.

Marry is laughing loudly.

He goes to school daily.

We sometimes get confused.

He met me yesterday.

Guests will come here.

Examples (adverbs modifying adjectives).

Note: The bold words (in following examples) are adverbs and the underlined words are adjectives.

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It is a very difficult problem.

He is seriously ill.

This book is really nice.

The story of crazy man was truly funny.

Examples (adverbs modifying other adverbs).

Note: The bold word (in following examples) is an adverb and underlined word is the other adverb.

John drives very slowly.

He was talking too much angrily.

He ran fast enough to catch the bus.

They live very happily.

Formation of adverb

Most of adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives. For example, happily, easily, quickly, angrily,

correctly, fluently, proudly, loudly, rapidly, immediately etc

A few adverbs exists without -ly. For example, fast, slow, deep, far, hard, high, wrong, right, low, well,

tight, straight, there, here, close, late, very, too, not

Types of Adverb

Adverb modifies verb by giving us the following information.

How the action occurs

Where the action occurs

How many times action occur

At which time the action occurs

Intensity of action

Adverbs are categorized on the basis of it information it gives, into the following categories.

Adverbs of manner

Adverb of place

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Adverb of time

Adverb of frequency

Adverbs of Manner

These adverbs tell us that in which manner the action occurs or how the action occurs or occurred or

will occur.

Examples.

She speaks loudly.

He was driving slowly.

You replied correctly.

He runs fast.

They solved the problem easily.

Listen to me carefully.

Adverb of Place

Adverb of place tells us about the place of action or where action occurs/occurred/will occur.

e.g. here, there, near, somewhere, outside, ahead, on the top, at some place.

Examples.

He will come here.

The children are playing outside.

He was standing near the wall.

They were flying kites on the top of hill.

He lives somewhere in New York.

She went upstairs.

Adverb of time

These adverbs tell us about the time of action. e.g. now, then, soon, tomorrow, yesterday, today,

tonight, again, early, yesterday.

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Examples.

I will buy a computer tomorrow.

The guest came yesterday.

Do it now.

She is still waiting for her brother.

He got up early in the morning.

Adverb of frequency

Adverbs of frequency tell us how many times the action occurs or occurred or will occur.

e.g. daily, sometimes, often, seldom, usually, frequently, always, ever, generally, rarely, monthly, yearly.

Examples.

He goes to school daily.

She never smokes.

He is always late for class.

They always come in time.

ADJECTIVE

Adjective is a word that modifies (gives more information about) a noun or pronoun.

For example, tall man, old house, red car. The words tall, old, red are adjectives which give more

information about nouns man, house, and car in these examples.

More than one adjective can also be used for a single noun in sentence.

Examples.

a. The beautiful girl entered into the room.

b. The tall, beautiful girl entered into the room.

c. The tall, thin, beautiful girl entered into the room.

d. The tall, thin, beautiful and intelligent girl entered into the room.

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An adjective gives information about the colour, size, characteristic, quality, quantity or personal traits

of a noun or pronoun.

Some examples.

White, red, black, green, purple, yellow, orange, brown, and black are adjectives because they mention

the colour of noun or pronoun.

Beautiful, pretty, ugly, thin, slim, fat, tall, and short are adjectives and they describe physical

characteristic of a noun or pronoun.

Intelligent, brave, courageous, determined, exuberant and diligent are adjective and they describe the

personal traits of a noun or pronoun.

Use of adjective in sentence

Adjective is used in sentence at two places depending upon the structure of sentence.

Use of adjective before noun (Examples)

a. He ate a delicious mango.

b. She bought a red car.

c. A fat man was running in the street.

d. I saw a cute baby.

e. I dont like hot tea.

f. They live in a small home.

g. Poor cant afford expensive clothes.

Use of adjective after verbs

Adjectives may be used after stative verbs (i.e. seem, look, sound, taste, appear, feel, be). Adjective are

used after such verbs which behaves like stative verbs.

For example, Iron is hot

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Hot is adjective in the above sentence which comes after is and is behaves like a stative verb in

this sentence. Hot after verb is but it tells us about the noun (subject) iron

Examples.

a. Your problem seems difficult.

b. That book was good.

c. This pizza tastes delicious.

d. The story sounds interesting.

e. He is stupid.

f. The man became angry.

g. She looks attractive.

Degrees of Adjectives and their use

There are three degrees of adjectives.

1. Positive Adjective 2. Comparative Adjective 3. Superlative Adjective

Some Examples:

Positive Comparative Superlative

Big Bigger Biggest

Great Greater Greatest

Short Shorter Shortest

Old Older Oldest

Large Larger Largest

Happy Happier Happiest

Lucky Luckier Luckiest

Heavy Heavier Heaviest

Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful

Horrible More horrible Most horrible

Good Better Best

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Bad Worse Worst

Little Less Least

Many More Most

Use of comparative adjective

Comparative adjectives are used to express characteristic of one thing in comparison to another thing

(one thing). It makes comparison between two things (only two things not more than two).

Word than is mostly used after comparative adjective but sometimes other words to may be used

after comparative adjective. See the following examples.

Examples.

a. She is taller than Mary.

b. A cup is smaller than a glass.

c. He is junior to me.

d. Chinese is more difficult than English.

e. Paris is more beautiful than New York.

Use of Superlative adjective

Comparative adjectives are used to express characteristic of one thing in comparison to other things

(many things). It makes comparison among things more than two. Superlative is the highest degree of a

thing in comparison to other things. A superlative adjective means that a object is surpassing all others

(things in comparison) in quality or characteristic. For example, John is the most intelligent student in

his class. It means John is surpassing all other students in his class and no other student in his class is as

intelligent as John.

Article the is used before superlative degree. In or of etcis used after the superlative andmodifying noun in sentence.

Examples.

a. Bills Gate is the richest person in world.

b. Brunel is the most beautiful hotel in England.

c. Mount Everest is the highest mountain in world.

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d. She is the tallest girl in class.

e. Our generation is the most modern.

f. His house is the biggest in the street.

The winter is the coldest time of year.

SIMPLE PRESENT

The simple present tense in English is used to describe an action that is regular, true or normal.

We use the present tense:

1. For repeated or regular actions in the present time period.

I take the train to the office.

The train to Berlin leaves every hour.

John sleeps eight hours every night during the week.

2. For facts.

The President of The USA lives in The White House.

A dog has four legs.

We come from Switzerland.

3. For habits.

I get up early every day.

Carol brushes her teeth twice a day.

They travel to their country house every weekend.

4. For things that are always / generally true.

It rains a lot in winter.

The Queen of England lives in Buckingham Palace.

They speak English at work.

CONTINUOUS TENSE

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

1. We use the Present Continuous Tense to talk about activities happening now.

Examples

The kids are watching TV.

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I am sitting down, because I am tired.

I am not learning German, because this is an English class.

Who are you writing to?

2. We can also use the Present Continuous Tense to talk about activities happening around now,

and not necessarily this very moment.

Examples

Sally is studying really hard for her exams this week.

I am reading a really interesting book now.

How are you brushing up on your English for the trip?

We aren't working hard these days.

3. The Present Continuous Tense is also used to talk about activities happening in the near future,

especially for planned future events.

Examples

I am seeing my dentist on Wednesday.

Polly is coming for dinner tomorrow.

Are you doing anything tonight?

We aren't going on holiday next week.

PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

1. Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The

interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or

just an interruption in time.

Examples:

I was watching TV when she called.

When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.

While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.

What were you doing when the earthquake started?

I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm.

You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.

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While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car.

Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane.

While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off.

A: What were you doing when you broke your leg?

B: I was snowboarding.

2. use as a specific time as an interruption.

Examples:

Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.

At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.

Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.

3. When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea

that both actions were happening at the same time. The actions are parallel.

Examples:

I was studying while he was making dinner.

While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television.

Were you listening while he was talking?

I wasn't paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I made several mistakes.

What were you doing while you were waiting?

Thomas wasn't working, and I wasn't working either.

They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.

4. The Past Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea thatsomething irritating or shocking often happened in the past. The concept is very similar to the

expression "used to" but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly"

between "be" and "verb+ing."

Examples:

She was always coming to class late.

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He was constantly talking. He annoyed everyone.

I didn't like them because they were always complaining.

PERFECT TENSE

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

1. We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now.

The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions

such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment,

that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never,

once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

Examples:

I have seen that movie twenty times.

There have been many earthquakes in California.

People have traveled to the Moon.

Have you read the book yet?

Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.

A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?

B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.

2. Duration from the past until now (Non-Continuous Verbs). With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-

continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past

and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all

durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.

Examples:

I have had a cold for two weeks.

She has been in England for six months.

Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.

*Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-

continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in

this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

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PAST PERFECT TENSE

1. The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past.

It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.

Examples:

I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.

I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.

Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times.

Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?

She only understood the movie because she had read the book.

Kristine had never been to an opera before last night.

We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in advance.

A: Had you ever visited the U.S. before your trip in 2006?

B: Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before.

2. Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs). With Non-Continuous Verbs

and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to show that something started

in the past and continued up until another action in the past.

Examples:

We had that car for ten years before it broke down.

By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.

They felt bad about selling the house because they had owned it for more than forty years.

*Although the above use of Past Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-

continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in

this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

SENTENCE TYPES

SIMPLE SENTENCE

A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a

complete thought. In the following simple sentences, subjects are in yellow, and verbs are in green.

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A. Some students like to study in the mornings.

B. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon.

C. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.

The three examples above are all simple sentences. Note that sentence B contains a compound subject,

and sentence C contains a compound verb. Simple sentences, therefore, contain a subject and verb and

express a complete thought, but they can also contain a compound subjects or verbs.

COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators are

as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter of each of the coordinators spells

FANBOYS.) Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma. In the

following compound sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the coordinators and the

commas that precede them are in red.

A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.

B. Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.

C. Alejandro played football, for Maria went shopping.

The above three sentences are compound sentences. Each sentence contains two independent clauses,

and they are joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it. Note how the conscious use of

coordinators can change the relationship between the clauses. Sentences B and C, for example, are

identical except for the coordinators. In sentence B, which action occurred first? Obviously, "Alejandro

played football" first, and as a consequence, "Maria went shopping. In sentence C, "Maria went

shopping" first. In sentence C, "Alejandro played football" because, possibly, he didn't have anything

else to do, for or because "Maria went shopping." How can the use of other coordinators change the

relationship between the two clauses? What implications would the use of "yet" or "but" have on the

meaning of the sentence?

COMPLEX SENTENCE

A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex

sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a relative

pronoun such as that, who, or which. In the following complex sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs

are in green, and the subordinators and their commas (when required) are in red.

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A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.

B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.

C. The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow.

D. After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies.

E. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they finished studying.

When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such as sentences A and D, a comma is required

at the end of the dependent clause. When the independent clause begins the sentence with

subordinators in the middle as in sentences B, C, and E, no comma is required. If a comma is placed

before the subordinators in sentences B, C, and E, it is wrong.

Note that sentences D and E are the same except sentence D begins with the dependent clause which is

followed by a comma, and sentence E begins with the independent clause which contains no comma.

The comma after the dependent clause in sentence D is required, and experienced listeners of English

will often hear a slight pause there. In sentence E, however, there will be no pause when the

independent clause begins the sentence.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

YES-NO QUESTIONS

Yes or no questions are questions whose expected answer is either "yes" or "no".

How to form yes-no questions

In English, a special word order (Verb Subject Object) is used to form yes-no questions.

Examples:

Affirmative Yes or No Question

They are American Are they American?

She is nice Is she nice?

The rules

1.If the main verb of the sentence is "to be", simply invert the subject and the verb to be:

Examples:

They are American. Are they American?

They are nice. Are they nice?

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2.If the sentence includes a main verb and another or other helping (auxiliary) verb(s), invert the subject

and the (first) helping (auxiliary) verb.

Examples:

They are visiting Paris. Are they visiting Paris?

She has done the housework. Has she done the housework

Nancy has been working all night long. Has Nancy been working all night long?

He will be reading the book. Will he be reading the book?

3.If the sentence includes a verb which is not the verb "to be" and doesn't include a helping (auxiliary)

verb, the transformation is more complex.

a.If the verb is in the present tense, add either do or does and put the main verb in its base form:

do if the subject is the first person singular, second person singular, first person plural, second

person plural and third person plural (I, you, we, they)

Examples:

I like apples. Do you like apples?

They go to a high school. Do the go to a high school?

does if the subject is the third person singular (he, she, it).

Examples:

Nancy reads a lot. Does Nancy read a lot?

He hates basketball. Does he hate basketball?

b.If the verb is in the past tense, add did and put the main verb in its base form:

Examples:

He discovered the truth. Did he discover the truth?

She write a nice essay. Did she write a nice essay?

They did the homework. Did they do the homework?

WH - QUESTIONS

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Question words Meaning Examples

who person Who's that? That's Nancy.

where place Where do you live? In Boston

why reason Why do you sleep early? Because I've got to get up early

when time When do you go to work? At 7:00

how manner How do you go? By car

what object, idea or action What do you do? I am an engineer

which choice Which one do you prefer? The red one.

whose possession Whose is this book? It's Alan's.

whom object of the verb Whom did you meet? I met the manager.

what kind description What kind of music do you like? I like quiet songs

what time time What time did you come home?

how many quantity (countable) How many students are there? There are twenty.

how much amount, price (uncountable) How much time have we got? Ten minutes

how long duration, length How long did you stay in that hotel? For two weeks.

how often frequency How often do you go to the gym? Twice a week.

how far distance How far is your school? It's one mile far.

how old age How old are you? I'm 16.

how come reason How come I didn't see at the party?

Asking questions

1.If you ask about the subject of the sentence, simply add the question word at the beginning:

Example:

James writes good poems. Who writes good pems?

2.If you ask about the predicate of the sentence (the part of a sentence which contains the verb and

gives information about the subject), there are three options:

If there is a helping (auxilary) verb that precedes the main verb ( foe example, can, is, are, was,

were, will, would...), add the question word and invert the subject and the helping (auxilary) verb.

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Examples:

He can speak Chinese. What can he speak?

They are leaving tonight. When are they leaving?

If you ask about the predicate and there is no helping (auxilary) verb and the verb is "to be",

simply add the question verb and invert the subject and the verb.

Example:

The play was interesting. How was the play?

If there is no helping (auxilary) verb in the the predicate and the main verb is not "to be", add

the auxilary "do" in the appropriate form.

Examples:

They go to the movies every Saturday. Where do they go to the movies?

He wakes up early. When does he wake up?

They sent a letter. What did they send?

ENGLISH SOUND SYSTEM

VOWELS

VOWEL SOUNDS AND PHONETIC SYMBOLS

[] cat, bad, sad, sand, land, hand

Among all English vowels, the greatest problem for most learners poses . It is somewhere in

between of a in father and e in bed. It is usually pronounced slightly longer in American English

than in British English. It is always represented by the letter a in a stressed closed syllable, but not all

such occurrances are pronounced as [].

[+ bra, calm, palm, father,start, dark

This vowel is the closest one to the sound of the letter a in many other languages and as such

is also denoted *a+ in some dictionaries. There is no reliable general rule which would tell you when a

is pronounced as [+ instead of *+.

It is quite rare in American English to pronounce a as *+; it is usually pronounced *+, as in

grass, cant, half, bath etc., all of which are pronounced with *+ in British English. On the other hand,

the sound is used in American English in words in which a Brit would say [] (see below), as in god, pot,

top,spotlisten to both American and British pronunciation.

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[] god, pot, top, spot (British English only)

This vowel is quite similar to the sound of o many other languages. It is always represented by

o in a closed stressed syllable, although such an o can also be pronounced differently (e.g. in son).

Americans dont use this vowel and say *+ instead.

[] but, cut, gun, come, some, glove

This vowel very similar to [+, but its never pronounced long in English. It is always represented

by u in a stressed closed syllable, or by an o, but both can be pronounced also in a different way.

[] get, bed, set, sell, fell, men

This vowel is the closest one to the sound of the letter e in most other languages and is

sometimes denoted by e in dictionaries (for example in the one I am linking to). It is usually

represented by an e in a closed stressed syllable, but often also by ai, e.g. said, fair, ae, e.g. bear,

pear, and others.

[] pit, bin, fill, will, village, bullet

In writing, this sound is most commonly represented by i in a closed stressed syllable, but also

unstressed a, e, or i is often pronounced as *]. If you find [] (see below) in a dictionary for a word

in which you can clearly hear [+ (or conversely), dont worry; in most cases the two possibilities are

interchangeable.

*i+ or *i+ he, she, see, keep, family, hyperbole

This is just a softer [+. It is mostly represented by ee, but quite often also by ea, single e,

final y and others. It is usually long when it is in a stressed syllable and short when it is not, but not

necessarily.

[+ saw, straw, dawn, fall, call, wall

A similar sound to the British [+, but somewhat darker. It is usually represented by aw, al

or au.

[] put, full, good, wood, could, would

The sound most similar to the sound of u in many other languages. It is often denoted by u

in a closed stressed syllable (when it is not [+), but also by oo, ouland other letter groups.

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*u+ you, who, chew, shoe, cool, tool

[+ would sound strange if it were long, so when there is a long u sound in English, it is

pronounced somewhat darker than *+. It is most commonly denoted by ew and oo, but there is

no way to tell when oo is pronounced as *u+ and when as *] (this has to be learned by heart).

[] syllable, moment, terrible, felony, papyrus

Most learners of English learn very fast how to pronounce a when it means an indefinite

article, and this is exactly the pronunciation of []. It can be represented by any vowel (a, e, i, o, u) in an

unstressed syllable, see the examples above. When represented by a or i, it is often freely

interchangeable with [+; for example terrible can be pronounced either /trbl/, or /trbl/.

[] mister, standard, editor (Am. English only)

This vowel is formed by saying [] and at the same time putting your tongue to the position as if

you were saying the English r (listen to the recordings). It is denoted [r] in some dictionaries, which is

not completely precise, it is more like a long r). In all cases where it is used (most notably -er at the

end of a word), a Brit would say just [].

[+, *+ curve, purge, herd, serve, bird, stir

Dont confuse the symbol with []. [+ is pronounced the same as *+ in some dialects while it is

slightly darker in others, and many dictionaries dont use it at all and write simply *+. The difference

between [+ and *+ is the same as between *] and []. The former is used chiefly in British English, the

latter chiefly in American English (listen to the recordings). Dictionaries which denote [+ as *+ would

denote [+ as *r+. In writing, *+ and *+ are usually represented by the letter groups ur, er, or

ir.

DIPHTONGS

A Dipthong is two vowels blended together to produce one sound. The different vowel combinations

create a slurring of the two vowels. When u combines with another vowel, a w sound is produced

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(cuerpo). The "i followed by another vowel, produces a consonant y sound as in year (hielo, siete).

The ai or ay combination is pronounced like the word eye (hay).

English has 8 diphthongs.

Centering diphthong:

1. three (3) ending in : , e,

Closing diphthong

2. three (3) ending in : e, a,

3. two (2) ending in : , a

Examples:

: beard, weird, fierce, ear, beer, tear

e: aired, cairn, scarce, bear, hair,

: moored, tour, lure, sure, pure

e: paid, pain, face, shade, age, wait, taste, paper

a: tide, time, nice, buy, bike, pie, eye, kite, fine

: void, loin, voice, oil, boil, coin, toy, Roy

: load, home, most, bone, phone, boat, bowl

a: loud, gown, house, cow, bow, brow, grouse

TRIPHTONGS

A Triphthong is the combination of three vowels in the same syllable: A strong vowel in between two

weak vowels. "a", "e" and "o" are strong vowels. They never form diphthongs together. They may form

diphthongs and triphthongs only in combination with "I" and "U."

For example, a careful pronunciation of the word hour begins with a vowel quality similar to :, goes

on to then ends in . It says /a/.

5 closing diphthongs with added on the end.

- e+ = e. as in layer, player

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- a+ = a. as in lire, fire

- + = , as in loyal, royal

- + = u, as in lower, mower

- a+ = au, as in power, hour.

CONSONANTS

CONSONANTS SOUNDS AND PHONETIC SYMBOLS

There is less variation in consonants between speakers of different dialects than between vowels. British

and American consonants are the same. Most of the consonant symbols are similar to the normal

alphabet of written English. Just a few have to be learned.

Here are the 24 consonants of English:

No. symbol Example words

1 p pen/pen/ peep/pip/

2 b big/bg/ babe /beb/

3 t ten /ten/ let /let/

4 d den /den/ red /red/

5 k key /ki/ cake /kek/

6 g get /get/ leg /leg/

7 s see /si/ guess /ges/

8 z zoo /zu/ buzz /bz/

9 shoe /u/ wish /w/

10 measure /me/ treasure /tre/

11 t check /tek/ watch /wt/

12 d jet /det/ judge /dd/

13 f fan /fn/ laugh /lf/

14 v van /vn/ wave /wev/

15 w wet /wet/ wait /wet/

16 j yes /jes/ you /ju/

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17 h hen /hen/ hat /ht/

18 thin /n/ thought /t/

19 then /en/ that /t/

20 m men /men/ name /nem/

21 n no /n/ phone /fn/

22 ring /r/ sang /s/

23 l let /let/ tell /tel/

24 r rat /rt/ read /rid/

SKIMMING

Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the newspaper, you'reprobably not reading it word-by-word, instead you're scanning the text. Skimming is done at a speed

three to four times faster than normal reading. People often skim when they have lots of material to

read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when you want to see if an article may be of interest in

your research.

Skimming to get an overall impression.

Skimming is useful when you want to survey a text to get a general idea of what it is about. In skimming

you ignore the details and look for the main ideas. Main ideas are usually found in the first sentences of

each paragraph and in the first and last paragraphs. It is also useful to pay attention to the organisation

of the text.

As reading is an interactive process, you have to work at constructing the meaning of the text from the

marks on the paper. You need to be active all the time when you are reading. It is useful, therefore, if

you need to read the text in detail, before you start reading to activate the knowledge you have about

the topic of the text and to formulate questions based on this information. Skimming a text for gist can

help you formulate questions to keep you interacting with the text.

Skimming a text using first lines of paragraphs.

In most academic writing, the paragraph is a coherent unit, about one topic, connected to the previous

and next paragraphs. Paragraphs are organised internally and the first sentence of each paragraph isoften a summary of, or an introduction to, the paragraph. You can therefore get a good idea of the

overall content of a text by reading the first sentence of each paragraph. This should help you get a

feeling for the structure of the text. In many cases that will be enough, but if it isn't, you will now have a

good idea of the structure of the text and you will find it easier to read in detail. Familiar texts are easier

to read.

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you need to read the text in detail, before you start reading to activate the knowledge you have about

the topic of the text and to formulate questions based on this information. Skimming a text using first

lines of paragraphs can help you formulate questions to keep you interacting with the text.

Skimming a text using first and last paragraphs.

In most academic writing, the text is organised clearly with an introduction and a conclusion. The

introduction gives you an idea of what the text is going to be about and the conclusion shows that this is

what it has been about. You can therefore get a good idea of the overall content of a text by reading the

first and last paragraphs of a text. This should help you get a feeling for the content of the text. In many

cases that will be enough, but if it isn't, you will now have a good idea of the content of the text and you

will find it easier to read in detail. Familiar texts are easier to read.



you need to read the text in detail, before you start reading to activate the knowledge you have aboutthe topic of the text and to formulate questions based on this information. Skimming a text using first

and last paragraphs can help you formulate questions to keep you interacting with the text.

Skimming a text, using section headings.

In some academic writing, the text is organised through the use of headings and sub-headings. You can

therefore get a good idea of the overall content of a text by reading the headings and sub-headings first.

This should help you get a feeling for the content and organisation of the text. In many cases that will be

enough, but if it isn't, you will now have a good idea of the content of the text and you will find it easier

to read in detail. Familiar texts are easier to read.


marks on the paper. You need to be active all the time when you are reading. It is useful, therefore,

before you start reading to activate the knowledge you have about the topic of the text and to

formulate questions based on this information. The title, sub-titles and section headings can help you

formulate questions to keep you interacting with the text.

SCANNING

Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary. You

search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you're looking for, so you're concentrating

on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking

specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when you first find a resource to determine whether it

will answer your questions. Once you've scanned the document, you might go back and skim it.

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How To Scan

If you want just one piece of information from a text (e.g. name, an address, the time of a TV

programme or a word you want to spell) you need to scan for it. This means looking through very

quickly without really reading the words. All you have to do is find the word(s) you want.

Look at the list below. Tick the things you would use scanning for:

reading instructions

finding a telephone number

m

finding out who a letter is from

reading a book

finding a street on a map

looking up the time of a bus

finding a plumber in yellow pages

finding a word in the dictionary

studying an agreement

checking that a cheque has been signed

Steps for Scanning

Think about what you are scanning for.

Write it down and try to get a picture of it in your mind.

Keep thinking about what you are looking for and let your eye run over the page.

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Dont read thewords. Dont read the sentences. Just look.

If you dont find it first time, try again.

Keep thinking about the words you want and keep your eyes moving quickly.

If you dont do it quickly then you are not really scanning, youre stopping to read the other

words.

You might need a lot of practice before you can scan well, but it will save you time in the end. Its very

useful for looking up all sorts of things.

If you are not good at reading yet, you can still scan. Try finding words you know well, like Liverpool or

your own name, in a page of writing.

SQ3R ( SURVEY, QUESTION, READ, RECITE, REVIEW )

The SQ3R Reading Method

What on earth is the SQ3R method of reading? It is a way to read academic material such as textbooks,

articles, research studies or manuals that can increase your comprehension of what you are reading and

improve your ability to recall it. With the SQ3R method, your active involvement in the reading process

is requiredin fact, it is demanded! We wont sugar-coat it: reading textbooks is hard work. But the

SQ3R method can make that work less difficult and perhaps, even a little more interesting.

Why SQ3R?

Evidence of the success of this method has been obtained from several studies. In one experiment

several sections of a how-to-study class measured their reading ability (reading rate and comprehension

accuracy) on a test that dealt with the history of Canada. They were then given practice in the use of

the SQ3R Method for several days, after which they took another comparable reading test. Before

training in SQ3R, the average reading level for the classes was at only the 34th percentile, but after

training, it was at the 53rd percentile. In another experiment, two quizzes of equal difficulty were

prepared. For the first quiz, the students studied their own way, but for the second quiz, they were

shown how to predict quiz questions with the SQ3R method. The average number of errors on the first

quiz was 15, but on the second quiz the average was only 6. To the author, one of the most convincing

arguments for the method were the comments of students who tried it and found that it worked, such

as:

I predicted 15 of the 20 *quiz+ questions he asked.

Boy, oh boy, Ive been getting Ds in chemistry but I got a B yesterday.

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It looked as if he had picked the quiz questions from my list.

Steps in the SQ3R Method

1. Survey Skim the following: the title of the chapter, the introduction, the table of contents and

any illustrations, charts or graphs and the summary paragraph. Note any unknown vocabulary and find

a definition. Most importantly, skim the section headings and the first sentences of each paragraph to

find the main points that will be developed. This orientation should not take more than a few minutes

(make a conscious effort to look only at the headings, etc.) but will help you to organize the ideas.

2. Question Turn the first heading, or the first sentence of the first paragraph, into a question. This

will arouse your curiosity and so increase your active involvement and comprehension, and the question

will make important points stand out while explanatory detail is recognized as such. Turning a heading

into a question can be done instantly upon reading the heading, but it demands a conscious effort on

your part to make this a query for which you must read to find the answer.

3. Read Read to answer that question, i.e., to the end of the first headed section. This is not a passive

plodding along each line, but an active search for the answer. Underline only key words--never whole

paragraphs. Use a dictionary if necessary to look up unfamiliar vocabulary. The reader should definitely

have in mind what he wants to learn as he reads each section and not just passively read it line by line.

4. Recite Having read the first section, look away from the book and try briefly to recite in your

own words the answer to your question (aloud, if possible). If you can do this you know what is in the

section; if you cant, skim the section again and repeat the exercise of reciting. An excellent way to do

this reciting from memory is to jot down cue phrases in outline form on a sheet of paper. Make these

notes very brief!

Now repeat steps 2, 3, and 4 on each subsequent headed section. That is, turn the next heading into a

question, read to answer that question, recite the answer and check your accuracy. Read in this way

until the entire chapter is completed, taking very brief breaks between sections as needed.

5. Review When the chapter or selection has thus been completely read, look over your notes to

get a birds-eye view of the points and their relationship to one another. Check your memory by

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reciting the major points under each heading and the sub-points under each major point. You can do

this by covering up the notes and trying to recall the information. Review daily during the period of time

before your exam.

BARRETS TAXONOMY

LITERAL COMPREHENSION

Literal comprehension focuses on ideas and information which are explicitly stated in the selection.

Purposes for reading and teacher's questions designed to elicit responses at this level may range from

simple to complex. A simple task in literal comprehension may be the recognition or recall of a single

fact or incident. A more complex task might be the recognition or recall of a series of facts or the

sequencing of incidents in a reading selection. Purposes and questions at this level may have thefollowing characteristics.

Recognition requires the student to locate or identify ideas or information explicitly stated in

the reading selection itself or in exercises which use the explicit ideas and information presented in the

reading selection. Recognition tasks are:

- Recognition of Details. The student is required to locate or identify facts such as the names of

characters, the time of the story, or the place of the story.

- Recognition of Main Ideas. The student is asked to locate or identify an explicit statement, in or from a

selection, which is a main idea of a paragraph or a larger portion of the selection.

- Recognition of a Sequence. The student is required to locate or identify the order of incidents or

actions explicitly stated in the selection.

- Recognition of Comparison. The student is requested to locate or identify likenesses and differences in

characters, time and places that are explicitly stated in the selection. 8

- Recognition of Cause and Effect Relationships. The student in this instance may be required to locate

or identify the explicitly stated reasons for certain happenings or actions in the selection.

- Recognition of Character Traits. The student is required to identify or locate explicit statements about

a character which help to point out the type of person he or she is.

Recall requires the student to produce from memory ideas and information explicitly stated in

the reading selection. Recall tasks are:

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- Recall of Details. The student is asked to produce from memory facts such as the names of characters,

the time of the story, or the place of the story.

- Recall of Main Ideas. The student is required to state a main idea of a paragraph or a larger portion of

the selection from memory, when the main idea is explicitly stated in the selection.

- Recall of a Sequence. The students is asked to provide from memory the order of incidents or actionsexplicitly stated in the selection.

- Recall of Comparisons. The student is required to call up from memory the likenesses and differences

in characters, times, and places that are explicitly stated in the selection.

- Recall of Cause and Effect Relationships. The student is requested to produce from memory explicitly

stated reasons for certain happenings or actions in the selection.

- Recall of Character Traits. The student is asked to call up from memory explicit statements about

characters which illustrate the type of persons they are.

REORGANIZATION

Reorganization requires the student to analyze, synthesize, and/ or organize ideas or information

explicitly stated in the selection. To produce the desired thought product, the reader may utilize the

statements of the author verbatim or he or she may paraphrase or translate the authors statements.

Reorganization tasks are:

Classifying

In this instance the student is required to place people, things, places, and / or events into categories.

(When pupils are asked to recognize or recall certain kinds of details, relationships, or traits, they are in

effect classifying, but at a lower level of the taxonomy. The key to this level is that things must be sorted

into a category or a class.)

EXAMPLES AND PATTERNS:

Read each phrase below. Does it tell you who, what, when, how, or

where?

1. Sank here. (A phrase taken from a selection)

2. Which of the following are _____ ?

3. Place the following under the proper heading.

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4. Classify the following according to _____ .

5. Which of the following _____ does not belong. (Where based upon

the selection and not merely a matter of word meaning. Care also has to

be exercised in such cases to make sure the inferring of a comparison,

level 3.4 is not necessitated.)

Outlining

The student is requested to organize the selection in outline form using direct statements or

paraphrased statements from the selection.


1. Organize the facts into main heads and subheads to form an outline.

2. Complete the following outline.

3. Divide the story into _____ parts.

Summarizing

The student is asked to condense the selection using direct or paraphrased statements from the

selection. (This level is interpreted as also being applicable when less than the entire selection is

condensed.)


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1. What has happened up to this point?

2. Tell the story in your own words.

Synthesizing

In this instance, the student is requested to consolidate explicit ideas or information from more than

one source. (The pupil is required to put together information from more than one place. More is

required than just a collecting of information for this information must become fused so that

information from more than one source provides a single answer to a question. While the taxonomy

refers to a single selection, quite often in order to answer a question, information obtained from a

previous selection or selections must be utilized. The intent of the taxonomy, despite its restrictive

reference to the selection, is not only the reading comprehension questions from review units, lessons,and exercise, but also many other reading comprehension questions.)


1. How long did the entire _____ last ?

2. Fill in your time line.

3. What was the speed of the _____ ?

4. Did _____ have enough _____ ?

5. Compute _____ .

6. How many times did _____ take place ?

7. On what day did _____ happen ?

8. Figure out _____ .

INFERENTIAL COMPREHENSION

Inferential comprehension is demonstrated by the student when he or she uses the ideas and

information explicitly stated in the selection, his or her intuition, and his or her personal experience as a

basis for conjectures and hypotheses. Inferences drawn by the student may be either convergent or

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divergent in nature and the student may be asked to verbalize the rationale underlying his or her

inferences. In general, then, inferential comprehension is stimulated by purposes for reading and

teachers questions which demand thinking and imagination that go beyond the printed page. (Personal

experience is interpreted to include formal learning experiences, as well as those things which the

reader has personally experienced in a first hand situation. Prior knowledge, regardless of where this

knowledge came from, is an integral part of inference. The crucial factor distinguishing inference

questions from recognition and recall questions is that their answers are not explicitly stated but must

be inferred.)

Inferring Supporting Details

In this instance, the student is asked to conjecture about additional facts the author might have included

in the selection which would have made it more informative, interesting, or appealing. (Whether or not

additional details are indeed more informative, interesting, or appealing is largely subjective. If the

inferring of a detail is required, the question is to be placed at this level.)


1. Did he realize _____ ?

2. Was the discovery planned or accidental? (The classification of this

question at this level is another example of making a debatable decision in

favor of the higher category. The statement in the text says, He sailed

west toward Greenland, but because of bad storms he went off course and

came instead upon an unknown land.)

3. How did she converse with the natives?

4. What was the weather like?

5. Do you think _____ ?

Inferring Main Ideas

The student is required to provide the main idea, general significance, theme, or moral which is not

explicitly stated in the selection. (Such questions may pertain to part of a selection.)


1. What is the main idea of this _____ ?

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2. Discuss the significance of _____ ?

3. Read these short workbook selections and then select or write the best

title for each. (This question goes beyond synthesis and requires

inference.)

4. What is the poem or story saying?

5. Answer this riddle. (Where more than mere word meaning is

required.)

6. Read these paragraphs and then write or select the main idea of each.

7. Write a sentence summarizing the main idea of _____ .

Inferring Sequence

The student, in this case, may be requested to conjecture as to what action or incident might have taken

place between two explicitly stated actions or incidents, or he or she may be asked to hypothesize about

what would happen next if the selection had not ended as it did but had been extended.


1. Many days from _____ through _____ are omitted in her report.

Suggest the events that happened in those days.

2. What will happen next?

3. What happened between _____ and _____ ?

4. Place these _____ in logical order.

Inferring Comparisons

The student is requited to infer likenesses and differences in characters, times, places, things, or ideas.

Such inferential comparisons revolve around ideas such as : here and there, then and now, he and she,

and she and she.


1. Compare: effectiveness and value to future explorers.

2. Compare _____ as to completeness and importance or detail.

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3. How does _____ resemble _____ ?

4. Compare _____ with _____ .

5. Are _____ and _____ related?

6. Complete the following similes or metaphors. (If based on ideas in the

selection.)

Inferring Cause and Effect Relationships

The student is required to hypothesize about the motivations of characters and their interactions with

time and place. He or she may also be required to conjecture s to what caused the author to include

certain ideas, words, characterizations, and action in his or her writing. (Why and Because are often

clues to this category.)


1. Why did Marco Polo say, Take this book and cause it to be read to

you? (The answer requires inferring why people would have to have the

book read to them.)

2. Why was it necessary to _____ ?

3. Why would _____ ?

4. How did _____ know _____ ?

5. Why did they _____ ?

6. Why did the author include _____ ?

7. What is the result of _____ ?

8. What might have happened if _____ ?

9. What makes this _____ a _____ ?

10. What makes you think _____ ?

11. Did _____ because _____ ?

12. How could _____ ?

13. Why is it helpful to have a _____ ?

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Inferring Character Traits

In his case, the student is asked to hypothesize about the nature of characters on the basis of explicit

clues presented in the selection.


1. List their character traits.

2. What did _____ prove about their attitudes toward _____ ?

3. What does _____ tell us about her?

4. Is _____ very wise?

5. What kind of person is _____ ?

6. What words will describe _____ ?

7. What was _____ s attitude about _____ ?

Predicting Outcomes

The student is requested to read an initial portion of a selection and on the basis of this reading he or

she is required to conjecture about the outcome of the selection. (An initial portion of a selection may

be no more than the title.)


1. Do you think _____ will _____ ?

2. What do you think will happen?

3. Will he help them?

4. Someone may predict _____ ?

5. Read _____ and guess what will happen.

Interpreting Figurative Language

The student, in this instance, is asked to infer literal meanings from the

authors figurative use of language.

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1. What is meant by the phrase, continue unrolling themap?

2. Interpret the following figurative expressions: ...

APPRECIATION

Appreciation involves all the previously cited cognitive dimensions of reading, for it deals with the

psychological and aesthetic impact of the selection on the reader. Appreciation calls for the student to

be emotionally and aesthetically sensitive to the work and to have a reaction to the worth of

its psychological and artistic elements. Appreciation includes both the knowledge of and the emotional

response to literary techniques, forms, styles, and structures.

Emotional Response to the Content

The student is required to verbalize his or her feelings about the selection in terms if interest,

excitement, boredom, fear, hate, amusement, etc. It is concerned with the emotional impact of the total

work on the reader. (The emotional impact of the total work on the reader is not considered necessary.)


1. Are you surprised?

2. Why did you like or dislike this selection?

3. Was this selection interesting? funny?

4. What part of the story did you find most exciting?

5. Select your favorite story or passage.

6. Questions requiring the pupil to respond to the plot.

7. Did the story have a happy ending?

8. Which _____ did you enjoy the most?

Identification with Characters or Incidents

Teachers questions of this nature will elicit responses from the reader which demonstrate his or her

sensitivity to, sympathy for, and empathy with characters, happenings, and ideas portrayed by the

author.

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1. What words will describe the feelings of _____ ?

2. How did they feel when _____ ?

3. Will _____ be difficult for _____ ? (This goes beyond level 3.7,

prediction.)

4. Would you _____ ?

5. Encourage pupils to identify with _____ .

6. Do you think he will follow the advice?

7. Did she act recklessly? (This would be an example of level 4.5, except

that in order to make a decision as to whether or not she acted recklessly,

the situation must be identified with.)

8. Write your own ending to this story. (It is believed that this question

goes beyond inferring of a sequence and the making of a prediction and

falls at level 5.2.)

9. Devise a conversation between _____ and _____ .

10. What would you do if you were _____ ?

11. What is _____ thinking?

12. How would you have felt if you were _____ ?

13. How did _____ talk when _____ ?

14. Relate _____ to you own life.

Reactions to the Authors Use of Language

In this instance the student is required to respond to the authors craftsmanship in terms of the

semantic dimension of the selection, namely, connotations and denotations of words. (Level 5.3

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pertains essentially to the appreciation of the authors skill and craftsmanship in selecting and using

words. Such appreciation is dependent upon the denotation and connotations of words. Emotions are

inherent in appreciation.)


1. Questions requiring recognition or discussion of qualifiers.

2. Why is _____ a good term?

3. Demonstrate how _____ s voice sounded when he spoke _____ .

4. What personifications, allegory, puns, malapropisms did the author

use?

5. What loaded language was used? propaganda? understatements?

exaggerations? emotion-laden words?

6. How did the author express the idea of _____ ?

7. In what way is the word _____ used in the selection?

Imagery

In this instance, the reader is required to verbalize his or her feelings with regard to the authors artistic

ability to pain word pictures which cause the reader to visualize, smell, taste, hear, or feel.


1. Picture may be drawn to illustrate the different phases of the antelope hunt. (This was classified at

level 5.4 which would be perfectly congruent if Barrett had used the word express instead of verbalize.)

2. Based upon the selection draw a picture or make a design. (Caution must be exercised in determining

that such questions do require appreciation of the authors artistic ability to create imagery and not just

understanding of word or sentence meaning.)

3. Read rhythmically and expressively. (Includes choral reading.)

4. Dramatize the story.

5. Read the part the way the character might have talked. (This question goes beyond identifying as

spelled out at level 5.2 and requires level 5.4.)

6. Find the phrase which helps you build a mental picture of _____ .

7. In a minds-eye picture, how did the _____ look?

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8. Reenact the _____ scene.

9. How does _____ make you feel?

10. Take the role of _____ . (This goes beyond identification)

11. Questions requiring appreciation of dialogue may require utilization of this level.

12. What _____ has the author created?

13. How did the author cause you to _____ ?

0000

THESIS STATEMENT

A thesis statement appears near the beginning of a paper, and it offers a concise solution to the issuebeing addressed. It states the claim of the argument presented in a paper. A thesis statement is usually

one sentence, though it may occur as more than one.

Tips for Writing Your Thesis Statement

1. Determine what kind of paper you are writing:

An analytical paper breaks down an issue or an idea into its component parts, evaluates the

issue or idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the audience.

An expository (explanatory) paper explains something to the audience.

An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with specific

evidence. The claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement,

or an interpretation. The goal of the argumentative paper is to convince the audience that the claim is

true based on the evidence provided.

If you are writing a text that does not fall under these three categories (e.g., a narrative), a thesis

statement somewhere in the first paragraph could still be helpful to your reader.

2. Your thesis statement should be specificit should cover only what you will discuss in your paper and

should be supported with specific evidence.

3. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper.

4. Your topic may change as you write, so you may need to revise your thesis statement to reflect

exactly what you have discussed in the paper.

Strong thesis statement

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1. A strong thesis statement takes some sort of stand.

Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject. For example, if you are

writing a paper for a class on fitness, you might be asked to choose a popular weight-loss product to

evaluate. Here are two thesis statements:

There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.

This is a weak thesis statement. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the phrase negative and positive

aspects is vague.

Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of

muscle and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to customers.

This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand, and because it's specific.

2. A strong thesis statement justifies discussion.

Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is to write a paper on kinship

systems, using your own family as an example, you might come up with either of these two thesis

statements:

My family is an extended family.

This is a weak thesis because it merely states an observation. Your reader wont be able to tell the point

of the statement, and will probably stop reading.

While most American families would view consanguineal marriage as a threat to the nuclear

family structure, many Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages help reinforce kinship

ties in an extended family.

This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a widely-accepted view. A goodstrategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested

in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support your point.

3. A strong thesis statement expresses one main idea.

Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your thesis statement expresses

more than one idea, then you might confuse your readers about the subject of your paper. For example:

Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and Web pages can provide

both advertising and customer support.

This is a weak thesis statement because the reader cant decide whether the paper is about marketing

on the Internet or Web pages. To revise the thesis, the relationship between the two ideas needs to

become more clear. One way to revise the thesis would be to write:

Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit

this potential by using Web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.

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The purpose of the expository essay is to explain a topic in a logical and straightforward manner.

Without bells and whistles, expository essays present a fair and balanced analysis of a subject based on

factswith no references to the writers opinions or emotions.

A typical expository writing prompt will use the words explain or define, such as in, Write an essay

explaining how the computer has changed the lives of students. Notice there is no instruction to form

an opinion or argument on whether or not computers have changed students lives. The prompt asks

the writer to explain, plain and simple. However, that doesnt mean expository essay writing is easy.

ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING

In this kind of writing, we not only give information but also present an argument with the PROS

(supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We should clearly take our

stand and write as if we are trying to persuade an opposing audience to adopt new beliefs or behavior.

The primary objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that many of them do not want to change.

Choosing an argumentative topic is not an easy task. The topic should be such that

it should be narrowed down

(X) Marijuana should be considered illegal. (Not a good topic because it is too general. In some medical

cases, marijuana is prescribed by the doctors and the patients are encouraged to use it in case of

suffering from too much pain)

() Selling and using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal.

it should contain an argument

(X) We should decide whether we want a bicycle or a car. (our stand is not clear: do we support having

bicycles or cars?)

() If we are under the age of 30 and want a healthy life, we should definitely get a bicycle instead of a

car.

(X) Are you one of those who thinks cheating is not good for students? (a question cannot be anargument)

() Cheating helps students learn.

(X) Considering its geological position, Turkey has an important geopolitical role in the EU. (facts cannot

be arguments)

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() Considering its geopolitical role, we can clearly say that the EU cannot be without Turkey.

If you believe that you can find enough evidence to support your idea and refute others effectively, you

can choose challenging topics as well. You can enjoy writing about such topics:

Cheating is beneficial for students.

Murat 124 is a very good choice for conscientious drivers.

Stress is good for the human body.

Polygamy is quite natural.

For women, there is no need for men.

Organization: All argumentative topics have PROs and CONs. Before starting writing, it is imperative to

make a list of these ideas and choose the most suitable ones among them for supporting and refuting.

There are three possible organization patterns:

Pattern 1:

Thesis statement:

PRO idea 1

PRO idea 2

CON(s) + Refutation(s)

Conclusion

Pattern 2:

Thesis statement:

CON(s) + Refutation(s)

PRO idea 1

PRO idea 2

Conclusion

Pattern 3:

Thesis statement:

CON idea 1 -----> Refutation

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