PertanikaJ. Trap. Agric. Sci. 22(2): 73-83 (1999) ISS : 1511-3701© Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Plant Diversity and Conservation Value of Ayer Hitam Forest,Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia

1. FARIDAH RANUMDepartment of Forest Production

Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

Keywords: Plant diversity, conservation, Ayer Hitam Forest

ABSTRAK

Hutan Ayer Hitam dengan keluasan 1248 hektar terletak di Negeri Selangor dan merupakan hutan pamahdipterokarpa yang pernah dibalak. Ia merupakan satu daripada hutan yang baki di Lembah Klang selainHutan Bukit Nenas di Kuala Lumpur. Hutan ini telah disewakan kepada Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)selama 80 tahun bermula tahun 1996 untuk tujuan pendidikan, penyelidikan dan pengembangan. Sejak ituberbagai usaha telah dijalankan untuk mengetahui kepelbagaian sumber yang terdapat di dalamnya. Denganitu, satu pengkalan maklumat mengenai tumbuhan yang terdapat di hutan ini telah dimulakan pada tahun1998. Maklumat ini diperolehi dari kajian pada beberapa plot dan pungutan tumbuhan dari masa ke semasa.Hasil awal dibentangkan di sini. Sebanyak 430 spesies tumbuhan berbiji yang terangkum dalam 203 genusdan 72famili terdapat di sini. 33 spesies paku-pakis dan sekutunya, 127 spesies balak, 29 spesies buah-buahandan 98 spesies ubat telah direkodkan dari hutan ini. Daripada jumlah takson ini, sebanyak 20 spesies yangendemik kepada Semenanjung Malaysia terkandung di hutan ini. Lima daripada spesies endemik inimerupakan rekod baru bagi Negeri Selangor. Walaupun Hutan Ayer Hitam ini belum terpulih sepenuhnya, iamerupakan satu ekosistem terserpih yang kaya dengan kepelbagaian tumbuhan dan perlu dipulihara untukgenerasi akan datang.

ABSTRACT

The Ayer Hitam Forest, a logged-over lowland mixed-dipterocarp forest in the State of Selangor covers an area of1248 hectares. It is one of the remaining forests left in the Klang Valley besides the Bukit Nenas Forest in KualaLumpur. This forest has been leased to Universiti Putra Malaysia(UPM) in 1996 for 80 years for the purposeof education, research and extension. Since then various efforts have been taken to know the biodiversity it houses.Thus, a database on the plants of Ayer Hitam Forest was started in 1998. Several plots have been establishedand plant collections were made to achieve this and is still progressing. Results presented here are still preliminary.A total of 430 species of seed plants in 203 genera and 72 families occur here. 33 species offerns and fern-allies,127 timber species, 29 fruit tree species and 98 species with medicinal values were recorded from this forest. Ofthese taxa, 20 species which are endemic to Peninsular Malaysia are found here, five being new records forSelangor. Although Ayer Hitam Forest is still regenerating, it is nevertheless a rich fragmented ecosytem that needsto be conseroed for future generations to come.

INTRODUCTION

The Ayer Hitam Forest is an important supportfacility of Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) forstudies in forestry, environment, zoology, botanyand related fields. This forest is classified as adisturbed Kelat - Kedondong - MixedDipterocarp type of lowland forest (FaridahHanum and Zamri Rosli 1999). It is located 25

km away from the UPM main campus in Serdang.The Selangor State Government leased it toUPM in 1996 for 80 years and the Faculty ofForestry in UPM is trusted to manage the forestfor teaching, research and extension activities.This lease involves Compartments 1, 2, 12, 13,14 and 15. For the past three years, some workshave been carried out to gather information on

I. FARIDAH HANUM

the plant resources of Ayer Hitam andsubsequently, a database on the plant diversityof Ayer Hitam was started. Information on a fewrelated aspects of plant diversity studies in theAyer Hitam Forest was earlier discussed inFaridah Hanum et al. (1997) and Faridah Hanumand Zamri Rosli (1999). In this paper, a summaryof selected plant taxa will be presented to givea picture of the diversity of this forest. Thesignificance of conserving Ayer Hitam Forest isalso discussed.

SITE DESCRIPTION AND METHODS

Ayer Hitam Forest

The Ayer Hitam Forest was much larger coveringan area of about 3500 hectares prior to thelease to UPM in 1996. The size of this forest isnow 1248 ha, after it was further excised forsome socio-economic development projects suchas housing estates, oil palm plantations, newtownships, factories and highways. This lowlandforest is thus surrounded by development,

making it an isolated patch of forest in themiddle of modern infrastuctures and society.Being strategically located within the MultimediaSuper Corridor, that connects Kuala Lumpurwith the new administrative city of Putrajaya andbusiness city of Cyberjaya, it is one of the tworemaining forests left in the Klang Valley; theother being Bukit enas in the city of KualaLumpur. Even more unique is the habitation ofthis forest by a group of indigenous people ofthe Temuan Tribe. This forest is also readilyaccessible by all kinds of vehicle up to the basecamp.

This forest was selectively logged several timesbetween 1936 to 1965. There are three majorrivers i.e. Sg. Rasau, Sg. Bohol and Sg. Biringflowing in this forest which is generally a lowlying area with several steep slopes and manystreams. Altitude ranges between 5 - 80 metresa.s.l. and the highest peak at Permatang Kuang is213 metres a.s.l. (Fig. i) . A small patch of swampis found in Compartment 15 and some sandypatches are also found along the major rivers.

+++

+ + + wt· + +

... .......'-

+ + + + +

Legend. .........~=

+ + + +~=---+ +~=..._-..y.1~PI.

+

+ +

+ +

Fig. i. Location of plots at Ayer Hitam Forest, Selangor

74 PERTANIKAJ. TRap. AGRIC. SCI. VOL. 22 0.2,1999

PLANT DIVERSITY D CO SERVATIO VALUE OF AYER HITAM FOREST

TABLE 1Composition of seed plant taxa at

Ayer Hitam Forest, Selangor

The soil is of the Serdang-Kedah Series andDurian Series, a combination of alluvium-eolluviumsoil which reshaped from metamorphic stoneswith sandy clay loam soil texture. Average yearlytemperature is 25.3°C with the maximumtemperature of 27.7°C and minimum at 22.9°C.The relative humidity averages at 87.6 % with amaximum at 97.8% and minimum of 77.4%.Average annual rainfall is 2178 mm (AhmadAinuddin Nuruddin, pers. comm.).

With the receding size of the forest, many ofthe larger mammals have dissapeared or reducedin number. Of noteworthy attention is the tigerwhich have been sighted in this forest. Othermammals recorded include the wild boars andmousedeers. Some 160 species of birds were alsorecorded from this forest, mainly frugivorousand insectivorous birds. Migratory birds such asthe Siberian Blue Robins were also sighted here(Mohd. Zakaria Hussin, pers. comm.).

Methods

Plant specimens were collected over a period ofthree years and this was done either throughfive 1 - ha plots (lOOm x 100m) which wereplaced in several locations in the forest (Fig. 1)or regular collecting trips made to the forest. Ineither attempt, specimens were collected forthe record and identification of uncertain taxa,in duplicates of three for flowering or fruitingspecimens or one only for sterile specimens.Where plot studies are concerned, all treesgreater than 5 em in diameter breast heightwere measured, tagged and enumerated. Theinitial census of the five 1 - ha plots was carriedout in 1998.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

PlANT DIVERSITYTaxonomic Composition of Seed Plants

430 species of seed plant taxa in 203 genera and72 families were recorded from Ayer HitamForest (Table 1). Detailed species compositionof seed plants of Ayer Hitam is not included inthis paper as it will be presented in anothercompanion manuscript in the very near future.For tree taxa alone, this forest contains almosthalf the total number of tree families, one-sixthand one-third the total number of genera andspecies respectively in Peninsular Malaysia (Table2). Comparisons cannot be made with other

Family

EuphorbiaceaeMyrtaceaeLauraceaeMoraceaeMyri ticaceaeRubiaceaeBurseraceaeGuttiferaePiperaceaeLeguminosaeAnacardiaceaeAnnonaceaeDipterocarpaceaeZingiberaceaeMelastomataceaeElaeocarpaceaeSapotaceaeMeliaceaePolygalaceaeFagaceaeSapindaceaeApocynaceaeRhizophoraceaeThymelaeaceaeMyrsinaceaeCelastraceaeUlmaceaeSterculiaceaeRutaceaeAcanthaceaeCompositaeEbenaceaeMarantaceaeTiliaceaePalmaeFlacourtiaceaeDilleniaceaeDioscoreaceaeBombacaceaeOlacaceaeVerbenaceaeProteaceaeGraminaeMenisperrnaceaeLinaceaeGnetaceaeCombretaceaeAraliaceaeLecythidaceaeOchnaceae

o. Genera

184574

13331

126757614522242223143441314421222132211111

o. Species

3926232120171615151414131210888776655555554444444833333332222111

PERTANIKAJ. TROP. AGRIC. SCI. VOL. 22 NO.2, 1999 75

I. FARIDAH HANUM

* Source. Ng et at. (1990)

TABLE 2Comparison of tree taxa at Ayer

Hitam Forest, Selangor

lowland forests if we limit to trees of 5cm dbhand above because many past plot studiesenumerated trees of 10cm dbh and above. Thus,when the diversity of Ayer Hitam was comparedfor trees of 10 cm dbh and above, this forest wasabout 35% lower in diversity than Pasoh Forestwith 210 species per ha (Kochummen et at.1990) and about 25% lower in diversity thanBangi Forest with 167 species per ha (RashidahJohar 1993). The mean diversity per hectareat Ayer Hitam Forest for trees greater than 10em dbh was about 60 species per ha (FaridahHanum and Zamri Rosh 1999).

Ayer Hitam Peninsular*Malaysia

100532

2830

56160400

No. Familyo. Genuso. Species

1111111111111111111111

430

1111111111111111111111

203Total 72

Table 1 (Continued)

CrypteroniaceaeOpiliaceaeHypericaceaeSonneratiaceaeOrchidaceaeSimaroubaceaeIcacinaceaeTheaceaePodocarpaceaeRosaceaeVitaceaeOxalidaceaeScrophulariaceaeTaccaceaeAsclepiadaceaeAristolochiaceaeMalvaceaeAraceaeLabiataeCyperaceaeCornaceaeSolanaceae

45

40

35

30lI)Q)

25'uQ)Q,lI)

0 20z

15

10

5

0

~ ----

-- -

--- -

26

23 -21 20

l- .- ~

17 16 15 15 14.--

-

- -

Fig. 2. Species diversity of 10 largest families in Ayer Hitam Forest, Selangor

76 PERTANlKAJ. TRap. AGRIC. SCI. VOL. 22 NO.2, 1999

PlANT DIVERSITY AND CO SERVATIO VALUE OF AYER HITAM FOREST

Timber Trees

127 tree species that occur in Ayer Hitam Forestthus far, are classified as timber trees and thisconstitutes about 30% of the total number oftree species existing in this forest(Table 3). Of

Fig. 2 shows the species diversity of 10 largestfamilies in Ayer Hitam Forest. So far,Euphorbiaceae was found to be the most diversefamily with 39 species. Most Euphorbiaceae aswell as other families such as Ulmaceae, Rubiaceaeand Melastomataceae are commonly found indisturbed forest. Gironiera parvifolia (Ulmaceae)for instance was found to be the most frequentoccuring species in a 1-ha plot at Ayer HitamForest (Faridah Hanum and Zamri Rosli 1999).

Eight species of monocots were recordedthis far. Examples worth mentioning includeSchizostachyum latifolium, a bamboo commonlyseen at forest fringes and streams, and Cyrtostachysrenda, a beautiful palm frequently occuring inswampy places. Podocarpus teysmanii was the onlyconifer collected from this forest.

Bombacaceae

Burseraceae

Crypteronia griffithiiCtenolophon paroifoliusA nisoptera costataA nisoptera curtisiiDipterocarpus crinitusDipterocarpus verrucosusH opea beccarianaShorea bracteaolataShrorea dasyphyllaShorea leprosulaShorea macropteraShorea paroifoliaShorea platycarpaVatica lobataElaeocarpus ferrugineusElaeocarpus robustusAntidesma cuspidatumAporusa aureaAporusa confusaAporusa stelliferaBaccaurea macrophyllaBlumeodendron tokbraiDrypetes pendulaElateriospermum taposEndospermum diadenumParacroton pendulusSapium baccatumSapium discolorLithocarpus cantleyanusLithocarpus gracilisLithocarpus rassaLithocarpus sundaicusHydnocarpus filipesHydnocarpus kunstleriCalophyllum ferrugineumCalophyllum pulcherrimumCalophyllum rubiginosumCalophyllum macrocarpumCalophyllum wallichianumCarcinia cuspidataMesua ferreaMesua lepidotaIxonanthes icosandraActinodaphne macrophyllaActinodaphne pruinosaActinodapne sphaerocarpaLitsea firmaLitsea gracilipesLitsea grandisArchidendron splendensCallerya atropurpureaSindora coriaceaChisocheton patensDysoxylum cauliflorumWalsura pinnataArtocarpus dadah

CrypteroniaceaeCtenolophonaceaeDipterocarpaceae

Moraceae

Meliaceae

Flacourtiaceae

Fagaceae

Guttiferae

Elaeocarpaceae

Euphorbiaceae

IxonanthaceaeLauraceae

Leguminosae

Bouea oppositifoliaBuchanania sessifoliaCampnosperma auriculatumCluta elegansMelanochyla angustifoliaAlphonsea ellipticaCyathocalyx pruniferusConiothalamus malayanusPolyalthia rumphiiXylopia ferrugineaDurio lowianusDurio griffithiiCanarium apertumCanarium littoraleCanarium patentinerviumDacryodes laxaSantiria apiculataSantiria laevigataSantiria oblongifoliaTerminalia subspathulataVernonia arboreaBhesa robustaKokoona ochraceaLophopetalum pachyphyllum

Species

TABLE 3List of timber species in Ayer Hitam

Forest, Selangor

Family

CombretaceaeCompositaeCelastraceae

Anacardiaceae

Annonaceae

PERT IKAJ. TROP. ACRIC. SCI. VOL. 22 0.2,1999 77

I. FARIDAH HANUM

TABLE 3 (Continued)

this percentage, approximately 3% aredipterocarps (Faridah Hanum and Zamri Rosli1999). 12 species from the familyDipterocarpaceae are represented in 5 generaviz., Anisoptera, Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Shorea and

Myristicaceae

Myrtaceae

OchnaceaeOlacaceaePodocarpaceaePolygalaceae

Rhizophoraceae

RosaceaeRubiaceae

Rutaceae

Sapotaceae

SonneratiaceaeSterculiaceae

Thyrnelaeaceae

Ulmaceae

Verbenaceae

Artocarpus lowiiArtocarpus maingayiArtocarpus scortechiniiH orsfieldia fulvaHorsfieldia iryaHorsfieldia sucosaKnema curtisiiKnema furfuraceaKnema intermediaKnema kunstleriKnema laurinaMyristica inersSyzygium conglomeratumSyzygium fastigiatumSyzgium filiformeSyzygium lineatumSyzygium papillosumRhodamnia cinereaBrackenridgea hookeriOchanostachys amentaceaPodocarpus teysmaniiXanthophyllum affineXanthophyllum amoenumXanthophyllum eurhynchumXanthophyllum griffithiiCarallia brachiataPellacalyx saccardianusPrunus arboreaNeolamarckia cadambaNauclea officinalisPorterandia anisophylleaTimonius wallichianusUrophyllum blumeanumAcronychia pedunculataMelicope glabraPalaquium rostratumPalaquium stellatumPouteria malaccensisDuabanga grandifloraScaphium macropodumSterculia parvifloraGonystylus affinisGonystylus con/ususGironniera parvifoliaGironniera subaequalisGironniera nervosaTeijsmanniodendroncoriaceum

Vatica constituting about half the total numberof genera that are found in Peninsular Malaysia(Table 3). Their diversity could be due toremnants of extensive logging of once a lowlanddipterocarp forest here in the past. TheDipterocarpaceae is the dominant family amongupper canopy trees in this forest. Five dipterocarpspecies that most commonly occur in the swampyareas of this forest are Shorea platycarpa, S.bracteolata, S. leprosula, S. parvifolia and Vaticalobata. The remaining timber genera from thenon-dipterocarp families that are diverse andworth mentioning include Lithocarpus (4 spp.),Xanthophyllum (4 spp.), Artocarpus (4 spp.), Knema(5 spp.), Syzygium (5 spp.) and Calophyllum (5spp.).

Fruit Trees

An estimated 100 species of native fruit treesare found in the Malaysian forests (Soepadmo1973). Composition of fruit trees in a primaryforest is moderate in diversity and low abundance(Soepadmo 1979; Whitmore 1971). 29 speciesthat are found in the wilderness of Ayer HitamForest are edible fruits as categorized by Jansenet al. (1991). Especially diverse are the wildspecies of tampoi (Baccaurea, 5 spp.) and terap (A rtocarpus, 4 spp.). Other wild fruit species asshown in Table 4 would be of economicpotential or for selection and breeding. Basedon observations made by the author, 14 species( Table 5) are considered to have potential asedible fruits because they were seen eaten bybirds and animals.

Ferns and Fern-allies

Ferns are usually considered to be plants ofshady damp places. But with disturbance, speciespreferring more open places with lots of sunlightand less humid conditions have spread andbecome more common. Some species havestringent requirements and grow only when allthese are met, but where they do, the species isoften abundant (Piggott 1988).Only a smallcollection of fern and fern-allies were madefrom this forest, with a total of 33 species (Table6). The most common occuring species in AyerHitam Forest is the terrestrial thicket sun-fern,Dicranopteris linearis. This could be due to AyerHitam Forest having many areas that have beendisturbed at various degrees in the past. Knownlocally as resam, Dicranopteris linearis grows longfronds that cannot support themselves in erect

78 PERTANIKAJ. TROP. AGRIC. SCI. VOL. 22 NO.2, 1999

PLANT DIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION VALUE OF AYER HITAM FOREST

TABLE 4Wild fruit species in Ayer Hitam Forest, Selangor

TABLE 5Potential edible fruit species in Ayer Hitam

Forest, Selangor

Aidia densiflora

SpeciesOther Plants of Ethnobotanical Interests

Besides timber, medicinal and fruit speciesdiversity that are found in the Ayer Hitam Forest,there are a number of ethnobotanically usefulspecies enumerated here. Secondary productssuch as resin from Dipterocarpus crinitus are stilltapped by the Temuans to be sold, while leavesof Licuala spinosa (palas) are rather commonlysold in the market as a local cake wrapper.There are also beautiful flow.ering trees, youngflushes or desirable architecture such as Pometia

pinnata, Mesua ferrea and Callerya atropurpureafrom this forest that are ornamental.The rattans(Calamus manan) are still collected by theTemuans for a substantial income together withParkia speciosa (petai).

Medicinal Plants

Well over 1000 species in Malaysia have beenclaimed to have uses or used by the multiethnicgroups of Malaysia for generations (Latiff et al.1980). About one-teenth of these species arerecorded from Ayer Hitam Forest. A total of 98species in 83 genera and 53 families are foundin this forest. 140 different uses were recordedfrom informants and grouped into 7 methods ofapplication i.e. drink, eat, chew rub, poultice,bath and shampoo. Examples of medicinal plantspecies that are both used by the forest dwellingindigenous community, the Temuans andfringing Malay community of Ayer Hitam Forestare shown in Table 7. Details on the compositionand uses of medicinal plants in the Ayer HitamForest were discussed at length in a companionpaper (Faridah Hanum and Nurulhuda Hamzah1999).

position, thus forming a tangled thicket andthrives well in forest gaps and fringe. Anotherfern which is commonly found in open areas isthe terrestrial solitary sun-fern, Blechnum orientale.Cyathea latebrosa is more specific in requirementsand was observed to occur beside streams. Otherspecies found in the Ayer Hitam Forest thatrequire more specific requirements includeMesophlebion chylamydophorum and Tectariasingaporeana which were found in shady wetplaces of the forest, Diplazium riparium on banksof streams and swampy areas of the forest. Acommon epiphytic fern observed was Aspleniumnidus or commonly known as bird's nest fern.Woodsiaceae (Diplazium, 4 spp.). is the mostdiverse fern family present in this forest.

Ripe fruit red, eatenby birdsFruit eaten by birdsFruit eaten by animalsFruit eaten by birdsFruit yellowish, eatenby birdsFruit eaten by birdsFruit eaten by animalsFruit eaten by animalsFruit eaten by animalsFruit eaten by birdsFruit eaton by animalsFruit eaten by animalsFruit eaten by animalsFruit eaten by animals

Notes

Bouea opPositifoliaDurio lowianusCanarium pilosumDacryodes rugosaBaccaurea brevipesBaccaurea kunstleriBaccaurea parvifloraBaccaurea motleyanaBaccaurea racemosaPimelodendron griffithianumPtychopyxis caput-medusaeGnetum gnemonCarcinia atroviridisCarcinia mangostanaArchidendron bubalinumParkia speciosaArtocarpus elasticusArtocarpus integerArtocarpus lanceifoliusArtocarpus nitidusFicus variegataRhodamnia cinereaSarcotheca monophyllaParopsia vareciformisNephelium ramboutan-akeXerospermum laevigatumXerospermum noronhianumSterculia macrophyllaGrewia laevigata

Species

Ficus grossularioidesKnema curtisiiLithocarpus gracilisLitsea grandisMallotus paniculatusMonocarpia marginalisPolyalthia hypoleucaPorterandia anisophylleaXanthophyllum affine

Champereia manillanaElaeocarpus petiolatusElaeocarpus stipularisEndospermum diadenum

SterculiaceaeTiliaceae

Moraceae

MyrtaceaeOxalidaceaePassifloraceaeSapidaceae

GnetaceaeGuttiferae

Leguminosae

Euphorbiaceae

Family

AnacardiaceaeBombacaceaeBurseraceae

PERTANIKAJ. TROP. AGRIC. SCI. VOL. 22 NO.2, 1999 79

I. FARIDAH RANUM

TABLE 6Fern and fern-allies in Ayer Hitam Forest, Selangor

AdiantaceaeCheilanthes tenuifoliaTaenitis blechnoides

PolypodiaceaePlatycerium coronariumPyrrosia nummulariifoliaP. piloselloides

AspleniaceaeAsplenium nidus

BlechnaceaeBlechnum orientale

CyatheaceaeCyathea latebrosaC. moluccana

DryopteridaceaeTectaria singaporeanaT. crenata

GleicheniaceaeDicranopteris linearis

Lycopodiaceae*Lycopodium cernuum

OleandraceaeNephrolepis auriculata

OphioglossaceaeHelmintostachys zeylanicaOphioglossum pendulum

* Fern-allies

SchizaeaceaeLygodium circinnatumL.jlexuosumL. longifoliumL. microphyllumSchizaea dichotomaS. digitata

Selaginellaceae*Selaginella ascendenS. ciliarisS. intermediaS. stipulataS. willdenowiiS. wallichii

ThelypteridaceaeMesophlebion chylamydophorum

WoodsiaceaeDiplazium ripariumD. tomentosumD. crenatoserratumD. allantoideum

TABLE 7Some medicinal plants and uses at Ayer Hitam Forest, Selangor

Scientific names

Goniothalamus macrophyllus

Homalomena sagittifoliaElephantopus scaber

Tetracera indica

Donax grandisVitex pinnata

Costus speciosus

Local names

Gajah beranak

Keladi kemoyangTapak Sulaiman

Mempelas

BembanHalban

Setawar hutan

Uses and parts used

Decoction of root to eliminate excessive gasin bodyDecoction of root and leaves for feverLeaf and root decoction as supplement afterchildbirth, tonic, deworming, venereal diseaseand coughRoot decoction to treat high blood pressureand high feverPoultice of leaf or stem for eye refreshmentDecoction of bark and leaf for stomach-acheand given after childbirthDecoction of roots to reduce high bodytemperature, decoction of rhizome as tonic

80 PERTANlKAJ. TRap. AGRIC. SCI. VOL. 22 0.2,1999

PLANT DIVERSITY AND CO SERVATION VALUE OF AYER HITAM FOREST

* Common - more than 10 collections** Uncommon - (6-10) collections

TABLE 8Peninsular Malaysia endemics in Ayer Hitam

Forest, Selangor

strategically located in the midst of developmentin the Klang Valley, it is just fair that the publicalso enjoys this place, with a limited carryingcapacity - for educating the public about forest,its environment and why we need to conserve it.This way, UPM not only enjoys this forest as animportant support facility for education, researchand extension but more importantly, the publicgets a share of both the tangible and non­tangible benefits of what this forest has to offer.

It takes to know what this remainingfragmented forest contains in order to develop asound management and conservation plan forthe very near future. It is thus encouraged thatother research efforts in related disciplines inUPM or other institutions be concentrated atthe Ayer Hitam Forest to call for moreinformation on the biodiversity it houses, be it atthe species, genetic or ecosystem level. A policy

CONSERVATION VALUE

Plant and animal species require a certainrange or size of population in order to persist.This means if the area of the Ayer Hitam Forestis further excised, there will be a failure in theirbreeding systems such as pollination mechanismsor food will not be substantial enough to supportcertain populations of animals. Certainpopulations of species will thus not only bevulnerable, but also threatened. There will notonly be habitat loss, but also inevitable speciesloss. The remaining four tigers in the forest willprobably be threatening the safety of users ofAyer Hitam if the forest size is reduced, morecritically diminished with time. A whole cycle ofgrowth, maturity and decomposition is necessaryto provide a sustainable and ecologicallybiodiverse habitats within the Ayer Hitam Forestfor the animals to live in. Unlike human thatcan be expected to be temporarily squattered,the diverse animals of this forest will cease toexist. Especially of scientific interest are theendemics, which are species that grow in aspecific area and have a restricted distribution.There are 746 endemic tree species in PeninsularMalaysia ( g et al. 1990). To date Ayer HitamForest houses 20 endemic plant species. Of theseendemics, one species is with the statusuncommon (Ptychopyxis caput-medusae) while fivespecies are new records for Selangor (Table 8).Forest fragmentation has severe implications onthe survival of these endemic species. Endemicsmay exist due to natural extinction thoughoutmuch of their range ( termed paleo-endemics orrelicts) or due to actively evolving groups givingrise to localized distinct species (termed neo­endemics). Thus, conservation considerationsshould also include conserving as muchevolutionary functions that give rise to theseendemics, besides conserving particular sites ofinferred rich biodiversity such as the Ayer HitamForest. There is no better way than protecting ahabitat or ecosytem where all naturalrequirements are met if plants and animals inthe Ayer Hitam Forest are to be protected.

As with the case of Ayer Hitam Forest, it isthe only sanctuary for migratory birds and tigersin the Klang Valley. It is also one of the only twonatural green lungs left in the Klang Valley fornow and the generations to come. Moreimportantly, there are still indigenous people ofthe Temuan Tribe dwelling this forest and relyingon forest resources to support their life. Being

Species

Actinodaphne pruinosaActinodaphne sphaerocarpa

Anisophyllea griffithiiCalophyllum ferrugineumCalophyllttm pulcherrimum

Cyathocalyx pruniferusDiospyros foxworthyi

Eleocarpus ferrugineusGardenia costata

Gardenia griffithiiHydnocarpus filipesMallotus kingii

Memecylon cinereumPalaquium maingayiPellacalyx saccardianusPtychopyxis caput-medusaeSarcotheca monophyllaSyzygium conglomeratumThottea dependensVatica lobata

Status

Common*ew record for

SelangorCommonCommonNew record forSelangorCommon

ew record forSelangorCommonNew record forSelangorCommonCommon

ew record forSelangorCommonCommonCommonUncommon**CommonCommonCommonCommon

PERTANIKAJ. TROP. AGRIC. SCI. VOL. 22 NO.2, 1999 81

I. FARlDAH HANUM

should also be formulated by UPM to designatethe permanence of Ayer Hitam Forest as aresearch and education forest in the near future,so that it does not have to be mismanaged bythe future decision makers. The author wouldlike to suggest to the relevant authority in UPMto pipe out some development fund indemarcating the forest boundary by fencing,and enforcing the UPM security in preventingencroachment especially at the northern end ofthe forest. These suggestions are especially crucialto prevent unauthorized exploitation of the forestresources, especially medicinal plants andunlawful cutting if we are to conserve the AyerHitam Forest in entirety and for the cominggenerations. A certain hectarage of this forestshould also be formally designated as PermanentEcological Plot for long-term studies.

CONCLUSION

Although the database is still in its infancy, thediversity captured this far, certainly is reputablefor a fragmented ecosystem like the Ayer HitamForest. With work still progressing in Ayer HitamForest, a greater plant diversity information isexpected. The database on the plants of AyerHitam will be updated with the completion of a10-ha permanent plot in the near future.

Each ecosystem is idiosyncratic and has acontinuum of ecological complexity, thusrequires a specific study. Species rarely occur inisolation in nature, so understanding theinteractions between species is equally importantas understanding the interactions within speciesfor survival. A more vigorous researchprogramme to be considered for this forest thatthe author thinks relevant would include theeffects of fragmentation on species interactionand community structure, ecosystem processes,single species (especially rare and endangeredspecies), population dispersal and genetics andtraits of rare species; employment of ecologicallysignificant species for management andmonitoring (eg. indicator species, keystonespecies) of the forest ecosystem, populationgenetics in relation to inbreeding depression,fitness, heterozygosity and bottlenecks,reproductive biology, population ecology andviability, and ethnobiology.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The continuous support and vigo.ur of IbrahimEdham Mohidin in contributing to the

databasing of plants of this forest is greatlyappreciated. Contributions made by the followingnamed persons in acquiring preliminaryinformation on the plants of Ayer Hitam aregratefully acknowledged: Mohamad SamsulbahariAbdam Saleman, Fadillah Sulaiman, RahayuRany, Nurulhuda Hamzah, Pius Primus, P.S.Muhammad Sharifudeen, asir Abdul Rachman,Zamry Rosli and Daud Abu Hassan. Assistancegiven by Razali Jaman and A. Zainudin Ibrahimin the pteridophte and uncertain plant taxaidentification is also appreciated. Thanks arealso due to Prof. A. Latiff for the comments onthe draft of this paper. This study was supportedby IRPA 08-02-04-0089 and IRPA 08-02-02-0022for which the author is grateful.

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