bab 14 - kritik ke atas kajian tindakan - nota

7/27/2019 Bab 14 - Kritik Ke Atas Kajian Tindakan - NOTA

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Kuliah 14 Kritikan Kajian Tindakan

KRITIK TERHADAP KAJIAN

TINDAKAN

PENGENALAN

Perlu diketahui bahawa setiap peneylidikan yang kita buat mempunya

beberapa batasan yang perlu kita perhatikan dan pertimbangkan

dengan baik agar apa yang kita lakukan untuk sekolah kita

mendapat manfaat yang sepatutnya. Ianya bergantung kepadasekolah.

a. Masa Terhad

KT selalunya mengambil masa yang lama untuk mencapai matlamat

kajiannya. Lantaran itu ia memerlukan masa yang lama di samping

akan menggunakan perbelanjaan yang agak besar juga. Masa yang

lama ini akan menimbulkan beberapa kesulitan kepada pihakpenyelidik sekolah. Dalam tempoh penyelidikan berkenaan, guru-guru

yang terlibat mungkin berpindah ke sekolah lain dengan sebab-sebab

tertentu. Ini akan melengahkan jawatankuasa untuk mencapai

matlamat kajian dan lambat dapat menyiapkan laporan yang hendak

dibuat. Kadang kala terdapat juga satu inovasi atau satu dapatan lain

telah terhasil yang mungkin akan melibatkan kajian yang kita buat

terpaksa ditangguh atau diganti atau diperbaiki lagi. Ini adalah natijah

dari tempoh masa yang lama diambil untuk menyiapkan KT yang kitalakukan. Kajian tindakan lazimnya dilakukan dalam suasana sekolah -

terdiri dari ramai ahli yang ingin memberikan sumbangan kerana pada

asasnya individu berkenaan juga adalah amalan atau perkara yang

menjadi tumpuan kajian. Pemantauan yang rapi terhadap amalan

inilah yang memerlukan kesabaran, masa dan ruang untuk ketua yang

menjalankan kajian tindakan harus dapat menangani, memahami dan

mengambil masa yang agak panjang untuk memastikan kajian

berkenaan dapat berjalan mengikut jadual yang telah ditetapkan

terutamanya dalam pengumpulan data, kritikan dari ahli dan kitaran

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yang perlu dibuat berdasarkan temuan-temuan yang didapati

disepanjang kajian.

b. Kesahan Penyelidikan

Lazimnya kajian tindakan dilakukan oleh sekumpulan individu yang

amat berminat untuk menjalankan kajian demi untuk

mempertingkatkan pencapaian atau prestasi di sekolah mereka. Ini

menimbulkan beberapa kritikan dalam proses menjalankan kajian

tindakan dimana penyelidik ini dianggap bias dalam mendapatkan

data dan membuat analisis yang tertumpu kepada untuk memberi

justifikasi yang positif terhadap kajian mereka. Ini ditimbalbalik oleh

sipenyelidik dengan hujjah bahawa dalam suasana sekolah, mereka

perlu terlibat dalam kajian berkenaan, kerana mereka juga adalah

sebahagian dari iklim sekolah. Sesuatu tidak dapat dipastikan

sehinggalah mereka sendiri yang terlibat dalam kajian berkenaan

dapat menentukan peranan dan nilai mereka dalam kajian berkenaan.

Mereka juga haruslah bertindak sebagai seorang yang professional.

c. Kurang mesra dengan kaedah Penyelidikan

Kajian tindakan juga sentiasa atau kerap mencuba mencari makna apa

yang dikatakan sebagai kaedah penyelidikan yagn lengkap dan pada

masa yang sama terus menyelidik tentang amalan yang dilakukan.

Keadaan ini yang dianggap sebagai latihan sambil berkhidmat yang

kerap kalinya mengakibatkan perancangan yang dibuat adalah secara

ad hoc, telah mengakibatkan orang membuat tohmahan bahawa

pengumpulan data yagn dibuat itu tidak bolehdipercayaai. Keadaan iniada betulnya, namun demikian ia haruslah diverfikasikan dan apa

yang dapat kita katakana ialah, dalam keadaan sedemikian, proses

yang dijalankan itu adalah yang terbaik dan bolehdipercyaai

berdasarkan amalan yang dibuat sehari-hari itulah keadaan

sebenarnya.

d. Keputusan kajian tidak boleh di generalisasikan ke sekolah

lain

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Ini adalah benar dan menjadi asas kepada kajian tindakan.

Namun demikian, sebagai asas kepada konsep penyelidikan, apalah

salahnya kita membuat duplikasi kajian yang dibuat dari satu sekolah

itu disekolah yang lain pula. Pada saya, kajian tindakan ini wujud di

Negara barat yang mana dasar pembentukan kurikulum dan

amalannya agak sedikit berbeza dari kita di Malaysia. Di Malaysia,

kita mengamalkan kurikulum berpusat, malahan setiap kurikulum itu

disisipkan pula dengan huraian sukatan pelajaran yang menjelaskan

dengan terperinci bagaimana sesuatu tajuk itu harus disampaikan di

bilik darjah. Keadaan ini agak berbeza dari apa yang diamalkan di

Negara dimana kajian tindakan ini wujud. Tidak ada salahnya kita

meniru prosedur yang dilakukan oleh sesebuah sekolah itu yang telah

mendapat kejayaan cemerlang agar sekolah kita juga boleh mendapat

kejayaan yang sama. Itulah hasrat kita, bantu membantu dalam

mencari kebenaran dan keredhaan dari yang maha kuasa.

e. Perwakilan proses kajian tindakan mungkin mengelirukan

dari menjelaskan

Produr melakukan kajian tindakan ini agak komplek juga yangmelibatkan kitaran yang boleh bergerak kehadapan dan balik

kebelakan mengikut keadaan dan maklumat yang didapati dari kajian .

Keadaan yang sebegini sebenarnya tidak membantu penyelidik

malahan boleh mengelirukan penyelidik untuk sampai kepada apa

yang dihasratkan pada peringkat awalnya seperti yang telah ditetapkan

dalam persoalan kajian. Persoalan kajian juga boleh berubah mengikut

keadaan seperti apa yang dihasratkan. Keadaan ini disebut juga

sebagai satu proses yang celaru (McNiff, 1988). Penataran prosedurgambarajah kajian tindakan yang dibentangkan oleh Elliot adalah

terlalu (Ebbutt, 2985).

f. Retorik kajian tindakan mengelirukan, atau bertentangan

dengan prinsip utama proses kajian tindakan

Dalam kebanyakan hal, kajian tindakan merupakan satu kaedah

amalan penyelidikan yang betul mengikut caranya yang tersendiri. Ini

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telah menimbulkan polemik dikalangan penyelidik. Antaranya Lewis

(1987) menegaskan bahawa, beliau tidak mendapat bukti yang jelas

cara Carr dan Kemmis memahami keadaan sebenar guru-guru di

sekolah dan permasalahan yang dihadapi oleh guru sebenarnya.

Nota Tambahan dari:

http://www.attu70.dsl.pipex.com/student/critintro.htm (22-0702012)

What and why?

So that you can decide to what extent research may be useful in

practice you will need to be able to read research critically, to see if

the findings are trustworthy, and be able to compare it with other

related research.

The activity of critiquing research is therefore fundamental to

research utilisation and evidence based practice.

To critique research, you first need to have a reasonable knowledge

and understanding of the research process and research methods, so

that the research paper in question can be interpreted and understood.

You then need to ask appropriate critical questions about the way in

which the research was conducted. No research will be perfect, and itis usually a compromise between the ideal, and what is actually

practical, but the way it has been carried out will greatly influence its

validity, reliability, the extent to which it can be applied to other

populations, and ultimately, its trustworthiness, and usefulness for

practice.

When?

Whenever you read research you need to do so with a critical view it

is just not safe to assume that because research is published it is

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therefore safe. When writing academic essays it is not good enough

merely to cut and paste research findings as is, as if they are self-

evidently trustworthy. Critiquing therefore should occur at some level

whenever reading research. This could be fairly informally, whenever

reading research; more deliberately and formally when synthesising

reading and evidence for essays and dissertations; and in considerable

detail when completing assignments that require critique of a

particular research paper, or a small number of them. At the informal

level, the critiquing process will be largely a mental activity, which

will become better able to do the more practice you have, whereas for

essays and literature reviews you will need to make notes relating to

relevant aspects of the research process so you can come to an

informed judgement that you can explain and justify in writing.

How?

LoBiondo-Wood et al(2002) suggest that there are 4 stages or levels

of understanding in critically reading research, I paraphrase these here

(click the link).

To assist with critiquing, there are a variety of CritiquingFrameworks and Critiquing Criteria in the literature. These are

sets of critiquing questions that deal with the important aspects of the

research process. The critical reader can use these questions as a

prompt to aid the process of critiquing research. Not all questions they

contain will be answerable or appropriate, so these frameworks are a

tool to assist critiquing rather than a rigid prescription for the critical

reader.

There are many frameworks available in the literature; there is no

single correct or best one. Some are very detailed whilst others

are brief and succinct. Some ask quite complex questions and may

therefore need greater understanding to apply, whilst others are

simpler. Some will be suitable for both qualitative and quantitative

research, whilst others may not be without some adaptation. The

reader should select the framework that best reflects their needs and

their level of knowledge and understanding. Sometimes only parts ofthe framework are applicable, and sometimes it will be a good idea to

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incorporate the most relevant parts of a few frameworks, so that it

offers the necessary coverage. The choice is up to the critical reader;

the only rule is that there should be some rationale for the choice,

rather than just convenience.

One word of caution: some of the simpler critiquing frameworks focus

too much on the written presentation of research papers. This can lead

to a textual critique (a critique of the way it is written and presented,

which is often a reflection of the particular journals style) rather than

a critique of the methods used (i.e. what the researcher actually did).

Only the latter can help the reader to decide on the worth of the

findings.

Where?

Critiquing frameworks appear in many research textbooks, journal

articles and on the web. Often they will be called something else (such

as guidelines for the critical evaluation of research), but they

amount to the same thing. A list of some examples and where to find

them is attached.

What next?

Finally, when some judgement about the particular research is made, it

then needs to be related to the other literature on the topic, and the

body of knowledge that exists. The reader must ask: how do these

findings add to, support or conflict with other sources of evidence?

ReferencesLoBiondo-Wood, G., Haber, J. & Krainovich-Miller, B. (2002). Critical Reading Strategies:

Overview of the Research Process. Chapter 2 In LoBiondo-Wood, G. & Haber, J.(editors). Nursing research: Methods, critical appraisal, and utilization. (5th Edition). StLouis: Mosby.

Polit, D.F., Beck, C.T., & Hungler, B.P. (2001). Essentials of nursing research methods,appraisal, and utilization. (5th Edition). Philadelphia: Lippincott

(other books on research)

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Stages in Critical Reading of Research Articles

Stage Purpose Activities or critical questions:

PreliminaryUnderstanding(skimming)

Skimming or quicklyreading to gainfamiliarity with thecontent and layout ofthe paper

Highlight or underline main steps in the research process

Make notes (comments & questions)

Note down key variables

Highlight new or unfamiliar terms & significant sentences

Look up unfamiliar terms and write in definitions

ComprehensiveUnderstanding

Increasingunderstanding ofconcepts and research

terms

Review all unfamiliar terms before 2nd reading

Clarify any additional terms

Read additional sources as necessary

Identify how the main concepts relate to each other and

the context of the study

Write brief summary of the main idea or themes of the

article in your own words

Identify any further questions or areas that need further

clarification

AnalysisUnderstanding(breaking intoparts)

Break the study intoparts; understand eachaspect of the study.Relate to steps in theresearch processAt this point you canstart to critique thestudy using a critiquingframework or criteria,applying them to eachstep in the researchprocess

What is the purpose of this article?

Am I clear about the specific design used, so I can apply

appropriate critiquing criteria?

How are the major parts of the article related to the

research process?

How was the study carried out? Can I explain it step by

step?

What are the researchers main conclusions?

Can I say I understand the parts of the article and

summarise them in my own words?

Synthesis

Understanding

Pulling the above steps

together to make a(new) whole, makingsense of it andexplainingrelationships.

Review notes on how each step compared with the

critiquing criteria

Briefly summarise the study in your own words,

identifying the main components, and the overallstrengths and weaknesses

This is a critical commentary on the study rather than a

description or prcis of it

(Adapted from LoBiondo-Wood et al, 2002)

Using the process above in conjunction with critiquing criteria or frameworks can help you critiqueindividual articles.

If you are reviewing the literature, you will need to assemble and synthesise the evidence from all thestudies you have read. Using a spreadsheet can help you organise all the studies in a way that helpsyou see your critiquing notes simultaneously, allowing you to compare and contrast, and pull findings

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and conclusions together, so you have a sense of the body of knowledge available.An example of how such a spreadsheet might look appears here. (click link).

Links and Resources for Critiquing:

General research resources, understanding research methods:

The Knowledge Basehttp://www.socialresearchmethods.net/

An excellent on-line research methods text book, and otherresearch resources

Project Gold Research MethodsGlossary

http://www.bath.ac.uk/e-learning/gold/glossary.html

A user-friendly research glossary on-line.

Statistics on-linehttp://www.statsoft.com/textbook/stathome.html

A very comprehensive statistics textbook on-line, the entirebook can be downloaded for free. You will find a full explanationof all major statistical tests and concepts.

Hyperstat

http://davidmlane.com/hyperstat

As comprehensive, simpler

SOSIG Research Methods

http://www.sosig.ac.uk/roads/su

bject-listing/World-cat/meth.html

The Social Science Information Gateway (SOSIG) research methodsresources - lots of resources for learning about qualitative andquantitative research.

Books:

Recommended Text Bookshttp://www.researchbooks.co.uk/recommended%20research%20text%20books.htm

Some suggested research textbooks that may assist withunderstanding and critiquing research, with details of libraryshelf numbers and purchase details. This is just a smallselection of the many available.

Critiquing skills & resources:

How to read a paperhttp://www.richard-ingram.co.uk/howto.htm

A British Medical Journal series of 10 articles assistingnovices to read and understand research papers. Full textavailable on-line. Fairly simple to read, very helpful.

Critical Appraisal Resources forassessing Health and MedicalResearchhttp://library.ukc.ac.uk/library/info/subjectg/healthinfo/critapprais.htm

A useful web site on critical appraisal from the Library atUniversity of Kent at Canterbury

Critical thinkinghttp://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskill

s/learning/critical

Not a critiquing framework, but a useful guide to whatcritical thinking involves. Canberra University, Australia.

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http://www.attu70.dsl.pipex.com/student/critintro.htm#mock%23mockhttp://www.attu70.dsl.pipex.com/student/critintro.htm#mock%23mockhttp://www.socialresearchmethods.net/http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/http://www.bath.ac.uk/e-learning/gold/glossary.htmlhttp://www.bath.ac.uk/e-learning/gold/glossary.htmlhttp://www.bath.ac.uk/e-learning/gold/glossary.htmlhttp://www.bath.ac.uk/e-learning/gold/glossary.htmlhttp://www.statsoft.com/textbook/stathome.htmlhttp://davidmlane.com/hyperstathttp://davidmlane.com/hyperstathttp://davidmlane.com/hyperstathttp://www.sosig.ac.uk/roads/subject-listing/World-cat/meth.htmlhttp://www.sosig.ac.uk/roads/subject-listing/World-cat/meth.htmlhttp://www.sosig.ac.uk/roads/subject-listing/World-cat/meth.htmlhttp://www.researchbooks.co.uk/recommended%20research%20text%20books.htmhttp://www.researchbooks.co.uk/recommended%20research%20text%20books.htmhttp://www.researchbooks.co.uk/recommended%20research%20text%20books.htmhttp://www.researchbooks.co.uk/recommended%20research%20text%20books.htmhttp://www.researchbooks.co.uk/recommended%20research%20text%20books.htmhttp://www.richard-ingram.co.uk/howto.htmhttp://www.richard-ingram.co.uk/howto.htmhttp://www.richard-ingram.co.uk/howto.htmhttp://www.richard-ingram.co.uk/howto.htmhttp://library.ukc.ac.uk/library/info/subjectg/healthinfo/critapprais.htmhttp://library.ukc.ac.uk/library/info/subjectg/healthinfo/critapprais.htmhttp://library.ukc.ac.uk/library/info/subjectg/healthinfo/critapprais.htmhttp://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/criticalhttp://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/criticalhttp://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/criticalhttp://www.attu70.dsl.pipex.com/student/critintro.htm#mock%23mockhttp://www.socialresearchmethods.net/http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/http://www.bath.ac.uk/e-learning/gold/glossary.htmlhttp://www.bath.ac.uk/e-learning/gold/glossary.htmlhttp://www.bath.ac.uk/e-learning/gold/glossary.htmlhttp://www.bath.ac.uk/e-learning/gold/glossary.htmlhttp://www.statsoft.com/textbook/stathome.htmlhttp://davidmlane.com/hyperstathttp://davidmlane.com/hyperstathttp://www.sosig.ac.uk/roads/subject-listing/World-cat/meth.htmlhttp://www.sosig.ac.uk/roads/subject-listing/World-cat/meth.htmlhttp://www.sosig.ac.uk/roads/subject-listing/World-cat/meth.htmlhttp://www.researchbooks.co.uk/recommended%20research%20text%20books.htmhttp://www.researchbooks.co.uk/recommended%20research%20text%20books.htmhttp://www.researchbooks.co.uk/recommended%20research%20text%20books.htmhttp://www.researchbooks.co.uk/recommended%20research%20text%20books.htmhttp://www.richard-ingram.co.uk/howto.htmhttp://www.richard-ingram.co.uk/howto.htmhttp://www.richard-ingram.co.uk/howto.htmhttp://library.ukc.ac.uk/library/info/subjectg/healthinfo/critapprais.htmhttp://library.ukc.ac.uk/library/info/subjectg/healthinfo/critapprais.htmhttp://library.ukc.ac.uk/library/info/subjectg/healthinfo/critapprais.htmhttp://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/criticalhttp://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/criticalhttp://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/critical


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Critiquing guides / frameworks:

Guidelines for Critiquing ResearchArticleshttp://www.sonoma.edu/users/n/nola

n/n400/critique.htm

Sonama State University, California, USA. The guidelinesare from Polit, Beck and Hungler 2001: A comprehensivecritiquing framework, derived from Polit et als book.

Framework for critically appraisingresearch articles

http://hsc.uwe.ac.uk/dataanalysis/critFrame.asp

A critiquing framework within the UWE Data Analysis WebSite (co-authored by me!). User friendly. Example critiquesalso on the site

Guidelines for critiquing researcharticleshttp://www2.msstate.edu/~bsc2/guidelines.htm

From Mississippi State University, USA. Simple critiquingframework, butperhaps a poor example as it tends tofocus on textual critique, rather than critique of methods.

CASP Critiquing Toolshttp://www.phru.nhs.uk/Pages/PHD/resources.htm

CASP (Critical Appraial Skills Programme an NHS site).Now has an excellent range of tools for evaluating differenttypes of studies and reviews.

Studying systematic reviews

http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m0689/11_50/80531397/p1/article.jhtml

An on-line article discussing critical reading of systematicreviews

Ciliska, D., Cullum, N., & Marks,

S. (2001). Evaluation ofsystematic reviews of treatmentor prevention interventions.Evidence-Based Nursing. 4(4),October, 100-104

Full text available from OvidOnline (Athens passwordrequired)

A useful article on critically appraising systematic reviews.

Ajetunmobi, O. (2002). MakingSense of Critical Appraisal.London: Arnold.

view or purchase on-line

An excellent little book offering criteria / frameworks forcritiquing various types of research, plus audits, systematicreviews and economic evaluations. Includes basicresearch knowledge and explanation of statistics in orderto apply these to papers you might be critiquing

Evaluating Web Sites: Criteria andTools

http://www.library.cornell.edu/olinuris/

ref/research/webeval.html

Some criteria to help you evaluate web content (usually notprimary research)

Example critiques:

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1) Data Analysis - Critical Appraisal - worked example 1

http://hsc.uwe.ac.uk/dataanalysis/critWorked.aspFrom theUWE Data Analysis Web Site

http://hsc.uwe.ac.uk/dataanalysis/index.asp2) Data Analysis - Critical Appraisal - worked example 2

http://hsc.uwe.ac.uk/dataanalysis/critDevelop.asp

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Glossary

PopulationA well-defined group or set that has certain specified properties (e.g. all registered midwives working

full-time in Scotland). A selection (sample) of the population may be made for study in research Go to

on-line glossary

Reliability

Reliability is concerned with the consistency and dependability of a measuring instrument, i.e. it is an

indication of the degree to which it gives the same answers over time, across similar groups and

irrespective of who administers it. A reliable measuring instrument will always give the same result on

different occasions assuming that what is being measured has not changed during the intervening

period. Go to on-line glossary

Validity

In research terms, validity refers to the accuracy and truth of the data and findings that are produced.

It refers to the concepts that are being investigated; the people or objects that are being studied; themethods by which data are collected; and the findings that are produced. There are several different

types of validity: Go to on-line glossary

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bab 14 - kritik ke atas kajian tindakan - nota

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