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FINAL EXAM

NAMA KURSUS : GELAGAT ORGANISASIKOD KURSUS : MGM 3113JAM KREDIT : 3 JAM (3+0)

FORMAT: 20 soalan OBJEKTIF; 5 soalan SUBJEKTIF (10 markah/satu)

TOPIK: Kumpulan; Komunikasi; Kuasa; Konflik; Kepimpinan; Budaya Organisasi dan Perubahan Organisasi

ARAHAN: Sila baca topik yang sama di dalam Modul dan juga Nota Powerpoint yang telah di letakkan di dalam kelas maya. Soalan hanya akan merangkumi topik-topik yang tersebut sahaja walaupun topik di dalam Modul adalah lebih banyak..

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Team Dynamics

Chapter SevenChapter Seven

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What are Teams?

Groups of two or more people

Exist to fulfill a purpose

Interdependent -- interact and influence each other

Mutually accountable for achieving common goals

Perceive themselves as a social entity

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Groups versus Teams

All teams are groups

Some groups are just people assembled together

Teams have task interdependence whereas some groups do not (e.g., group of employees enjoying lunch together)

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Many Types of Teams

• Departmental teams

• Production/service/ leadership teams

• Self-directed teams

• Advisory teams

• Skunkworks

• Task force (project) teams

• Virtual teams

• Communities of practice

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Why Informal Groups Exist

1. Innate drive to bond

2. Social identityWe define ourselves by group memberships

3. Goal accomplishment

4. Emotional support

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Team Effectiveness Model

•Task characteristics

•Team size

•Team composition

Team Design

• Achieveorganizationalgoals

• Satisfy memberneeds

• Maintain teamsurvival

TeamEffectiveness

•Team development•Team norms•Team cohesiveness•Team trust

Team Processes

Organizational

and Team

Environment

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Team’s Task and Size

Task characteristicsBetter when tasks are clear, easy to implementShare common inputs, processes, or outcomesTask interdependence

Team sizeSmaller teams are betterBut large enough to accomplish task

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Levels of Task Interdependence

SequentialSequential

PooledPooled

ReciprocalReciprocal

ResourceResource

AA BB CC

AA BB CC

AA

BB CC

High

Low

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Team Development

Team development involves:Interpersonal knowledge and trustUnderstand and agree on rolesDiscover appropriate behaviorsLearn to coordinate with each otherDevelop team mental models

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Existing teams might regress back to an earlier stage of development

FormingForming

StormingStorming

NormingNorming

Performing

AdjourningAdjourning

Stages of Team Development

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Team Norms

Informal rules and shared expectations team establishes to regulate member behaviors

Norms develop through:Initial team experiences

Critical events in team’s history

Experience/values members bring to the team

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Team Cohesion

The degree of attraction people feel toward the team and their motivation to remain members

Calculative -- members believe the team will fulfill goals and needs

Emotional -- team is part of person’s social identity

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TeamTeamsizesize

MemberMemberinteractioninteraction

• Smaller teams more cohesive

• Regular interaction increases cohesion• Calls for tasks with high interdependence

MemberMembersimilaritysimilarity

• Similarity-attraction effect• Some forms of diversity have less effect

Influences on Team Cohesion

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TeamTeamsuccesssuccess

External External challengeschallenges

• Successful teams fulfill member needs• Success increases social identity with team

• Challenges increase cohesion when not overwhelming

Somewhat Somewhat difficult entrydifficult entry

• Team eliteness increases cohesion• But lower cohesion with severe initiation

Influences on Team Cohesion (con’t)

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Constructive Conflict

Occurs when team members debate their different perceptions about an issue in a way that keeps the conflict focused on the task rather than people.

Problem: constructive conflict easily slides into personal attacks

Courtesy of Johnson Space Center/NASA

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Communication Defined

The process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people

Transmitting the sender’s intended meaning (not just symbols) is the essence of good communication

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Importance of Communication

Coordinating work activities

Organizational learning

Decision making

Employee well-beingFulfills the drive to bondSelf-concept through social identity

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Receiver

EncodeEncodefeedbackfeedback

FormFormfeedbackfeedback

Sender

FormFormmessagemessage

EncodeEncodemessagemessage

TransmitMessage

TransmitFeedback

Noise

Communication Process Model

DecodeDecodemessagemessage

ReceiveReceiveencodedencodedmessagemessage

DecodeDecodefeedbackfeedback

ReceiveReceivefeedbackfeedback

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Courtesy of Admiral Insurance

Problems with Email

Communicates emotions poorly

Reduces politeness and respectSending messages before emotions subside (flaming)

Inefficient for ambiguous, complex, novel situations

Increases information overload

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Nonverbal Communication

Actions, facial gestures, voice intonation, silence, etc.

Transmits most info in face-to-face meetings

Influences meaning of verbal and written symbols

Less rule bound than verbal communication

Important part of emotional labor

Automatic and unconscious

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OversimplifiedZone

OverloadedZone

Nonroutine/Ambiguous

Rich

MediaRichness

Situation

Hierarchy of Media Richness

Lean

Routine/clear

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Communication Barriers

PerceptionsSelective attentionDifficulty empathizing with receiver

Filtering

LanguageJargonAmbiguity

Information Overload

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Cross-Cultural Communication

Verbal differencesLanguage

Nonverbal differencesVoice intonationInterpreting nonverbal meaningImportance of verbal versus nonverbalSilence and conversational overlaps

©Mark M. Lawrence/Corbis

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Men Women

Gives advice quickly and directly

Gives advice indirectly and reluctantly

Report talk Rapport talk

Conversations are negotiations of status

Conversations are bonding events

Less sensitive to nonverbal cues

More sensitive to nonverbal cues

Gender Communication Differences

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ActiveActiveListeningListening

SensingSensing•• Postpone evaluationPostpone evaluation•• Avoid interruptionsAvoid interruptions•• Maintain interestMaintain interest

EvaluationEvaluation•• EmpathizeEmpathize•• Organize informationOrganize information

RespondingResponding•• Show interestShow interest•• Clarify the messageClarify the message

Active Listening Process & Strategies

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The Meaning of Power

Power is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others.

Potential, not practice

People have power they don’t use -- may not know they possess

Power requires one person’s perception of dependence on another personCraig Abraham/Fairfax Photos

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Power and Dependence

Resource desired by person B

Resource desired by person B

Person B’s countervailing

power over Person A

Person APerson A Person A’s control of resource valued

by person B

Person BPerson B

Person A’s power over Person B

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Model of Power in Organizations

Contingenciesof Power

Contingenciesof Power

Powerover others

Powerover others

Sourcesof PowerSourcesof Power

LegitimateRewardCoerciveExpert

Referent

LegitimateRewardCoerciveExpert

Referent

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Contingencies of Power

Contingenciesof Power

Contingenciesof Power

SubstitutabilityCentralityDiscretionVisibility

SubstitutabilityCentralityDiscretionVisibility

Powerover others

Powerover others

Sourcesof PowerSourcesof Power

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Increasing Nonsubstitutability

Increase control over the resourceMedicine -- exclusive right to perform medical proceduresLabor unions -- control over skilled laborSpecialists -- exclusive knowledge how to operate or repair equipment

Differentiate resource from othersServices provided by consulting firms

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Centrality

Degree and nature of interdependence between powerholder and others

Centrality is a function of:How many others are affected by youHow quickly others are affected by you

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Discretion and Visibility

DiscretionThe freedom to exercise judgmentRules limit discretion, limit powerAlso a perception managers with internal locus of control act like they have discretion

VisibilitySymbols communicate your power source(s)

— Educational diplomas— Clothing etc (stethoscope around neck)

Salience— Location where others are more aware of your presence

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Influencing Others

Influence is any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behavior

Applies one or more power bases

Process through which people achieve organizational objectives

Operates up, down, and across the organizational hierarchy

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AssertivenessAssertiveness • Actively applying legitimate and coercive power (“vocal authority”)

• Reminding, confronting, checking, threatening

Silent Silent AuthorityAuthority

• Following requests without overt influence• Based on legitimate power, role modeling• Common in high power distance cultures

more

Types of Influence

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Coalition Coalition FormationFormation

• Group forms to gain more power than individuals alone

1. Pools resources/power 2. Legitimizes the issue3. Power through social identity

more

Types of Influence (con’t)

Information Information ControlControl

• Manipulating others’ access to information • Withholding, filtering, re-arranging

information

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Ingratiation/ Ingratiation/ Impress. Mgt.Impress. Mgt.

• Ingratiation• Impression Management

Upward Upward AppealAppeal

• Appealing to higher authority• Includes appealing to firm’s goals• Alliance or perceived alliance with higher

status person

more

Types of Influence (con’t)

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PersuasionPersuasion • Logic, facts, emotional appeals• Depends on persuader, message content,

message medium, audience

Types of Influence (con’t)

ExchangeExchange • Promising or reminding of past benefits in exchange for compliance

• Includes negotiation and networking

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Consequences of Influence Tactics

ResistanceResistance ComplianceCompliance CommitmentCommitment

PersuasionIngratiation &

impression mgtExchange

Soft Influence Tactics

Hard Influence Tactics

Silent authorityUpward appeal

Coalition formationInformation control

Assertiveness

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Organizational Politics

Behaviors that others perceive as self-serving tactics for personal gain at the expense of other people and possibly the organization.

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ConditionsConditionsSupportingSupporting

Organizational Organizational PoliticsPolitics

ScarceScarceResourcesResources

Complex andComplex andAmbiguousAmbiguousDecisionsDecisions

Tolerance of Tolerance of PoliticsPolitics

OrganizationalOrganizationalChangeChange

Conditions for Organizational Politics

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Conflict Defined

The process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party

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Is Conflict Good or Bad?: Emerging View

Two types of conflict

Constructive (task) conflictConflict is aimed at issue, not partiesProduces benefits of conflictUpper limit to any conflict, including constructive

Relationship (socioemotional) conflictAims conflict a the person (e.g. their competence), not the task or issueIntroduces perceptual biasesDistorts information processing

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DifferentiationDifferentiation

Task Task InterdependenceInterdependence

• Different values/beliefs• Explains cross-cultural and

generational conflict

• Conflict increases with interdependence

• Higher risk that parties interfere with each other

IncompatibleIncompatibleGoalsGoals

• One party’s goals perceived to interfere with other’s goals

more

Structural Sources of Conflict

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Ambiguous Ambiguous RulesRules

Communication Communication ProblemsProblems

• Creates uncertainty, threatens goals• Without rules, people rely on politics

• Increases stereotyping • Reduces motivation to communicate• Escalates conflict when arrogant

Scarce Scarce ResourcesResources

• Motivates competition for the resource

Sources of Conflict (con’t)

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Ass

ertiv

enes

s

Cooperativeness

Forcing Problem-solving

Compromising

Avoiding Yielding

High

Low High

Interpersonal Conflict Handling Styles

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Leadership Defined

Leadership is the ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness of the organizations of which they are members

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LeadershipLeadershipPerspectivesPerspectives

Competency Competency PerspectivePerspective

Contingency Contingency PerspectivePerspective

Implicit Implicit Leadership Leadership PerspectivePerspective

Transformational Transformational PerspectivePerspective

Perspectives of Leadership

Behavior Behavior PerspectivePerspective

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IntegrityIntegrity

DriveDrive

• Truthfulness• Translates words into deeds

• Inner motivation to pursue goals• Need for achievement, quest to learn

Leadership Leadership MotivationMotivation

• High need for socialized power to accomplish team’s or firm’s goals

Emotional Emotional IntelligenceIntelligence

• Perceiving, assimilating, understanding, and regulating emotions

Seven Leadership Competencies

more

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IntelligenceIntelligence • Above average cognitive ability• Can analyze problems/opportunities

Knowledge ofKnowledge ofthe Businessthe Business

• Familiar with business environment• Aids intuitive decision making

SelfSelf--ConfidenceConfidence • Strong belief in one’s ability to lead others

Seven Leadership Competencies (con’t)

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Leader Behavior Perspective

People-oriented behaviorsShowing mutual trust and respect Concern for employee needsLooks out for employee well-being

Task-oriented behaviorsAssign specific tasksEnsure employees follow rulesSet “stretch goals” to achieve performance capacity

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Path-Goal Leadership Styles

DirectiveTask-oriented behaviors

SupportivePeople-oriented behaviors

ParticipativeEncouraging employee involvement

Achievement-orientedUsing goal setting and positive self-fulfilling prophecy

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Path-Goal Leadership Model

EmployeeContingencies

EmployeeEmployeeContingenciesContingencies

EnvironmentalContingenciesEnvironmentalEnvironmentalContingenciesContingencies

LeaderBehaviors

LeaderLeaderBehaviorsBehaviors

• Directive• Supportive• Participative

• Achievement-oriented

• Directive• Supportive• Participative

• Achievement-oriented

Leader Effectiveness

Leader Leader EffectivenessEffectiveness

• Employee motivation

• Employee satisfaction

• Acceptance of leader

• Employee motivation

• Employee satisfaction

• Acceptance of leader

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Directive Supportive Participative AchievementEmployeeContingencies

Path-Goal Contingencies

Skill/Experience low low high high

Locus of Control external external internal internal

Task Structure nonroutine routine nonroutine ?

Team Dynamics –ve norms low cohesion +ve norms ?

EnvironmentalContingencies Directive Supportive Participative Achievement

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Leadership Substitutes

Contingencies that limit a leader’s influence or make a particular leadership style unnecessary.

Examples:

Training and experience replace task-oriented leadership

Cohesive team replaces supportive leadership

Self-leadership replaces achievement-oriented leadership

Research evidence: substitutes help, but don’t completely substitute for real leadership

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Transformational v. Transactional Leaders

Transformational leadersLeading -- changing the organization to fit environmentChange agents

Transactional leadersManaging -- linking job performance to rewardsEnsure employees have necessary resourcesApply contingency leadership

7-57

Transformational v. Charismatic Leaders

Is charismatic leadership essential for transformational leadership?

Some experts say yes, but emerging view is that:

Charisma is distinct from transformational leadershipA personal trait that might help transform, or might just help the leaderCharismatic leadership might have opposite effect -- creates dependence, not empowerment

7-58

Transformational Leadership Elements

1. Create a strategic visionVision

— Depiction of company’s (or work units) attractive future— motivates and bonds employees

May originate from others, but leader becomes a champion of the vision

2. Communicate the visionFrame message around a grand purposeCreate a shared mental model of the futureUse symbols, metaphors, symbols

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Transformational Leadership Elements (con’t)

3. Model the visionWalk the talkSymbolize and demonstrate the vision through their own behaviorBuilds employee trust in the leader

4. Build commitment to the visionIncreased through communicating and modeling the visionIncreased through employee involvement in shaping the shared vision

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Organizational Culture Defined

The basic pattern of shared values and assumptions governing the way employees within an organization think about and act on problems and opportunities.

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Elements of Organizational Culture

Visible

• Unconscious, taken-for-granted perceptions or beliefs

• Mental models of ideals

Shared assumptionsShared assumptions

• Conscious beliefs• Evaluate what is good or bad, right or

wrong

Shared valuesShared values

ArtifactsArtifactsArtifacts• Stories/legends• Rituals/ceremonies• Organizational language• Physical structures/décor

• Stories/legends• Rituals/ceremonies• Organizational language• Physical structures/décor

Invisible(below the surface)

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Strengthening Organizational Culture

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Organizational Socialization Defined

The process by which individuals learn the values, expected behaviors, and social knowledge necessary to assume their roles in the organization.

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Stages of Socialization

Role Management

Role Role ManagementManagement

• Insider

• Changing roles and behavior

• Resolving conflicts

• Insider

• Changing roles and behavior

• Resolving conflicts

EncounterStage

EncounterEncounterStageStage

• Newcomer

• Testingexpectations

• Newcomer

• Testingexpectations

Pre-EmploymentStage

PrePre--EmploymentEmploymentStageStage

• Outsider

• Gathering information

• Forming psychological contract

• Outsider

• Gathering information

• Forming psychological contract

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FBI Overcomes Resistance to Change

FBI staff resisted changing from a reactive law enforcement agency to a proactive domestic intelligence agency.

Change is now occurring at the FBI through extensive communication, training, and realignment of systems and structures.

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Lewin’s Force Field Analysis Model

A systems perspective of change developed by social psychologist Kurt Lewin

Unfreezing and refreezingOccur by altering driving and restraining forcesGenerate urgency to changeAddress sources of resistanceNew systems/structures refreeze desired conditions

DrivingForces

RestrainingForces

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DesiredConditions

CurrentConditions

BeforeChange

AfterChange

Force Field Analysis Model

DuringChange

DrivingForces

RestrainingForces Driving

Forces

RestrainingForces

DrivingForces

RestrainingForces

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Sources of Resistance to Change

Direct costsLosing something of value due to change

FBI’s new intelligence mandate would reduce status in law enforcement

Saving faceAccepting change acknowledges own imperfection, past wrongdoing

New FBI mandate acknowledges value of CIA work (source of past turf wars)

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Sources of Resistance to Change (con’t)

Fear of the unknownRisk of personal loss

Concern about being unable to adjust

Breaking routinesOrganizational unlearning is part of change process

But past practices/habits are valued by employees due to comfort, low cognitive effort

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Sources of Resistance to Change (con’t)

Incongruent organizational systems

Systems/structures reinforce status quoFBI career, reward, power, communication systems supported law enforcement, not intelligence

Incongruent team dynamicsNorms contrary to desired change

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CommunicationCommunication Highest priority and first strategy for change

Improves urgency to change

Reduces uncertainty (fear of unknown)

Problems -- time consuming and costly

Minimizing Resistance to Change

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CommunicationCommunication

Provides new knowledge and skills

Includes coaching and action learning

Helps break old routines and adopt new roles

Problems -- potentially time consuming and costly

Minimizing Resistance to Change

LearningLearning

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CommunicationCommunication

Increases ownership of change

Helps saving face and reducing fear of unknown

Includes task forces, future search events

Problems -- time-consuming, potential conflict

Minimizing Resistance to Change

LearningLearning

Employee Employee InvolvementInvolvement

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CommunicationCommunication When communication, training, and involvement do not resolve stress

Potential benefitsMore motivation to changeLess fear of unknownFewer direct costs

Problems -- time-consuming, expensive, doesn’t help everyone

Minimizing Resistance to Change

LearningLearning

Employee Employee InvolvementInvolvement

Stress Stress ManagementManagement

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CommunicationCommunication

When people clearly lose something and won’t otherwise support change

Influence by exchange-- reduces direct costs

Problems• Expensive• Gains compliance, not

commitment

Minimizing Resistance to Change

LearningLearning

Employee Employee InvolvementInvolvement

Stress Stress ManagementManagement

Negotiation

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CommunicationCommunication

When all else fails

Assertive influence

Firing people -- radical form of “unlearning”

Problems• Reduces trust• May create more subtle

resistance

Minimizing Resistance to Change

LearningLearning

Employee Employee InvolvementInvolvement

Stress Stress ManagementManagement

Negotiation

Coercion