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Journal of the American Academy of Religion June 2004, Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 461484DOI: 10.1093/jaarel/lfh037 2004 The American Academy of Religion

The Light beyond the Shore in theTheology of Proper Sufi MoralConduct (Adab)Qamar-ul Huda

Studies on proper moral conduct in the Islamic world have often beenanalyzed in terms of social limitations, adhering to hierarchies, assertingauthority, and conflicting political interests. This article demonstratesthat Sufi instructional manuals written by scholars, like the one writtenby Shaykh Umar al-Suhraward (d. 1234), emphasized proper moralconduct (adab) primarily to prepare Sufi disciples for the ultimatereturn to the divine. I propose that the detailed instructions for spiritual

exercises, guidelines for meditation, prayers, and the theological connectionamong faith, law, and the etiquette of morality suggest an adab theology.It was a theology that taught the spiritual aspirant to master the intricaciesof cultivating a compassionate heart, to embody perfectly the knowledgefrom God, and to surrender completely the self in order to meet the creatorwith real practical knowledge.

The law requires adab. Where adab is not found there is no law, no faith,and no God consciousness.

Ab Hafs Umar al-Suhraward,

Awrif al-Marif

THE COMMONALTIES BETWEEN the Greco-Romanearly Christianpaideia and the Islamic rules for social and moral conduct (adab) areoften understood within a social, political, intellectual, urban-grooming,historical, and religious context (Alfldi; Brown). The guidelines formoral development and for a comprehensive channel for all human

Qamar-ul Huda is an assistant professor of Islamic studies and comparative theology at Boston College,Chestnut Hill, MA 02467.

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462 Journal of the American Academy of Religion

activities within Sufi Islam (tasawwuf) cannot be easily reduced to compart-mentalized partial pieces that compose the whole. Instead, a deeper analysisof the ways in which Sufi authorities instructed their disciples to develop aninner structure as well as an outer structure for meeting the demands ofpreparing oneself for the journey toward God is valuable in understandingIslamic moral philosophy. The Sufi tradition has an enormous amount oferudite literature that addresses adabits importance for strict Sufi adher-ence, practice, beliefs, law, ethics, and philosophy. In all of these areas thereis a grander vision of an adab theology that assists the spiritual aspirant inmastering the unveiling process of gaining access to the divine.

The art of perfecting public moral conduct, or what is often referred toas the outer etiquette of the individual, is commonly called adab; however,historically the word has had a variety of meanings in the Islamic tradition.1

In the classical periods of Islam, the usage and concept ofadab referred tothe ethical and practical norms that set the standard for a devout Muslim.In much of the literature during the early Abbasid dynasty period (eighthninth centuries), the word adab referred to aristocratic manners, refinedtastes, a cultivated knowledge of wisdom, manners relating to cosmopolitanlife in the urban centers, proper styles in conversation and in gentlemanlybehavior, and, particularly, the general codes of conduct while appearing

in the Abbasid court (Bellamy; al-Muqaffa). The word adab appeared intexts about the upbringing of children; in the specific conduct rules forscribes, courtiers, scholars, and military leaders; and in the training forstatesmen. In wider Islamic usage adab was more about the proper codesfor conducting ones life that were connected to a system of ideas based onessential teachings of the Islamic faith and its beliefs (Malamud: 427442).

In order to understand the complete concept of adab, one needs tomove beyond the textual usage of the word and view the larger system ofinterrelated religious concepts to which it is connected. Historian Ira

Lapidus explains that adab is a comprehensive, inclusive, and centralconcept to Islamic faith (imn) whose purpose is inherently to seekknowledge (ilm). Ilm is not merely the scholarly practice of researchingand writing on knowledge or being active in the general discipline ofintellectual inquiry (Lapidus: 3845). It is the search for insight: to findthe essential meaning in the revelations so that it bears the truth fromGod. It encompasses the spirit behind searching for knowledge that willlead the individuals sacred quest to a better understanding of the self inrelation to the divine. From the earliest days of Islamic learning the field

of ilm, consisting of Qurnic studies, the literature surrounding the

1 For more on the usage ofadab, see Gabrieli: 175176 and Bonebakker.

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Huda: Theology of Proper Sufi Moral Conduct 463

Prophet (hadth and sunn), philosophy, law, and linguistics, maintained thebasic elementary idea of searching for the presence of God and its crucialrelational component of touching the outcome of faith. To be engaged inexploring the field of ilm meant that the scholar was responsible forfinding new ways to make existing faith meaningful so that it mightenhance devotion, spiritual growth, trust, and love for God. For theseMuslim scholars, the search for knowledge required them to think ininnovative ways to enrich the practice ofislam, that is, peaceful surrenderto the will of God and complete trust in the divines commandments andHis eternal compassion toward creation.

In this field of the Islamic religious sciences and epistemology, from asearly as the eighth century onward, Sufis treated their spiritual and intellec-tual quest with great importance as integral to their encounter with God. Inthe matrix ofadab many of the monumental Sufi masters, such as as-Sulam(d. 1021 C.E.), stated irrefutably that the whole of sufism is entirely basedon the ways of behavior [at-tasawwuf kulluhu db] (as-Sulam: 119).Aside from commentaries on the Qurn, Sufi scholars wrote their esotericexperiences, collected Sufi biographies, and manuals that contained specificand complex guidelines of law, customs, and detailed ways to conduct one-self in the Sufi tradition (tasawwuf). Influential works by Ab Nasr as-Sarrj

(d. 988 C.E.), author ofKitb al-Luma, and Al al-Makkis (d. 996 C.E.)Qt al-Qulb categorized the practices of Sufism and connected suchpractices with a proper adab. The sections of Sufi adab were written in acontext of disciplinary rules for spiritual seekers so that they might connectthe tenets of Sufism with adab. In these early Sufi texts the themes ofadabwere prominently connected with the different states (ahwal) or stages(maqamt) in which Sufis achieved their mystical virtues and encounters.The Sufi manuals outlined precise ways for disciples to practice the properways of behavior for novices (adab as-sffiyya wa adab al-murdn). The Sufi

journey toward God and meeting the creator meant that Sufi disciples hadto master and embody the perfect practices ofadab. Sufi adab, unlike othersecular types ofadab, worked within an esoteric and exoteric epistemo-logical context, and the search for truth was more than a contemplative oran intellectual exercise; rather, it forced Sufi disciples to structure their innerand outer lives around a mystical adab theology.

POLITICS, THE SUHRAWARD SUFI ORDER,

AND MORAL ETIQUETTEShaykh Ab Hafs Umar al-Suhraward was born in the Islamic calendar

of Rajab, 523 Hijri, or January 1145 C.E., and died in 1234 C.E. He studiedtheology from the prominent Sufi teacher Shaykh Abdul Qdir Jiln

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(d. 1166 C.E.) and was eventually initiated into Sufism by his uncle,Shaykh Ab Najb al-Suhraward. The uncle was born in 1097 C.E. in thetown of Suhraward, which is located west of Sultaniyya, in the provinceof al-Jibl, and established the Suhraward Sufi order. Shaykh Umar al-Suhraward, like many other distinguished Sufi thinkers, tried to bringabout a deeper theological understanding in the Sufi tradition by analyzingthe Qurn, the customs of the Prophet as recorded in the hadth, and thetexts of past Sufi shaykhs. His best extant Sufi text, Awrif al-Marif,The Benefits of the Spiritually Learned, was one of the more popular Sufibooks of his time, and after his death it became the standard preparatorytextbook for Sufi novices.2 One of the many reasons for its esteemed rep-utation in the Sufi world was that the manual attempted to reconcile thepractices of Sufism with the observance of Islamic law. To later generationsof Sufis and to a wide cross section of Sufi orders the book became one of themost closely studied and memorized texts in the Sufi tradition (Ghawath;al-Klbadh).

Al-Suhraward was a trained jurist (faqih) in the Baghdadi Hanballegal tradition, specializing in law (shar), Qurnic exegesis (tafsir),reasoning and ethics in tasawwuf, and philosophy (falsafa), and was ascholar on the paradigmatic literature on Prophet Muhammad as found

in the hadth (dirast as-sunn wa ahadth). As a student of two prominentSufi teachers, Abdul Qdir Jiln and Ab Najb al-Suhraward, he wasinfluenced by a pragmatic practice that asserted the supremacy of obeyingthe law while bringing a rational interpretation of Sufism. A respectedmuhaddith scholar (an authority in hadth studies) with a background in

fiqh, shar, falsafa, and Sufi lineage, al-Suhraward was one of the intel-lectual giants in the class of scholars on religion (ulam). As a Hanbaljurist he followed the tradition of presenting evidence with passages ofthe Qurn, citing evidence from the sunn and hadths and sayings from

past eminent Sufi masters. In 1200 C.E., the Abbasid caliph al-Nasir(11791225 C.E.) designated al-Suhraward as Shaykh al-Islam, theprestigious position that administered the religious affairs for the state,which resulted in al-Suhraward advocating for Sufistate cooperationand emphasizing the role of his own Sufi order at the forefront of Islamicreligious politics.

In his Sufi writings Shaykh al-Suhraward asserted a conservativetone and spoke out against his contemporaries, such as Ibn al-Arab

2 Awrif al-Marif has been translated by some as Knowledge of the Gnostics, Manual of theDervishes, or The Gifts of the Spiritual Perceptions, but I believe that all of those translations bringconfusion to the theology of the Suhrawardyya order and to the intellectual dimensions of Shaykhal-Suhrawards Sufism.

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(11651240 C.E.), for excessive reliance on philosophical method intheological reflection. He was a strong proponent of obeying the lawclosely as well as all its related disciplines, mainly because a strict obser-vance of the law (shar) was, in his view, related to spiritual ascension.According to him, obeying Hanbal law meant complete obedience to thecaliphs authority, paying the required taxes, and adhering to the civil,religious, and social codes mandated by the state. For him, the shar wasmore than a set of legal codes to follow; rather, it was a divine path thatled the individual back to the creator. This opposition to philosophicalspeculation as the primary path of contemplating the nature of the divinewas caused by the fear that an untrained person could put forth an inter-pretation that was false to the tradition and that this interpretation couldbe misconstrued as authentic to Sufi teachings. Another reason for al-Suhrawards opposition to philosophical methods in Sufi contemplation wasthe controversial nature of Neoplatonic thought in Islamic philosophicalstudies and its overwhelming emphasis on reason over revelation, especiallythe place of the philosopher as the exemplary seeker for truth. Nevertheless,although Shaykh al-Suhraward was tolerant of all kinds of Sufi beliefs andpractices, he was interested primarily in those who followed the particularSuhrawardyya path of Sufism and Hanbal law.

THE POLITICS OFADAB

As Shaykh al-Islam al-Suhraward advocated that the caliph was thesupreme leader for Muslims and the representative of God on earth.According to him, God chose a mediator, wasla, between Himself andhuman beings, and ultimately it was the caliphs role to bring humanbeings back to Him from a corrupt way of living (Cahen 1959; Haartmann).A main reason for al-Suhraward to set up such a hierarchy was that per-haps he wanted to reform certain dissident antisocial groups, orfutwwas,and realign them with his own Sufi order.3 In the urban centersfutwwagroups were the main channel for expressing lower-class interests, andgradually these groups adopted Sufi teachings and rituals and becameclosely connected with the Sufi networking system. Al-Suhrawardbelieved that thesefutwwas were essentially part of the Sufi way, set upfor the ordinary people who found Sufi orders too demanding. Heargued that futwwas were inherently part of the larger shar system,

where, as mentioned, the caliph was responsible for all religious, social,

3 For a further examination on the study of futwwa (literally, young manhood) as aninstitution and its strong idealistic values with lower-class men, see Taeschner and Massignon.

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and political activities, and that these caliphal powers were sanctioned bythe divine (Huda 2003).

It has been argued that because al-Suhraward was Shaykh al-Islamfor the Abbasid state, he wanted to incorporate these futwwa groupsinto state control so as to bring a greater sense of social, political, andeconomic stability to the caliphs rule. Also, as the leading Sufi shaykh ofthe Suhrawardyya order, he planned on reforming thefutwwa institutionsto embrace their members as his own disciples for the Sufi order. Thiswould explain the primary reasons for his insistence on strictly obeyingthe Hanbal law school, especially for the ex-futwwa members whowould have been familiar with competing Islamic law schools. Anotherreason for such a focus on the law was to inculcate a disciplined internaland external structure in new disciples. For him, complying with adabrequired (1) a precise observance of all social structuresSufi and legalhierarchies, ritual, worship, political authority, social etiquette, tasawwufpracticesand (2) a rigorous familiarity with the shar, Qurn, andhadth literature (Cahen 1953).

Al-Suhrawards emphasis on the caliphate as the capstone for theshar structure, where the caliph (in collaboration with the SuhrawardSufi leadership) was the ultimate guarantor for the Islamic religious,

political, social, and economic order, did receive its share of criticism. Theprevious ousted Shaykh al-Islam, Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Jawz (d. 1200 C.E.),one of Baghdads most distinguished Hanbal jurists, vigorously opposedal-Suhrawards eschatological ideas on the caliphate and his movementtoward a Sufistate alliance. Al-Jawz felt that al-Suhrawards politicalagenda was too intermingled with his Sufi practices and obscured hisinterpretation of law. He accused al-Suhrawards teachings of furtheringthe cause of philosophical heresy and overstressing the Sufi path of Islam.In addition to the criticism of infusing the caliphate with philosophical

and Sufi ideals, a major political theorist of the time, al-Mward, arguedagainst al-Suhrawards centralization of power in one person and onebranch of government. Al-Mward asserted that an effective caliphshould relegate power to regional sultans in order to maintain a balancedcentralized authority. In addition to wanting balance among institu-tions of government (judicial, executive, military), al-Mward contestedal-Suhrawards idea that the caliph was the representative of God onearth and said that this was a severe misreading of the Qurn and thesunn of the Prophet (Khale).

Another significant thinker of the time, Ahmad Ibn Taymya (12631328C.E.), criticized a number of al-Suhrawards theories on law, jurisprudence,governance, the Sufi path, and thefutwwa institution. According to IbnTaymya, the major issue with both Sufi and futwwa groups was

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whether it was ever permissible for these groups to coexist with shar;he meticulously argued against their evidence of certain practices that theyclaimed were documented in the life of the Prophet or his son-in-law,Al ibn Ab Tlib (d. 661 C.E.) (Makdisi). In this area Ibn Taymya wasprimarily concerned with their acceptance of intercession, their celebrationand adoption of cultural festivals from non-Muslim communities, theirclaim of blessings to be earned from visitation to Sufi tombs, their beliefsin attributing mystical powers to Sufi shaykhs and political leaders, andtheir membership in futwwa organizations, all of which he consideredto be derived from non-Islamic traditions. He stated, It is imperative todifferentiate between following the Prophet [sas] and making a sunn ofhis practice, and a practice which though connected with the Prophet[sas] was not intended as a sunn and is therefore a piece of innovation(bida) to the tradition (Ibn Taymya: 77).4

Al-Suhrawards observations that proper outer moral conduct was thebasis for adhering to the law and to the authority of the caliphate werereally tied to a complex political debate concerning his role as Shaykh al-Islam for the Abbasid dynasty, his attempts at strengthening the caliphspower, and his efforts at co-opting and consolidating the vast membershipoffutwwa networks to his own Suhrawardyya Sufi order. The distin-

guished scholar and statesman al-Jawz went on record to state thatal-Suhraward was practicing heresy in viewing the caliphs position to bedivinely ordained as mediatory between human beings and God. Juristssuch as Ibn Taymya disputed the theological and legal evidence furnishedby al-Suhraward regarding whether the Sufi andfutwwa institutions wereoriginally intended by the Prophet. For al-Suhraward, adab needed to berecognized as one of the crucial components in being a Muslim, or moreaccurately stated, a reformedfutwwa member entering as a novice in theSufi order needed to obeyadab as a foundational concept and practice in

the Suhrawardyya order. The real issue for al-Suhraward serving as reli-gious adviser to the caliph was to ensure that shar was imbedded in thehearts of all Muslims under the caliphate. One of his objectives was totransform the transient, noncompliant, unruly antiestablishmentfutwwamembers into pious Sufis under his authority. The fierce politics ofadabwere entangled in the complex web of enforcing proper moral conduct as

4 The standard method to argue any point was to quote Qurnic passages where verses supporteda particular idea. Whenever there was a reference to the Prophet Muhammad, the properbenediction ofsal allhu alaihim wa salam (May peace and blessings be upon him) was used.With references to companions of the Prophet, members of the Prophets family, Sh imms, andeminent Sufi shaykhs, the benediction rahmat allh alah(May mercy be upon him) was used. Forthe purpose of simplicity I use the letters sas and r, respectively, in brackets to abbreviate thesebenedictions.

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an elementary component ofshar for everyone to follow versus makingit a mandatory devotional practice only for Suhraward Sufis.

THE SUHRAWARD SUFIS

Shaykh al-Suhraward viewed tasawwufas a way to perfect devotionin which one can fully embrace divine beauty; at the heart of theSuhraward tasawwufwas the reconnection with the divine the humansoul had previously experienced in a preexistent time. This did not meanthat Suhraward Sufis could not lead a practical life; rather, they wereencouraged to enjoy the benefits of this world and to not reject the world.Shaykh al-Suhraward preached a balanced code for Sufi living, for whichthe Prophet Muhammad set an example. For him, there were only a fewadvanced devotees who were able to pray all night and work all day. Themajority of believers, according to Shaykh al-Suhraward, had to maintainprayers and specific Sufi practices, such as meditational spiritual exercises(dhikr), as part of their daily routine. On the controversial issue ofwhether Sufis should maintain celibacy, he felt that only Sufi masterswere qualified to judge whether their disciples were spiritually equippedto take on that challenge. But he obstinately opposed anyone defending

or advocating the life of the antinomian, nomadic, begging Qalandars.The Qalandars were extremely controversial at this time because of theirantisocial characteristics, for not practicing the basic articles of the faith,and for their outward disrespect for the shar.

Shaykh al-Suhrawards overwhelming stress on proper moral con-duct (adab) was mainly connected with his concern that Sufis developan internal and external discipline that mirrored the Prophets life. Tohim, the physical world was very much related to the spiritual world,and in order for Sufis to perfect their spirituality, their physical customs

had to reflect their internal condition. Shaykh al-Suhrawards ideas onadab stemmed from the belief that it is necessary to obey the lawcompletely because it is a manifestation of divine order. Some havesuggested that his efforts in creating a perfect harmonious societyrequired an intensely structured model (Cahen 1977; Mason).Adab wasa critical element in his ideal world because all the minute details of anindividuals behavior could be controlled. For Shaykh al-Suhraward,Sufis were practicing more than spiritual purity, for in the largerscheme Suhraward Sufis were attempting to reunite with the divine, and

this required them to uphold the shar. According to al-Suhraward,one needed to be prepared to carry out this extraordinary responsibilityby having ones thoughts and actions planned for every moment, atevery place.

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THE OUTER AND INNER WORLDS: THEADAB OF SUFISM

Shaykh al-Suhrawards texts contain a great deal of elaboration on

theories and practices of proper moral Sufi conduct. His main concernwas to ensure that Suhrawards, and any other Sufi group, would not beneglectful of obeying shar and the guidance of the mediating shaykh.Some current theories on adab practice suggest that the knowledgelearned from a senior Sufi shaykh (al-ilm as-sahh as-sam) needed tohave established boundaries in order to ensure that the masterdisciplerelationship would not be threatened and that disciples would not trans-gress their limitations with the authority of the shaykh (Digby; Radtkeand OKane). Although it is not completely convincing that this adab

theory is applicable to Sufi hierarchies or to other structures in Islam, it isknown that Sufi masters felt that it was important that disciples under-stand that their tasawwuf training entailed both the inner and outerrealms. If any aspect ofilm was disrespected by improper adab, then theresulting disequilibrium of law and tasawwufwould cause an imbalancein the goal of reuniting with God (Netton: 457482).

For al-Suhraward and other legal-minded Sufi scholars, the Sufi tra-dition required disciples to adhere to the adab prescribed by the guidingshaykh and to the regulations of the Sufi order. Hierarchies and rankings

of Sufi disciples and shaykhs mattered in many ways; aside from the real-ities of set roles in the Sufi order, these distinctions marked the level ofmystical knowledge attained, the in-depth understanding ofirfn (gnosis),and, more important, the mystical comprehension (dhawq) of theQurn and Gods presence (hull). Shaykh al-Suhraward stated:

The Prophet [sas] stated that God had taught him good etiquette.Zhir(outer) and btin (inner) etiquette is needed for a civilized world. If peopleembrace zhir, then they will learn to be a sufi with etiquette, adab. But,there are several things that are difficult for a person to completelyachieve. Until the untrained persons fully immerse themselves in propermanners (the manners that are rooted with the Prophets [sas] tradition),then they will remain ill-mannered. If peoples appearances are likethose people who indulge in the world, then their manners will reflectthat. For example, when people do not change their manners, they alsodo not change, then their manners are copied from elsewhere. Let usremember what the Qurn tell us: In Gods creation there can be nochanges. (250)

The issue for al-Suhraward is to demonstrate that the continuity ofproper moral conduct comes from God and was transmitted to theprophets. For him, the adab tradition is rooted in the time when God

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taught the prophets proper guidance in order that they might redirecttheir complete attention toward God. In the Sufi tradition ProphetMuhammad is the figure par excellence who embodies the perfect way ofdirecting oneself toward God and concentrating on becoming closer tothe divine (Hirtenstein).5 The Qurn calls the Prophet the seal ofprophets (khatam al-anbiy), and just as God taught proper adab toProphet Muhammad, the Prophet used the same methods to teach hiscompanions the same adab.6 Al-Suhrawards Sufi theology situated adabat the center of Sufi thought and practice in order to ensure that his Sufidisciples fully comprehended adab as a transformative medium betweenthe inner and outer worlds. For Suhrawards, and other Sufis, adab theologyis less about the physical, psychological, and temporal dimensions ofmoral conduct; rather, adab is more concerned with accentuating theconstant opening of the heart that inspires a real journey toward encoun-tering God.7

THEADAB OF THE PROPHET

For Shaykh al-Suhraward, adab represented many aspects of the lawand order for Sufi disciples to follow in society; it was the real reenactment

of the Prophets life in this world. The Prophet in every way representedthe perfect human being (insn al-kamil): he mastered social relationships,political challenges, tribal conflicts, financial stresses, and religious tolerance;was divinely chosen as the last Prophet; was the only Prophet to ascend toheaven to dialogue with God; and brought Gods final book of guidanceto humanity. In every moment of the Prophets existence he was beingtaught by Allh the proper conduct of behavior as well as being spirituallytrained by God. Each aspect of the Prophet, from his speech (kalm), tohis worship (ibda), to his daily actions (aml), is derived from him witness-

ing the divine face (mushhadat al-wajh) and of Gods essence beingmanifested (tajall ad-dht) to him. As that of a servant (abd) to Allh,the Prophets adab is fundamental to al-Suhrawards theology because itis connected directly to obeying divine order in this world. For example,the shaykh quotes a well-known saying of the Prophet that speaks clearlyto followers about how important adab is to God:

5 This concept of being taught adab is in line with God teaching the beautiful names of God toAdam. The beautiful names of God are reverential attributes of the divine and a source forcontemplation and cleansing during spiritual exercises.

6 Qurn 33:40 states: Muhammad is not the father of any man among you, but a messenger ofGod, and the seal of the prophets. God has knowledge of everything.

7 Remaining open at all times to Gods invitation and presence is at the core of many prominentSufi scholars like Ibn al-Arab and al-Suhraward.

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And an even better point is that people are against changes to mannersand proper etiquette, and this is why the Prophet [sas] said to makefriends with ones adab. This is why God created human beings and gave

them their ability to correct themselves when it is needed. And in this itis virtuous. God has shown His majesty to humankind through thesevirtues (adab). These virtues are from personal training, to light theflints to set a fire to a pure and virtuous life. In this way, human beingswill become strong in their values, and strength is a character instilledinto human beings by the will of God. (250)

For the disciples adab is not to be treated as an object inherited as amember in the Sufi order; nor is it to be viewed as a mysterious practice

learned from elder Sufi shaykhs. Instead, Shaykh al-Suhrawards referenceto the Prophets statement to make friends with ones adab is intention-ally situated here to prove two points. First, the emphasis on adab in theSuhraward tasawwufis not without basis but, rather, is strongly rootedin the customs (sunn) of the Prophet.Adab, then, is critically significantfor Suhrawards because they are reenacting the customs of the Prophetas a conduit to meet God (Huda 2001). Second, the Prophets statementillustrates how the power ofadab can work either against you or for you;it is best to accept it as a friend. Adab acting as a friend means that the

Sufi disciple needs to depend on it at various moments of life. To portrayadabas a friend allows the disciple not to viewadab as another religious obli-gation in the Sufi path but, instead, to view it as a sympathetic colleaguewho is supportive on the path.

Al-Suhraward provides his own understanding of why God gavehuman beings adab in the statement, God created adab to give humanbeings the ability to correct themselves when needed and God revealsHimself to humankind through adab. Once again Shaykh al-Suhrawardis proving that adab was created by God, and all created things weremeant to witness His manifestation (mushhada)one of the primarygoals of a Sufi.Adab is part of Gods creation, and Sufis must cultivate alove for practicing adab. A person needs to understand not only bothmorality and immorality but also the art of distinguishing one fromthe other. To meet God, the heart must be as pure as possible, and itneeds to use reasoning to stay virtuous. Shaykh al-Suhraward stated veryeloquently,

Become friends to ones inner and outer realities, which will assist you inmoral understanding and learning proper etiquette. Proper adab createsproper behavior and right actions for the individual. Human beingswere originally pure, and it should be their goal to return to that purestate. It is Gods will to have human beings strive toward a strong morality

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and not fall into an immoral state of affairs. It is Gods intention toremove human beings from the fire of misdoing and have them developadab to keep them virtuous. (251)

Al-Suhraward centers adab as the main instrument in returning to apure and uncorrupted state because it is in this state that the disciple canthen begin to smell the scent of the divines presence.

THE ETIQUETTE WITH ONES SHAYKH

Al-Suhraward explicitly explained the range of conditions under whicha disciple was permitted to speak while present at a teachers guidance

forum, majlis. He compares the adab at a Sufi shaykhs forum to a blessingthat is as deep as an ocean. If one does not follow the proper adab that isrequired, then the Sufi could lose the daily allowance of blessings from theshaykh, and the disciple would not comprehend real Sufi knowledge. Forsome contemporary scholars, established hierarchies were reinforced byadab, and it served as a mechanism for disciples to recognize the full andcomplete authority of the Sufi shaykh and their place in relation to theshaykh, sometimes called the shaykhmurd relationship.8 The shaykhmurdhierarchy related to other hierarchies of the Sufi lodge and within thelarger Sufi order and was a model of mobility and not of fixed, certain real-ities (Buehler: 5275). Through adab practices Sufi disciples understoodthese hierarchies as real and practical training for their ultimate presence infront of the divine (Cornell: 105120). A real understanding ofadab meantto view it in light of other types of hierarchies that, in turn, prepared theSufi disciple for the encounter with God. Viewed from this perspective, theintense adherence to adab was essentially a means through which disciplesremained on the path of God while simultaneously embodying the proper

moral conduct for their ultimate return to the divine (Eaton: 263283).Specific adab instructions were critical to the educational training ofthe Sufi disciple, for example, not looking face to face at the shaykh orsitting at a considerable distance reflected basic respect for the Sufiteacher. Even these adab instructions were circumstantialthat is, theguidelines for not looking face to face at the Sufi master were not meantto be taken literally all the time but, rather, inculcated the idea and practiceof sincere respect and supreme reverence in the disciples for the master

8 The complexity of the shaykhmurdrelationship has recently been examined through a varietyof lenses illustrating the ways in which disciples were trained, held rank in the Sufi order, wereeducated within the Sufi context, maintained spiritual authority, and continued the legacy of themaster teacher and the ways this relationship allowed for social, religious, and political authority inthe community.

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shaykh. On the one hand, the minutiae of these regulations are importantto al-Suhrawards central concern of maintaining a strict, hierarchical, anddisciplined Sufi order; however, on the other hand, these instructions onadab were intended for disciples to follow and to comprehend the reasonsbehind the established hierarchies.

For instance, the shaykh observes:

In the same manner, during a majlis, the disciple should show properadab. When sitting in front of the shaykh, the disciple should not speak aword even if it is nice greetings, until proper permission is given by theshaykh. The presence of a shaykh to his disciple is like someone who issitting along the shore on a beach waiting for ones daily spiritual allowance

from God. The shaykhs wisdom is the path for spiritual allowance. Inthis way, the level of the disciples faith and his search for truth is elevatedthrough the shaykh. If the disciple decides on his own to speak fromemotions, he reverses a level of understanding and then the discipleknows that he made a mistake. (365)

Al-Suhraward wanted his disciples to know that the shaykhs majlis ismore than an educational and spiritual forum for Sufi students to learnfrom an enlightened teacher. It is not a space used for debating issues like

that of an institutional college, where students are encouraged to challengeideas taught by the instructor; nor is being in front of a Sufi teacher aspace of rote memorization and the mindless regurgitation of ideas.Rather, the space of the shaykhs majlis is about enlightened gnosticknowledge (irfn) gained from absolute real experiences and real dialoguesbetween the shaykh and God. In order for Sufi students to assimilate thisknowledge completely, they must learn another set of values attributed toirfn. To be present at the shaykhs majlis is to view the teachings as practicalinstructional Sufi knowledge for tasawwuf living. First, the majlis is a

classroom for Sufi students to comprehend mentally the conceptualmodel of tasawwufknowledge, and, second, it is an attempt to capturethe spiritual perfection needed to annihilate oneself with God. Accordingto al-Suhraward, the teachings of the shaykh at his majlis required a strictadab of listening and of incorporating the Sufi exercises. Al-Suhrawardviewed adab multidimensionally: It was a type of practice integral to thetradition, a practice that taught disciples respect for hierarchies, a practicethat enhanced their spiritual awareness, and most important, a skill thatwas acquired in preparation for reunion with the divine.

In order for the disciple to learn about his own state of spirituality, itis mandatory for the shaykh to establish proper guidelines for the discipleto take questions from the teacher (Ernst). According to al-Suhraward,it is not necessary for the shaykh to ask questions of the disciples face to

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face; rather, whatever method the master decides on is understood to bethe most appropriate and learned method. The shaykh adds to thezhirand the correct conversations that are needed for this process.Al-Suhraward observes in this regard:

Instead of speaking face to face, he takes particular persons from hisheart and directs them to the attention of God. And for them, he asks formercy and offers special prayers. At this time, the disciples heart andtongue are engaged in a conversation with truth. The needy thenreceives grace. Through the shaykhs actions he designates and correctlyevaluates the disciple who is seeking truth, because action is one type ofseed to assist the disciple. It is the duty of the shaykh to plant seeds so the

soul desires a mixture of purity and guidance, and to entrust the discipleto God. After this, any conversations for truth will be with God, and amodel is then completed. (365366)

The adab instructions regarding the Sufi disciples interaction with themaster at a majlis reflects al-Suhrawards commitment to ensuring that therelationship between shaykh and disciple is structured at all times. He isinterested in confirming that the Sufi disciple understands his position as anovice in the transcendental journey toward the divine and that the engage-

ment between the shaykh and the disciple is a sacred event paralleling theeventual encounter with the divine (Gross: 159172). It is not a time tocontest the shaykhs knowledge or to speak from emotion. Instead, the dis-ciples duty is to be attentive and focus on the Sufi practices to be observed.

THEADAB IN THE SUFI QUEST

Shaykh al-Suhrawards discussion of adab of the shaykh is significantin highlighting the equal importance of the masters spiritual wisdom and

his physical presence. He remembers a time when he was given a handker-chief by his shaykh and how he cherished it because it had the physical bless-ings of his shaykh. Al-Suhrawards stress on the physical touching ofobjects by Sufi shaykhs reflects a common view that objects become sacral-ized by the touch of a Sufi shaykh. That is, because the Sufi teacher isdirectly connected to Gods grace (rabita), he has the ability to heal discipleswith his touch, and simultaneously the objects that are touched by himclothes, utensils, prayer rugs, books, rosary beads, and so onare viewed asholy objects that are above all treasured. Al-Suhraward stated,

It is often that a disciple is overwhelmed by the intense inspiration of hisshaykh, and this sometimes causes difficulty in looking at the sufi master.This happened to me when I was in Buhkara and my uncle Shaykh Ab

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Najim Suhraward [r] entered the house. My entire upper body startedto perspire. At the time, I wanted to control my perspiration, but I couldnot with the entrance of the honorable Shaykh. I was later cured by the

blessings of my uncle. (366)

Anecdotes like this reflect the variety of narratives shared with disciplesfor the purpose of providing a moral lesson as well as sharing personalexperiences that would connect with the lives of his disciples. The lessonhe wished to impart to his disciples was to view objects touched by theSufi master not as ordinary profane objects in the world; when the Sufimaster graces an object with his touch, then the object itself is trans-formed into a sacred object that should be revered for the rest of ones life.

The practice ofadab goes beyond adhering to proper conduct in thepresence of the shaykh, within the confines of a Sufi lodge (khnaqh), orin daily dealings with people. Al-Suhraward was interested in the intel-lectual aspects of understanding the related disciplines ofadab, such asethics, Sufi rituals, and tasawwuf theosophy. To him, there is an adabtheology for Suhraward Sufis to study and examine so that they mayintellectually understand the outer (zhir) and inner (btin) of ethics, liturgy,and tasawwuf. Critically examining adab theology and rationally arguingall of its complex components force Sufis to engage with the intellectualdimensions of moral philosophy. This trains the disciple to comprehendthe interconnectedness ofadab with other features in Suhraward Sufism,legal theology, ethics, and Qurnic studies. Sufi disciples are expectednot just to practice adab without understanding the multifaceted aspectsof its significance to the tradition. Al-Suhrawards methodology of arguingfor the historical, theological, legal, Qurnic, philosophical, ethical, andesoteric roots of adab in tasawwuf is the model by which he desiredSuhraward Sufis to be fully engaged in seeking more relevant knowledgerelated to their quest. This is in agreement with al-Suhrawards perspectiveon tasawwuf, which requires the Sufi to use reason (aql), intellectualinquiry, and the exchange of ideas in accordance with the grander spiritualjourney oftasawwuf.

THE EXCELLENCE OFADAB

Shaykh al-Suhrawards arguments for adab aim at first to prove tohis audience that adab is historically, religiously, legally, philosophically,

and theologically grounded in the Islamic tradition. After the sectionAdab in Sufism, he explains that practicing one type ofadab opens theheart to adhering to other types of Sufi adab. This pleases God and bringsthe spiritual seeker closer to the divine. It demonstrates that adab is not

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an incidental feature to tasawwuf; rather, sufi Shaykhs have learned theirwisdom from God and the systematic transfer of this knowledge ofadabto disciples is a continuity of contract, blessings, and the primary purposeof the ultimate return to God (al-Suhraward: 249). This is not a minorpoint to be overlooked in al-Suhrawards thought. He is interested inreinforcing the concept of adab theology as an important instructionaltool for the Sufi shaykhdisciple relationship, and to ignore this point isto miss the heart of Suhraward Sufism.

In the section entitled The Excellence ofAdab al-Suhraward arguesthat if the disciples ultimate quest is to return to the divine and this spir-itual quest is moderated by the teachings of his master shaykh, then theirrelationship is critical in cultivating a compassionate, loving, and open-minded seeker. This relationship, though built on the acceptance of hier-archical positions and an imbalance of spiritual awareness, is the one areain the tasawwuf path where the complete dependence on the masterimplies a dual adab: the adab of the master shaykh in fulfilling his duty tobring the disciple closer to divine awareness and the adab of the disciple toconform absolutely to the rules set by the master. The adab requirementsfor both the shaykh and the Sufi disciple compel each to depend on theotherwhether that be spiritually, socially, economically, or as individuals

belonging to the same Sufi order. It is this dependence on another withinthe shaykhmurdrelationship that allows adab to have a life of its ownand to breathe in new life as both teacher and seeker are brought to newhorizons of enlightenment. For example, al-Suhraward comments onthe excellence ofadab in the following statement:

Almighty God gave respected sufi shaykhs of the past good habits so thatthey might have virtues in their btin (inner dimensions). They werefortunate to have good training so as to have their souls protected byadab. As individuals endowed with adab by God, they were able toenrich and train their disciples. For some individuals it is not in theirnature to easily grasp adab and it takes them a long time to achieve it.Just as disciples learn from their shaykhs and build a loving bond fortheir shaykhs, so, too, it is in this way that one needs to develop a firmtraining that reflects strong actions. (250)

Shaykh al-Suhraward explains the meaning of this by applying ananecdote from another Sufi shaykh, Abbs: Shaykh Abbs [r] reportedthat you were taught your religion and its adab. Shaykh al-Suhraward

returns to the authority of the Prophets sayings and quotes a hadth: TheProphet [sas] reported that my merciful God taught me good adab. ThenHe taught me wisdom in morality. Follow in the good adab and give wise vir-tuous advice (252). This analysis references hadths, which give legitimacy

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to al-Suhrawards argument that adab was theologically approved by theProphet. The heart of Suhraward Sufi thought is centered around theidea that adab is a sacred axis that connects the disciple to the Prophet.

Adab has the multipurpose function of sharing love for the Prophet andvisualizing oneself in his company. When one perfects ones adab, then itcan connect the Sufi disciple with the Prophet in spirit and in the realmof visual communication.

The practice ofadab for Sufis was a method to bridge knowledge ofthe inner way with the practice of Sufism in order to directly access mysticalknowledge (marifa). The theology ofadab brings together the wisdom oftasawwuf with the real daily actions of the Sufi seeker. For Shaykh al-Suhraward, although wisdom comes in many ways to the Sufi seeker ofGod, one clear aspect ofadab is understanding how human actions and innerwisdom relate to encountering the divine. For instance, al-Suhrawardstates the following to support the connection between wisdom andadab: It is reported by Shaykh Ysuf ibn Hssein [r] that adab comesfrom understanding knowledge. Knowledge is the means of learningproper actions (amal, pl. aml). And amalis the means of learning wisdom.Wisdom is the advanced learning where one finds pleasure in making aplace on the day of judgment and also, in this pleasure one meets the

heart of God (251).In addition to confirming the idea that adab was practiced andpreached by the Prophet and then followed by members of his householdand by his companions, Shaykh al-Suhraward stresses that the Prophetsadab was not left for only a select few to understand but, rather, was amodel for the entire community to act on. Al-Suhrawards adab theologyemphasizes the integral importance of adab to spiritual enlightenmentand its place in worship. The Sufi shaykh states, It is recorded by Ayesha[r] (the wife of the Prophet) that it is the right of children to receive good

names from their parents, so that children can follow proper adab andtraining (252). Al-Suhraward repeats the point that adab must beunderstood in all of its different forms, inner and outer, in order for Sufisto appreciate the theology ofadab as an intellectual spiritual pursuit thatunites the Sufi disciple with real knowledge of Sufism. The theology ofadab was the cornerstone of al-Suhrawards Sufism in order for his disciplesto reenact, remember, reconnect with, and relive the spiritual life of theProphet. The intense focus on the Prophets adab went beyond mere imi-tation to embodying his spiritual achievements.

One of Shaykh al-Suhrawards crucial points on adab concerns itsconnection with law (shar), faith (imn), and the basic Islamic doc-trine of affirming the unity of God, tawhd. The doctrine of tawhdaffirms the oneness of God and is the single major theological feature of

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professing divine unity. For Muslims, every moment and every level ofexistence require the believer to assert tawhd in Islamic spiritual life.Through all of the prayers, fasting, charity, social work, pilgrimage, dailyrelationships, and other faith-related practices, believers must continueto struggle to submit themselves to Gods supremacy at every conceivablelevel, that is, in the mind, heart, and soul. The Qurn commands itsbelievers to work toward establishing a life of tawhdand describes sucheffort as a human struggle.9 For Shaykh al-Suhraward, adab is an essentialfactor in constructing a reality based on law and its principle foundation,tawhd. For him, such a reality is attainable because Suhraward tasawwufunites all of the elements to make it possible. He commented on tawhdand adab in the following statement: Shaykh Jall al-Basr [r] reportedthat it is necessary to affirm divine unity (tawhd) and faith (imn). Forthose who do not have faith, they do not have tawhdeither. It is necessaryto have imn in accordance with the law and where the law does notexist, faith and tawhd do not exist. The law requires adab, and this iswhy, where adab is not found, there is no shar, no faith, and notawhd (252).

The importance ofadab to al-Suhraward cannot be underestimatedin his tasawwuf teachings because it is the critical layer that joins law,

faith, Qurnic knowledge, the reenactment of the Prophets customs,and the practice of Sufism. Sufis who neglect any single aspect ofadab willnot receive the benefits of Gods blessings, and, specifically, the invitationalblessings of encounter from God are prohibited to the Sufi seeker. In theshaykhs words, Shaykh Abdallh ibn Mubarak [r] stated that thosewho are lazy with their adab are punished by being deprived of followingthe customs (sunn) of the Prophet [sas], and that those who are carelessof the sunn, are punished by being deprived of knowledge of God (253).

Any real understanding of adab mirrors the Prophets sunn and

essentially upholds the Qurn and the law. The faith of the Sufi deepenswith adab, which in turn connects the Sufi seekers to the union with God.To abuse this aspect of faith and not give proper attention to adab is tobreak the chain of Gods blessings of knowledge on the Sufi seeker.Shaykh al-Suhraward stated that adab is not fixed for certain places andtimes but that for each place and each level there is a particular adab for thespiritual seeker. One of his most famous statements on the importance ofadab and Sufism, quoted by successor Sufi masters, is the following: It issaid that sufism is about adab, therefore, for every level of sufism there is

9 The word tawhdstems from ahad(oneness), which is found in Qurnic verses 17:23, 18:38,18:110, 72:2, 72:18, and 112:14. It is also related to wjid(the One, attribute of the Divine) and is inthe following verses: 2:163, 4:171, 5:73, 14:52, 22:34, 40:16, and 74:11.

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a particular form ofadab for it. For the person who adheres to adab, hewill learn the path of excellence. Those who do not practice adab are faraway from achieving an advanced level in the sufi path (254). This state-ment is meant for his disciples to understand adab in more comprehensiveterms and to discard any idea that proper moral conduct is meant onlyfor public demonstration. Rather, al-Suhraward hammers home the pointthat adab is for each level on the Sufi path and for every moment of living.

The shaykh focused on adab as a reciprocal process of spiritual educa-tion for Sufi disciples. He based his views on the relationship between theProphet and his companions who dedicated their lives to paying attention tothe Prophets revelations, sayings, and customs. According to al-Suhraward,at each moment a companion spent with the Prophet, he was being taughtproper adab. This adab was not based on the desires of the Prophetahuman product; rather, this adab came from Allh, and this makes it adivine teaching. Al-Suhraward stated, God had even taught the com-panions of the Prophet [sas] adab and were told to speak at the tone of theProphet [sas] and not louder than the Prophet [sas] (366).

THEADAB OF SPIRITUAL TRAINING

In the area of spiritual training for disciples and the practice ofadab,Shaykh al-Suhraward focuses the discussion ofadab practices on disci-ples, especially on those novice Sufis who contest the importance ofobserving adab with their shaykh. Again supplying Qurnic evidence forhis case, the shaykh insisted that adab cannot be challenged or neglectedbecause of the abundance of references made to it in the Qurn and inthe literature dealing with the Prophet. For example, another enlighteningmoment is when the Prophet [sas] was present in a congregation andsomeone asked him a question and also interrupting his answers, the

Prophet [sas] told him that this behavior was improper (al-Suhraward:363). In addition to this example, al-Suhraward stated the following tosupport his evidence of the ways in which adab has roots in the Qurnand the customs of the Prophet: Alongside of sufi shaykhs were discipleswho strongly emphasized adab. Even the companions of the Prophetunderstood the significance ofadab. God tells us in the holyQurn: OhBelievers, there is nothing greater than God and his Prophet; fear Godbecause He is hearer and doer of all things (363).

These examples are indicative of proper adab being practiced during

the time of the companions of the Prophet. Moreover, the narrative ofthe Prophet interrupting his companions comments demonstrates thatobserving proper adab in practicing ones faith should not be viewed asan anomaly; rather, adab further strengthens the faith if understood in its

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entirety. For al-Suhraward, this vividly supports the duty of Sufi shaykhsto instruct disciples in correct adab during tasawwuf education. WhenSufi disciples learn irfn from their Sufi shaykhs, one cannot separate thismodel from the way the Prophet taught his companions. This idea isarticulated by al-Suhraward: Shaykh Ab Nasr Sarrj [r] reported thatthe qualities of the Prophets [sas] adab were pure. He was trustworthyand conscious of being on time. He was very thoughtful and concernedabout everything. Wherever he was, he was concerned with adab(259).

According to Shaykh al-Suhraward, there are two parts to adab,meaning that words and actions are both to be followed. The quality ofadab mattered to the shaykh because he wanted to ensure that Sufi disciplesunderstood that the sincerity of their adab made a difference in theirknowledge and actions. He stated, Any person who uses adab with theiractions becomes closer to God by being a part of the love in His heart.Shaykh Ibn Mubarak [r] once said, We are not in need of more knowledgebut of more adab (258). He did not want Sufis occasionally adhering toadab as if it were perfectly fine to practice adab randomly or as a productto show others. The Sufi attention toward adab needed to be accompa-nied by full concentration, sincerity, and understanding of its relatedcomponents. For example, knowledge oftasawwufis impossible without

complete adherence to adab theology. He observed: Shaykh Nr statedthat Whoever did not spend their time with adab, their time will be con-sidered a time of hate. Shaykh Dhl Nn Misr [r] reported, so muchhas been said about adab, I say that adab is about knowing oneself (259).

Shaykh al-Suhraward was ensuring that his disciples would have aninsightful faith that asserted tawhdas well as preparing them with the mostupright moral conduct for Gods self-disclosure. He understood how the Sufipath could be misconstrued by teachers who themselves did not respect theintricacies of the law and adab. That is, the inner and outer development of

adab would be neglected by Sufi teachers who concentrated on other areas ofSufi knowledge and experience. Al-Suhrawards tenacious emphasis on adabfor Sufi disciples demonstrated a theological concern for his disciples to inte-grate all forms of knowledge with adab practices. When he stated that lawrequires adab, and this is why where adab is not found, there is no law, nofaith and no tawhd, al-Suhraward was showing howadab was critical incementing each part together to make the whole complete.

Adab is often treated in Sufi studies as specific instructions toimprove ones relationship with the teacher or other Sufis; however, Sufi

manuals written by Sufi shaykhs such as al-Suhraward prove that adab isintrinsically connected to the path of accessing the divine. There has beenmuch attention given to the specific moral instructions on eating meals,performing meditation, and what it means to be a member of a Sufi order.

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For al-Suhraward, adab is not just the fiber that sustains the hierarchies;rather, more important, it trains a disciple to be the idealized faithful SufiMuslim. The major point in these adab arguments in al-SuhrawardsSufi manuals is that adab is not an abstract object to be possessed andperfected; rather, it is rooted in the knowledge of God and practiced bythe prophets. Suhraward Sufis believed that adab awakens the heart toseek God; those who master the practice earn the benefit of spirituallybecoming closer to God.Adab was both the instrument and the channelthrough which Suhraward Sufis learned to perfect their spiritual exercisesin preparation for enlightenment.

Al-Suhraward described adab very eloquently when he stated thatadab is about knowing oneself that is, it is the process of self reunitingwith the divine. In addition, he states: Obtaining the light of knowledge(nr-eirfn) is one way of defending the soul (nafs) and it is well said inthe following hadth: Those who defend their souls also defend God.This light of knowledge (nr-eirfn) is the light of the soul that was inignorance. Knowledge is the means of building a fort of which adab is apart of it (258260). Adab was a significant component of Sufi praxisaimed at enriching spiritual growth, elevating devotion, and intensifyinglove for God. For al-Suhraward and Suhraward Sufis, paying attention to

their adab meant renewing their vows to the divine in anticipation ofdivine compassion toward them in return. For them, adab was not concernedabout human boundaries that were constructed in Sufi orders and by thelaw; rather, it was an instrument aimed at transcending all boundaries,whether imagined or understood, so that the Sufi seeker would knowwhen the moment of return was achieved.

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