Pembelajaran Dalam OrganisasiKuliah 2

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Hasil Pembelajaranmenunjukkan pengetahuan asas teori-teori pembelajaran yang diperlukan untuk menyelesaikan masalah dan perubahan dalam organisasi

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organisasi itu merupakan kewujudan sekumpulan manusia yang tersusun, mempunyai penyelarasan, keserasian dan hubungan yang rapat di antara mereka, mempunyai matlamat-matlamat tertentu dan kaedah yang melaksanakan urusan pentadbiran dan mengambil berat kepentingan mereka serta merancang untuk mencapai matlamat-matlamat yang dipersetujui bersama oleh mereka Definisi:*

Tiga PendekatanBirokratikPengkhususan KawalanFormalitiStruktur autoriti

KemanusiaanInteraksiBerpasukanMotivasiGanjaranKump X dan Y

KontemporariBudaya BusinessUntung & rugiPengurangan kosMemaksimakan keuntunganStrategi businessMisiPiagam pelangganKhidmat komunitiKualiti

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Learning ConceptLearningInvolves changeIs relatively permanentIs acquired through experienceLearningAny relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.*

The Nature of Learning(Bratton, J., Callinan, M., Forshaw, C. and Sawchuk, P., 2007)Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or human capabilities resulting from processing new knowledge, practice or experience Such capabilities relate to all types of skills: cognitive/motor skills, attitudes and verbal information (Gagne & Medsker)

Learning results in the assimilation of group norms

Learning is a mode of adaptation to change, it can be formal, non-formal, informal or incidentalIncidental learning results in tacit knowledge; the other processes result in explicit knowledge

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Workplace LearningLearning processes help facilitate the emergence of an organizations intellectual capitalThis helps employee commitment to the aims of an organization The inter-relationship of tacit and explicit knowledge is important for the adaptive development of knowledge management it results in human capital, which is a feature of an organizations intellectual capitalTo sustain competitive advantage, lifelong learning is important as it encourages a reflexive approachGender and power are highlighted in recent accounts of learning from a critical perspective, suggesting that management elites reinforce a managerialist perspective*

Classical Learning TheoriesThese include:The behavioural approachThe cognitive approachThe social-learning approach

We will examine each of these theories in turn and then look at some more recent theories including adult learning perspectives*

Behavioural ApproachThe behavioural approach perceives learning as little more than a chain of conditioned (learned) reflexes encouraged or inhibited by positive and negative reinforcement

The two best-known behavioural theorists are Ivan Pavlov and B.F.SkinnerThey explained learning as an interaction with the environmentPavlov (1849-1936) was famous for his experiment with dogs and his studies of conditioning. He is described as the 'father of behaviourism'Skinner (1904-1990) devised the theory of operant conditioning, which placed reliance on behavioural reinforcement stimuli (negative or positive)*

Classic or Pavlovian Conditioning*

Examples of Positive and Negative Reinforcement

Reinforcement is a means of inducing motivational states in organizations.Rewards are a form of positive reinforcement

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Cognitive ApproachThis approach concerns learning through feedback: cognitive theorists believe that how individuals perceive, evaluate feedback, represent, store and use information plays an important role in learning The key theorists of this approach were Max Wertheimer (1890-1943), Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) and Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)Wertheimer and Kohler were gestalt theorists looking to the overall shape of pattern of consciousnessKohler developed a theory called insightful learning through his experiments on chimpanzees; he argued stimulus response learning did not have to be gradual and incremental

Cognitive theorists concentrated on the black box of the mind, whereas behavioural theories thought the internal contents of the mind were not measurable and so looked outwards, to the environmentRecent approaches have refined Kohlers and have lent support to the idea of a trial and error component in learning (Bernstein)

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Approaches to Learning TheoryComparing the behaviourist and cognitive approaches*

Social Learning Approach (1)Social-learning (S-L) theorists believe that people develop through observational learning The theory operates on the basis of symbolic representations; individuals learn by observing others directly or indirectly...Bandura (1977) argued that learning involved four inter-related processes: AttentionMemoryMotor skills Motivation.Close attention to a model leads to self-efficacy (confidence to learn fresh skills)*

Figure 8.3 - Three Aspects of Reciprocal Learning (Learning through modelling)*

Social Learning Approach (2)Vygotsky(1978) argued that learning occurs through a dynamic social exchange between master and noviceOptimal learning is achieved with support and through internalization of learning this is defined as relational and relies on language forms of learningA contrasting theory is the community of practice approach, which looks to the variation in types of socialized learning and relates to a community that shares an expertiseIndividuals make a journey from novice to master within the learning communityDebate attends this theory relating to whether class-based or formal learning is needed or notEngestrom (1991) argued that apart from imitation of a model, investigative and expansive knowledge was needed to reach higher levels of learning*

A Work Related Model of LearningThis figure shows Activity Theory which uses a mix of practice theory (Wenger) and the theories of Vygotsky and Engstrom, to test work related mechanismsRelated theory developments were made by Rogoff (1995)*

Adult Learning TheoriesThese theories arose as the behaviourist approach declined in popularity

We will investigate four key theories:AndragogySelf-Directed LearningTransformational LearningLearning issues of Class ethnicity and gender*

AndragogyAndragogy is defined as 'the art and science of helping adults learn (in contrast, pedagogy relates to childrens learning)Knowles characterized adult learners as well-motivated, independent and mature He first thought of andragogy and pedagogy as opposites but later revised his viewHe believed that andragogy (adult learning) involved a shift in ones self concept from dependency to self-directedness (Knowles, 1973)*

A comparison of the assumptions of Andragogy and Pedagogy*

Applying Learning Theory in the OrganizationThis table summarizes some of the key features of the theories we have outlined, showing how the earlier classical/psychological theories have begun to give way to learning theories which debate and articulate key aspects of adult learning theory*

Theories of LearningClassical ConditioningA type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.*

Source: The Far Side by Gary Larson 1993 Far Works, Inc. All rights reserved. Used with permission.*

Theories of Learning (contd)Key ConceptsReflexive (unlearned) behaviorConditioned (learned) behaviorReinforcementOperant ConditioningA type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.*

Theories of Learning (contd)Key ConceptsIntentional processesRetention processesMotor reproduction processesReinforcement processesSocial-Learning TheoryPeople can learn through observation and direct experience.*

Todays successful organizations simultaneously embrace two types of planned changeIncremental change = efforts to gradually improve basic operational and work processes in different parts of the companyTransformational change = redesigning and renewing the entire organizationOrganizational Change*

Technology: General rule = change is bottom upNew product:Horizontal linkage model emphasizes shared development of innovations among several departmentsTime-based competition is based on the ability to deliver products and services faster than competitorsStructure: Successful change = through a top-down approachCulture/people:Training is the most frequently used tool for changing the organizations mind-setOrganizational Change*

Kurt Lewins Change ProcessOne of the earliest models for understanding organizational changeDeveloped by Kurt Lewin in the 1950sIdentifies 3 distinct phases of change Unfreeze: Prepares the organization to accept that change is necessaryChange: People begin to resolve uncertainty and start to embrace the change and participate in itRefreeze: Changes are internalized and incorporated into daily business operations

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Kurt Lewins Change Process, cont.UNFREEZE(create the right environment)CHANGE(support change to desired state)REFREEZE(reinforce to anchor the change)*

Any change in the way in which the organization is designed and managedHierarchy of authorityGoalsStructural characteristicsAdministrative proceduresManagement systemsStructural ChangesEthical Dilemma: Research for Sale*

Changes in structure, technologies, and products or services do not happen on their own

Changes in any of these areas require changes in people*Culture-People Changes

Changing FormsGhazally Ismail and Murtedza Mohamed(1996)4 FormsMandatory legalistative By governmentReformation Idealogy very compilicatedInovation changing organization current practicesResponsive counter balance from employee.

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Environmental ForcesCustomersCompetitorsTechnologyEconomicInternational arenaInternal Forces activities and decisionsForces for Change*

Performance gap = disparity between existing and desired performance levels.

Current procedures are not up to standardNew idea or technology could improve current performanceNeed for Change*

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Use the melting ice cube analogy