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OLAR POWERED BICYCLE MECHANISM DESIGN
ATIRAH M N IRAH BT ABD AZ1Z
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak 2000
TL 220 AB72 2000
SOLR POWERED BrCYCLE MEcnA I ~1 DE IGN
bull
ATIRAH Ml 1RAll BT ABD AZIZ
Tesis Dlkemukakan Kepada Fakulti Kejuruteraan Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
Sebagai Memenuhi Sebahagian danpada Syarat Penganugerahan Sarjana Muda KeJurutcraan
Dcngan Kepujian (Kejuruteraan Mekanikal dan Sistem Pcmbualan ) 2000
80rallg Jgt~nyerabn TlIis bullbull ifrsili Ma lay ia Sarawllk
Rlla
BORA G PENYERADAN IT IS
Judul Solar Powered Bicycle ~Iechanism Design
SESI PE GAJIA N 19992000
Sava __________________ ~A ul~R~A~I~i~b1dlunN~lnR~A~HLCT ~D D~AL7~1~___________________~T RU_ R~
mengil~lJ menlbcnarian tesLS LOJ dlsimpan dJ PUS81 KJlIdmal Maklumat UnCfSlu Mulasul SlIrn1Lk dcnsan S atateS) 1Il3( kcgunalln scpcni bcrikut
I Hakmillk keruts projck adlliah dl ba ah nama penul is melainkan pcnullsan sebaga ptojek bersaml dun di bUlyai oleh lJlIMAS bakl1llhknyn adlab kepuny bullbulln IMA
2 nsIoh salman d lam bentuk lcnas alall mllJo hnya bold bunl deng lcbcnaran bertuhs danpnda I pcntlh~ I
3 Pusat Khidmat Maklumal Akadcmtk lMAS dibenarkan rnembuaI salilltln un tuk pcngDJlon mcrda 4 Kcrtas proJck han~a bolch dilerbltkan dellgtln lcbenaTan penulis Bayaran ro)a1tJ MiU l3h mcngl-ul Kadar ynng
dllClUjUI kelak S SiJ~ a mcmhenarlanftldak membellMkan PerpustaJaan IllCmbual suhnnn kcrtas pro)c im sebagal bahan
pcrtukanm dl ant3l1l In5U1USI pengajlan unggl 6 bullbull 511 IJIJIdak n ( )
D SULIT tMengafldungl makluOlal yang berdarJlIh lcscla111nlBn ililau lcpenlmgnn Mulvi scpeni Dng lcnnnklub d dalam AKTA RAHSI RASMI 1~72 1
D TER HAO I Mcngandungl maklumat TERHAD rnng lc lab dllcntillaJl olell orgams3slibadan di mana penmiddote lldlkao dlJ313n~3n)
Q TIDAK TERHA O
Dlsahkan oleh
~ ~D~z-IYGAN=r-E-N=Y=EL --=--J=I-A )( CgtNI)AT ANGAl PENULlS)
Alamal Telap- 114B Slcsen Pcrcubaan [PGM Nama Pcnyelia Nazcri Abdul Rahman 47()()O Sungai Buloh Selangor DaruJ Ehsan
Tarikh ______~2L7~ Tarikh ____~2~7~M~a~c~2~0Q0~_______~~fa~c~2~000~~______ middot
CA1A IAN lh~ ill tOO bcricnaan Jlkil Kona ProJ(llm Sl nJ r otCJU TERtiAD 5jitl iamrirl~Jl-umt danpuda rdllJk- hniruasaiorganiUSl lxrhf)udl1 Jmgm IIlcnyenaJan scklJll empnh ~Crtlti J1n11Ck
This project repo rt entitled SOLAR POWERED BI CYCLE MECHANISM
DESIGN was prepa red by Ati rah Mu nirah Bt Abd Aziz as a partial fulfillm ent of
the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering with honours (Mec hanical
and Manufacturing System) is hereby read and approved by
Date
Godmillion ofthanks for the strength and spirit through my heart
For Dad and Mum thank you for YOllr encouragemellt support and patient
JJ
ACKNOWL EDGEMENT
The author would like to give her special than ks and appreciat ion to her
_up rvisor Mr Nazcri Abd ul Rahman for hi s guidance and supportive encouragement tit
making of thi project a reality and obtained the objectives Through a ll the ~emeteri
many pople have helped in the thesis development and the author is grate fu l for their
valuab le suggestions and comment
Pcronally the author would like to thank Mr Masri and Mr Rh le T lOr the ir
helps ideas encouragement and support toward fini hing th is thesis project Abo
personal thank is dedicated to Mi ss Mahshuri Yusoff
A Series of thanks al so recorded to beloved parents and families for their
supportive respon5ihi lities during the making of this project
Lastly thanks are extended to Yayah Fauzi Ismail Murn i alri Hasli na and all
of author friends who always around during the author hard limes
III
ABSTRACT
This project designed new mechanism of solar powered bicycle with the
consideration on the aerodynamics and ergono mics Two main objectives that must be
fulfilled are to develop the mechanism of the solar bicycte and to minimize the energy
losses and to optimize the energy obtained from the sources To achieve these objectives
some designs consideration on the prototype design has been done and one experimental
des ign has been construct in orde r to make su re that the des ign of the new mechanism
wo rked Recommendation is included [or future development of the miles tone solar
bicycle mechanism des igned
lV
A S STRAK
Projek rekabentuk mekant~ma baru untuk ba~ik al solar ini bergantung kepada
pcnilaian terhadap aerodinamik dan ergonomik Terdapat dua objektif yang mesH dicapai
iaitu membina mekanisma baru basikal solar dan mem inimakan tenaga yang hllang sena
meningkatkan lenaga yang di perolehi daripada sumber tcnaga Bagi mencapai i-edua-dua
objektif ini penilaian rekabentk terhadap rekabentuk yang dlcipta telah dilakukan dan
tu rekabentuk eksplt itnent telah dibina untuk memastikan rekabenluJ bani basikal solar
ini belja a dan dapat digunakan Beberapa cadangan dl erlakan bagi kegullaan
pel11binaan rekabentuk mekanisma basikal solar ini pada masa akan datang
v
22 Initia l Electnc Bicycles and its Development 15
_ 1 Solar Powered Mechanism Dts illl and its Developmen t 17
CHAPTER 3 - PROTOTYPE D E SIGN
30 Jntroduct Ion
3 J Purpose of thc Project -- 3 J I Shortcoming of the Existing Design ~
_J
32 Design Cr iteria 24
32 I Body Frame eat and Padd le __ 5
26
(a) fire Characteristic 29
(b) Tire Constructions middot 19
(c) TIre Threads Patte rn 30
-_ J Gear Selections 3 I
324 Steering 32
(a) Rack and Pinion 32
3 2 5 Batteri es middot 34
326 DC Motor 36
327 Photooltaic (P V) 37
318 Bearing middot 38
(a) Bearing Support 39
(b) Wheel Spindles 40
32 9 Chain 41
33 Operation of the c Mechamsm __ 42
VII
CHAPTER 4 - E XP E R IMENTAL D E S IGN
-10 General -14
-I I Purpose of the Experiment 45
Theoretica l Consideration 45
421 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 0
4 2 2 Velocity Acceleration and Power 46
-13 Apparat us 50
31 DC Motor 51
-1 32 Batte ry 51
Solar PV 52
434 Bicycle Tire
435 SWltche ~
~ 36 Chain _ S3
4 3 7 Tire Holder 5middot1
43 8 Analyzer Tachometer and Multimeter 5-1
middot3 9 WlrcgtCrocodiie C l lp~ Battery harger 55
44 Expen men t Procedures 56
CHAPTER 5 - RESU LTS AND DISCUSSIONS
50 Introduction 58
5 1 Changi ng Experi ment Design 59
52 Battery Charger Damage 59
53 DC Motor Fai lure 61
54 Concentration of lt unl ight fi2
I II
55 Rubber at tht I1otor Shaft 62
56 FITeCI of Voltage produce by PV 63
j 7 EfTeer of urrent produced b) PV 66
58 Velo ity (i9
_9 Solar Iower 69
C H APT E R 6 - CONC L USIONS AN D RECOMMENDATIONS
6 1 ConciuslOJlS n
6~ Recommendations 73
(a) Solar ell (PV) 73
(b ) Dc MotoL 74
(e) Battery 74
(d) Regularor 74
(e) Breaking System 75
(f) rearing y te rn 75
BIBLIOGRAPHy 76
APPEN DIX A 80
A P P E NDIX B 83
APPEN D IX C 85
IX
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 3 10
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
I NDEX OF F IGURES
Solar Panel on the roof 5
Solar Ce ll 7
Example of Electric Bicycle 21
Exa mple o f Solar Powered Bicycle 22
Padd le Sea t a nd Steering Connectio n 25
Directi o n o f Load on the Tire 26
Maximum Vector Forces Possible during a turn
(a) Large La teral Force while makin g a Sha rp turn 27
(b) Less Lateral Force wbile making a wild turn 28
Twist in the Tire Thread within the Footprint causing Slip Angle 28
Different Part of typical tire 30
A ll Season Radial Pattern Thread 30
Top View of Typical Rack and Pinion Steering Gear 33
Opera ti on o f Rack and Pinio n Stee ring Gea r 33
Typ ica l Man ual Rack and Pinion Steering Gea r 34
Pictori al Diag ram of Series Wound Moto r 36
Ba ll Bearing Contac t 38
Ball bearing can S upport Ax ial S ide Loads and Radi al Loads 49
Wheel Bea ring Movement to Minimize Fatigue 40
42Fron t View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimens io n
Top View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimension 43
x
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
SOLR POWERED BrCYCLE MEcnA I ~1 DE IGN
bull
ATIRAH Ml 1RAll BT ABD AZIZ
Tesis Dlkemukakan Kepada Fakulti Kejuruteraan Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
Sebagai Memenuhi Sebahagian danpada Syarat Penganugerahan Sarjana Muda KeJurutcraan
Dcngan Kepujian (Kejuruteraan Mekanikal dan Sistem Pcmbualan ) 2000
80rallg Jgt~nyerabn TlIis bullbull ifrsili Ma lay ia Sarawllk
Rlla
BORA G PENYERADAN IT IS
Judul Solar Powered Bicycle ~Iechanism Design
SESI PE GAJIA N 19992000
Sava __________________ ~A ul~R~A~I~i~b1dlunN~lnR~A~HLCT ~D D~AL7~1~___________________~T RU_ R~
mengil~lJ menlbcnarian tesLS LOJ dlsimpan dJ PUS81 KJlIdmal Maklumat UnCfSlu Mulasul SlIrn1Lk dcnsan S atateS) 1Il3( kcgunalln scpcni bcrikut
I Hakmillk keruts projck adlliah dl ba ah nama penul is melainkan pcnullsan sebaga ptojek bersaml dun di bUlyai oleh lJlIMAS bakl1llhknyn adlab kepuny bullbulln IMA
2 nsIoh salman d lam bentuk lcnas alall mllJo hnya bold bunl deng lcbcnaran bertuhs danpnda I pcntlh~ I
3 Pusat Khidmat Maklumal Akadcmtk lMAS dibenarkan rnembuaI salilltln un tuk pcngDJlon mcrda 4 Kcrtas proJck han~a bolch dilerbltkan dellgtln lcbenaTan penulis Bayaran ro)a1tJ MiU l3h mcngl-ul Kadar ynng
dllClUjUI kelak S SiJ~ a mcmhenarlanftldak membellMkan PerpustaJaan IllCmbual suhnnn kcrtas pro)c im sebagal bahan
pcrtukanm dl ant3l1l In5U1USI pengajlan unggl 6 bullbull 511 IJIJIdak n ( )
D SULIT tMengafldungl makluOlal yang berdarJlIh lcscla111nlBn ililau lcpenlmgnn Mulvi scpeni Dng lcnnnklub d dalam AKTA RAHSI RASMI 1~72 1
D TER HAO I Mcngandungl maklumat TERHAD rnng lc lab dllcntillaJl olell orgams3slibadan di mana penmiddote lldlkao dlJ313n~3n)
Q TIDAK TERHA O
Dlsahkan oleh
~ ~D~z-IYGAN=r-E-N=Y=EL --=--J=I-A )( CgtNI)AT ANGAl PENULlS)
Alamal Telap- 114B Slcsen Pcrcubaan [PGM Nama Pcnyelia Nazcri Abdul Rahman 47()()O Sungai Buloh Selangor DaruJ Ehsan
Tarikh ______~2L7~ Tarikh ____~2~7~M~a~c~2~0Q0~_______~~fa~c~2~000~~______ middot
CA1A IAN lh~ ill tOO bcricnaan Jlkil Kona ProJ(llm Sl nJ r otCJU TERtiAD 5jitl iamrirl~Jl-umt danpuda rdllJk- hniruasaiorganiUSl lxrhf)udl1 Jmgm IIlcnyenaJan scklJll empnh ~Crtlti J1n11Ck
This project repo rt entitled SOLAR POWERED BI CYCLE MECHANISM
DESIGN was prepa red by Ati rah Mu nirah Bt Abd Aziz as a partial fulfillm ent of
the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering with honours (Mec hanical
and Manufacturing System) is hereby read and approved by
Date
Godmillion ofthanks for the strength and spirit through my heart
For Dad and Mum thank you for YOllr encouragemellt support and patient
JJ
ACKNOWL EDGEMENT
The author would like to give her special than ks and appreciat ion to her
_up rvisor Mr Nazcri Abd ul Rahman for hi s guidance and supportive encouragement tit
making of thi project a reality and obtained the objectives Through a ll the ~emeteri
many pople have helped in the thesis development and the author is grate fu l for their
valuab le suggestions and comment
Pcronally the author would like to thank Mr Masri and Mr Rh le T lOr the ir
helps ideas encouragement and support toward fini hing th is thesis project Abo
personal thank is dedicated to Mi ss Mahshuri Yusoff
A Series of thanks al so recorded to beloved parents and families for their
supportive respon5ihi lities during the making of this project
Lastly thanks are extended to Yayah Fauzi Ismail Murn i alri Hasli na and all
of author friends who always around during the author hard limes
III
ABSTRACT
This project designed new mechanism of solar powered bicycle with the
consideration on the aerodynamics and ergono mics Two main objectives that must be
fulfilled are to develop the mechanism of the solar bicycte and to minimize the energy
losses and to optimize the energy obtained from the sources To achieve these objectives
some designs consideration on the prototype design has been done and one experimental
des ign has been construct in orde r to make su re that the des ign of the new mechanism
wo rked Recommendation is included [or future development of the miles tone solar
bicycle mechanism des igned
lV
A S STRAK
Projek rekabentuk mekant~ma baru untuk ba~ik al solar ini bergantung kepada
pcnilaian terhadap aerodinamik dan ergonomik Terdapat dua objektif yang mesH dicapai
iaitu membina mekanisma baru basikal solar dan mem inimakan tenaga yang hllang sena
meningkatkan lenaga yang di perolehi daripada sumber tcnaga Bagi mencapai i-edua-dua
objektif ini penilaian rekabentk terhadap rekabentuk yang dlcipta telah dilakukan dan
tu rekabentuk eksplt itnent telah dibina untuk memastikan rekabenluJ bani basikal solar
ini belja a dan dapat digunakan Beberapa cadangan dl erlakan bagi kegullaan
pel11binaan rekabentuk mekanisma basikal solar ini pada masa akan datang
v
22 Initia l Electnc Bicycles and its Development 15
_ 1 Solar Powered Mechanism Dts illl and its Developmen t 17
CHAPTER 3 - PROTOTYPE D E SIGN
30 Jntroduct Ion
3 J Purpose of thc Project -- 3 J I Shortcoming of the Existing Design ~
_J
32 Design Cr iteria 24
32 I Body Frame eat and Padd le __ 5
26
(a) fire Characteristic 29
(b) Tire Constructions middot 19
(c) TIre Threads Patte rn 30
-_ J Gear Selections 3 I
324 Steering 32
(a) Rack and Pinion 32
3 2 5 Batteri es middot 34
326 DC Motor 36
327 Photooltaic (P V) 37
318 Bearing middot 38
(a) Bearing Support 39
(b) Wheel Spindles 40
32 9 Chain 41
33 Operation of the c Mechamsm __ 42
VII
CHAPTER 4 - E XP E R IMENTAL D E S IGN
-10 General -14
-I I Purpose of the Experiment 45
Theoretica l Consideration 45
421 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 0
4 2 2 Velocity Acceleration and Power 46
-13 Apparat us 50
31 DC Motor 51
-1 32 Batte ry 51
Solar PV 52
434 Bicycle Tire
435 SWltche ~
~ 36 Chain _ S3
4 3 7 Tire Holder 5middot1
43 8 Analyzer Tachometer and Multimeter 5-1
middot3 9 WlrcgtCrocodiie C l lp~ Battery harger 55
44 Expen men t Procedures 56
CHAPTER 5 - RESU LTS AND DISCUSSIONS
50 Introduction 58
5 1 Changi ng Experi ment Design 59
52 Battery Charger Damage 59
53 DC Motor Fai lure 61
54 Concentration of lt unl ight fi2
I II
55 Rubber at tht I1otor Shaft 62
56 FITeCI of Voltage produce by PV 63
j 7 EfTeer of urrent produced b) PV 66
58 Velo ity (i9
_9 Solar Iower 69
C H APT E R 6 - CONC L USIONS AN D RECOMMENDATIONS
6 1 ConciuslOJlS n
6~ Recommendations 73
(a) Solar ell (PV) 73
(b ) Dc MotoL 74
(e) Battery 74
(d) Regularor 74
(e) Breaking System 75
(f) rearing y te rn 75
BIBLIOGRAPHy 76
APPEN DIX A 80
A P P E NDIX B 83
APPEN D IX C 85
IX
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 3 10
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
I NDEX OF F IGURES
Solar Panel on the roof 5
Solar Ce ll 7
Example of Electric Bicycle 21
Exa mple o f Solar Powered Bicycle 22
Padd le Sea t a nd Steering Connectio n 25
Directi o n o f Load on the Tire 26
Maximum Vector Forces Possible during a turn
(a) Large La teral Force while makin g a Sha rp turn 27
(b) Less Lateral Force wbile making a wild turn 28
Twist in the Tire Thread within the Footprint causing Slip Angle 28
Different Part of typical tire 30
A ll Season Radial Pattern Thread 30
Top View of Typical Rack and Pinion Steering Gear 33
Opera ti on o f Rack and Pinio n Stee ring Gea r 33
Typ ica l Man ual Rack and Pinion Steering Gea r 34
Pictori al Diag ram of Series Wound Moto r 36
Ba ll Bearing Contac t 38
Ball bearing can S upport Ax ial S ide Loads and Radi al Loads 49
Wheel Bea ring Movement to Minimize Fatigue 40
42Fron t View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimens io n
Top View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimension 43
x
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
80rallg Jgt~nyerabn TlIis bullbull ifrsili Ma lay ia Sarawllk
Rlla
BORA G PENYERADAN IT IS
Judul Solar Powered Bicycle ~Iechanism Design
SESI PE GAJIA N 19992000
Sava __________________ ~A ul~R~A~I~i~b1dlunN~lnR~A~HLCT ~D D~AL7~1~___________________~T RU_ R~
mengil~lJ menlbcnarian tesLS LOJ dlsimpan dJ PUS81 KJlIdmal Maklumat UnCfSlu Mulasul SlIrn1Lk dcnsan S atateS) 1Il3( kcgunalln scpcni bcrikut
I Hakmillk keruts projck adlliah dl ba ah nama penul is melainkan pcnullsan sebaga ptojek bersaml dun di bUlyai oleh lJlIMAS bakl1llhknyn adlab kepuny bullbulln IMA
2 nsIoh salman d lam bentuk lcnas alall mllJo hnya bold bunl deng lcbcnaran bertuhs danpnda I pcntlh~ I
3 Pusat Khidmat Maklumal Akadcmtk lMAS dibenarkan rnembuaI salilltln un tuk pcngDJlon mcrda 4 Kcrtas proJck han~a bolch dilerbltkan dellgtln lcbenaTan penulis Bayaran ro)a1tJ MiU l3h mcngl-ul Kadar ynng
dllClUjUI kelak S SiJ~ a mcmhenarlanftldak membellMkan PerpustaJaan IllCmbual suhnnn kcrtas pro)c im sebagal bahan
pcrtukanm dl ant3l1l In5U1USI pengajlan unggl 6 bullbull 511 IJIJIdak n ( )
D SULIT tMengafldungl makluOlal yang berdarJlIh lcscla111nlBn ililau lcpenlmgnn Mulvi scpeni Dng lcnnnklub d dalam AKTA RAHSI RASMI 1~72 1
D TER HAO I Mcngandungl maklumat TERHAD rnng lc lab dllcntillaJl olell orgams3slibadan di mana penmiddote lldlkao dlJ313n~3n)
Q TIDAK TERHA O
Dlsahkan oleh
~ ~D~z-IYGAN=r-E-N=Y=EL --=--J=I-A )( CgtNI)AT ANGAl PENULlS)
Alamal Telap- 114B Slcsen Pcrcubaan [PGM Nama Pcnyelia Nazcri Abdul Rahman 47()()O Sungai Buloh Selangor DaruJ Ehsan
Tarikh ______~2L7~ Tarikh ____~2~7~M~a~c~2~0Q0~_______~~fa~c~2~000~~______ middot
CA1A IAN lh~ ill tOO bcricnaan Jlkil Kona ProJ(llm Sl nJ r otCJU TERtiAD 5jitl iamrirl~Jl-umt danpuda rdllJk- hniruasaiorganiUSl lxrhf)udl1 Jmgm IIlcnyenaJan scklJll empnh ~Crtlti J1n11Ck
This project repo rt entitled SOLAR POWERED BI CYCLE MECHANISM
DESIGN was prepa red by Ati rah Mu nirah Bt Abd Aziz as a partial fulfillm ent of
the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering with honours (Mec hanical
and Manufacturing System) is hereby read and approved by
Date
Godmillion ofthanks for the strength and spirit through my heart
For Dad and Mum thank you for YOllr encouragemellt support and patient
JJ
ACKNOWL EDGEMENT
The author would like to give her special than ks and appreciat ion to her
_up rvisor Mr Nazcri Abd ul Rahman for hi s guidance and supportive encouragement tit
making of thi project a reality and obtained the objectives Through a ll the ~emeteri
many pople have helped in the thesis development and the author is grate fu l for their
valuab le suggestions and comment
Pcronally the author would like to thank Mr Masri and Mr Rh le T lOr the ir
helps ideas encouragement and support toward fini hing th is thesis project Abo
personal thank is dedicated to Mi ss Mahshuri Yusoff
A Series of thanks al so recorded to beloved parents and families for their
supportive respon5ihi lities during the making of this project
Lastly thanks are extended to Yayah Fauzi Ismail Murn i alri Hasli na and all
of author friends who always around during the author hard limes
III
ABSTRACT
This project designed new mechanism of solar powered bicycle with the
consideration on the aerodynamics and ergono mics Two main objectives that must be
fulfilled are to develop the mechanism of the solar bicycte and to minimize the energy
losses and to optimize the energy obtained from the sources To achieve these objectives
some designs consideration on the prototype design has been done and one experimental
des ign has been construct in orde r to make su re that the des ign of the new mechanism
wo rked Recommendation is included [or future development of the miles tone solar
bicycle mechanism des igned
lV
A S STRAK
Projek rekabentuk mekant~ma baru untuk ba~ik al solar ini bergantung kepada
pcnilaian terhadap aerodinamik dan ergonomik Terdapat dua objektif yang mesH dicapai
iaitu membina mekanisma baru basikal solar dan mem inimakan tenaga yang hllang sena
meningkatkan lenaga yang di perolehi daripada sumber tcnaga Bagi mencapai i-edua-dua
objektif ini penilaian rekabentk terhadap rekabentuk yang dlcipta telah dilakukan dan
tu rekabentuk eksplt itnent telah dibina untuk memastikan rekabenluJ bani basikal solar
ini belja a dan dapat digunakan Beberapa cadangan dl erlakan bagi kegullaan
pel11binaan rekabentuk mekanisma basikal solar ini pada masa akan datang
v
22 Initia l Electnc Bicycles and its Development 15
_ 1 Solar Powered Mechanism Dts illl and its Developmen t 17
CHAPTER 3 - PROTOTYPE D E SIGN
30 Jntroduct Ion
3 J Purpose of thc Project -- 3 J I Shortcoming of the Existing Design ~
_J
32 Design Cr iteria 24
32 I Body Frame eat and Padd le __ 5
26
(a) fire Characteristic 29
(b) Tire Constructions middot 19
(c) TIre Threads Patte rn 30
-_ J Gear Selections 3 I
324 Steering 32
(a) Rack and Pinion 32
3 2 5 Batteri es middot 34
326 DC Motor 36
327 Photooltaic (P V) 37
318 Bearing middot 38
(a) Bearing Support 39
(b) Wheel Spindles 40
32 9 Chain 41
33 Operation of the c Mechamsm __ 42
VII
CHAPTER 4 - E XP E R IMENTAL D E S IGN
-10 General -14
-I I Purpose of the Experiment 45
Theoretica l Consideration 45
421 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 0
4 2 2 Velocity Acceleration and Power 46
-13 Apparat us 50
31 DC Motor 51
-1 32 Batte ry 51
Solar PV 52
434 Bicycle Tire
435 SWltche ~
~ 36 Chain _ S3
4 3 7 Tire Holder 5middot1
43 8 Analyzer Tachometer and Multimeter 5-1
middot3 9 WlrcgtCrocodiie C l lp~ Battery harger 55
44 Expen men t Procedures 56
CHAPTER 5 - RESU LTS AND DISCUSSIONS
50 Introduction 58
5 1 Changi ng Experi ment Design 59
52 Battery Charger Damage 59
53 DC Motor Fai lure 61
54 Concentration of lt unl ight fi2
I II
55 Rubber at tht I1otor Shaft 62
56 FITeCI of Voltage produce by PV 63
j 7 EfTeer of urrent produced b) PV 66
58 Velo ity (i9
_9 Solar Iower 69
C H APT E R 6 - CONC L USIONS AN D RECOMMENDATIONS
6 1 ConciuslOJlS n
6~ Recommendations 73
(a) Solar ell (PV) 73
(b ) Dc MotoL 74
(e) Battery 74
(d) Regularor 74
(e) Breaking System 75
(f) rearing y te rn 75
BIBLIOGRAPHy 76
APPEN DIX A 80
A P P E NDIX B 83
APPEN D IX C 85
IX
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 3 10
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
I NDEX OF F IGURES
Solar Panel on the roof 5
Solar Ce ll 7
Example of Electric Bicycle 21
Exa mple o f Solar Powered Bicycle 22
Padd le Sea t a nd Steering Connectio n 25
Directi o n o f Load on the Tire 26
Maximum Vector Forces Possible during a turn
(a) Large La teral Force while makin g a Sha rp turn 27
(b) Less Lateral Force wbile making a wild turn 28
Twist in the Tire Thread within the Footprint causing Slip Angle 28
Different Part of typical tire 30
A ll Season Radial Pattern Thread 30
Top View of Typical Rack and Pinion Steering Gear 33
Opera ti on o f Rack and Pinio n Stee ring Gea r 33
Typ ica l Man ual Rack and Pinion Steering Gea r 34
Pictori al Diag ram of Series Wound Moto r 36
Ba ll Bearing Contac t 38
Ball bearing can S upport Ax ial S ide Loads and Radi al Loads 49
Wheel Bea ring Movement to Minimize Fatigue 40
42Fron t View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimens io n
Top View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimension 43
x
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
This project repo rt entitled SOLAR POWERED BI CYCLE MECHANISM
DESIGN was prepa red by Ati rah Mu nirah Bt Abd Aziz as a partial fulfillm ent of
the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering with honours (Mec hanical
and Manufacturing System) is hereby read and approved by
Date
Godmillion ofthanks for the strength and spirit through my heart
For Dad and Mum thank you for YOllr encouragemellt support and patient
JJ
ACKNOWL EDGEMENT
The author would like to give her special than ks and appreciat ion to her
_up rvisor Mr Nazcri Abd ul Rahman for hi s guidance and supportive encouragement tit
making of thi project a reality and obtained the objectives Through a ll the ~emeteri
many pople have helped in the thesis development and the author is grate fu l for their
valuab le suggestions and comment
Pcronally the author would like to thank Mr Masri and Mr Rh le T lOr the ir
helps ideas encouragement and support toward fini hing th is thesis project Abo
personal thank is dedicated to Mi ss Mahshuri Yusoff
A Series of thanks al so recorded to beloved parents and families for their
supportive respon5ihi lities during the making of this project
Lastly thanks are extended to Yayah Fauzi Ismail Murn i alri Hasli na and all
of author friends who always around during the author hard limes
III
ABSTRACT
This project designed new mechanism of solar powered bicycle with the
consideration on the aerodynamics and ergono mics Two main objectives that must be
fulfilled are to develop the mechanism of the solar bicycte and to minimize the energy
losses and to optimize the energy obtained from the sources To achieve these objectives
some designs consideration on the prototype design has been done and one experimental
des ign has been construct in orde r to make su re that the des ign of the new mechanism
wo rked Recommendation is included [or future development of the miles tone solar
bicycle mechanism des igned
lV
A S STRAK
Projek rekabentuk mekant~ma baru untuk ba~ik al solar ini bergantung kepada
pcnilaian terhadap aerodinamik dan ergonomik Terdapat dua objektif yang mesH dicapai
iaitu membina mekanisma baru basikal solar dan mem inimakan tenaga yang hllang sena
meningkatkan lenaga yang di perolehi daripada sumber tcnaga Bagi mencapai i-edua-dua
objektif ini penilaian rekabentk terhadap rekabentuk yang dlcipta telah dilakukan dan
tu rekabentuk eksplt itnent telah dibina untuk memastikan rekabenluJ bani basikal solar
ini belja a dan dapat digunakan Beberapa cadangan dl erlakan bagi kegullaan
pel11binaan rekabentuk mekanisma basikal solar ini pada masa akan datang
v
22 Initia l Electnc Bicycles and its Development 15
_ 1 Solar Powered Mechanism Dts illl and its Developmen t 17
CHAPTER 3 - PROTOTYPE D E SIGN
30 Jntroduct Ion
3 J Purpose of thc Project -- 3 J I Shortcoming of the Existing Design ~
_J
32 Design Cr iteria 24
32 I Body Frame eat and Padd le __ 5
26
(a) fire Characteristic 29
(b) Tire Constructions middot 19
(c) TIre Threads Patte rn 30
-_ J Gear Selections 3 I
324 Steering 32
(a) Rack and Pinion 32
3 2 5 Batteri es middot 34
326 DC Motor 36
327 Photooltaic (P V) 37
318 Bearing middot 38
(a) Bearing Support 39
(b) Wheel Spindles 40
32 9 Chain 41
33 Operation of the c Mechamsm __ 42
VII
CHAPTER 4 - E XP E R IMENTAL D E S IGN
-10 General -14
-I I Purpose of the Experiment 45
Theoretica l Consideration 45
421 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 0
4 2 2 Velocity Acceleration and Power 46
-13 Apparat us 50
31 DC Motor 51
-1 32 Batte ry 51
Solar PV 52
434 Bicycle Tire
435 SWltche ~
~ 36 Chain _ S3
4 3 7 Tire Holder 5middot1
43 8 Analyzer Tachometer and Multimeter 5-1
middot3 9 WlrcgtCrocodiie C l lp~ Battery harger 55
44 Expen men t Procedures 56
CHAPTER 5 - RESU LTS AND DISCUSSIONS
50 Introduction 58
5 1 Changi ng Experi ment Design 59
52 Battery Charger Damage 59
53 DC Motor Fai lure 61
54 Concentration of lt unl ight fi2
I II
55 Rubber at tht I1otor Shaft 62
56 FITeCI of Voltage produce by PV 63
j 7 EfTeer of urrent produced b) PV 66
58 Velo ity (i9
_9 Solar Iower 69
C H APT E R 6 - CONC L USIONS AN D RECOMMENDATIONS
6 1 ConciuslOJlS n
6~ Recommendations 73
(a) Solar ell (PV) 73
(b ) Dc MotoL 74
(e) Battery 74
(d) Regularor 74
(e) Breaking System 75
(f) rearing y te rn 75
BIBLIOGRAPHy 76
APPEN DIX A 80
A P P E NDIX B 83
APPEN D IX C 85
IX
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 3 10
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
I NDEX OF F IGURES
Solar Panel on the roof 5
Solar Ce ll 7
Example of Electric Bicycle 21
Exa mple o f Solar Powered Bicycle 22
Padd le Sea t a nd Steering Connectio n 25
Directi o n o f Load on the Tire 26
Maximum Vector Forces Possible during a turn
(a) Large La teral Force while makin g a Sha rp turn 27
(b) Less Lateral Force wbile making a wild turn 28
Twist in the Tire Thread within the Footprint causing Slip Angle 28
Different Part of typical tire 30
A ll Season Radial Pattern Thread 30
Top View of Typical Rack and Pinion Steering Gear 33
Opera ti on o f Rack and Pinio n Stee ring Gea r 33
Typ ica l Man ual Rack and Pinion Steering Gea r 34
Pictori al Diag ram of Series Wound Moto r 36
Ba ll Bearing Contac t 38
Ball bearing can S upport Ax ial S ide Loads and Radi al Loads 49
Wheel Bea ring Movement to Minimize Fatigue 40
42Fron t View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimens io n
Top View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimension 43
x
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
Godmillion ofthanks for the strength and spirit through my heart
For Dad and Mum thank you for YOllr encouragemellt support and patient
JJ
ACKNOWL EDGEMENT
The author would like to give her special than ks and appreciat ion to her
_up rvisor Mr Nazcri Abd ul Rahman for hi s guidance and supportive encouragement tit
making of thi project a reality and obtained the objectives Through a ll the ~emeteri
many pople have helped in the thesis development and the author is grate fu l for their
valuab le suggestions and comment
Pcronally the author would like to thank Mr Masri and Mr Rh le T lOr the ir
helps ideas encouragement and support toward fini hing th is thesis project Abo
personal thank is dedicated to Mi ss Mahshuri Yusoff
A Series of thanks al so recorded to beloved parents and families for their
supportive respon5ihi lities during the making of this project
Lastly thanks are extended to Yayah Fauzi Ismail Murn i alri Hasli na and all
of author friends who always around during the author hard limes
III
ABSTRACT
This project designed new mechanism of solar powered bicycle with the
consideration on the aerodynamics and ergono mics Two main objectives that must be
fulfilled are to develop the mechanism of the solar bicycte and to minimize the energy
losses and to optimize the energy obtained from the sources To achieve these objectives
some designs consideration on the prototype design has been done and one experimental
des ign has been construct in orde r to make su re that the des ign of the new mechanism
wo rked Recommendation is included [or future development of the miles tone solar
bicycle mechanism des igned
lV
A S STRAK
Projek rekabentuk mekant~ma baru untuk ba~ik al solar ini bergantung kepada
pcnilaian terhadap aerodinamik dan ergonomik Terdapat dua objektif yang mesH dicapai
iaitu membina mekanisma baru basikal solar dan mem inimakan tenaga yang hllang sena
meningkatkan lenaga yang di perolehi daripada sumber tcnaga Bagi mencapai i-edua-dua
objektif ini penilaian rekabentk terhadap rekabentuk yang dlcipta telah dilakukan dan
tu rekabentuk eksplt itnent telah dibina untuk memastikan rekabenluJ bani basikal solar
ini belja a dan dapat digunakan Beberapa cadangan dl erlakan bagi kegullaan
pel11binaan rekabentuk mekanisma basikal solar ini pada masa akan datang
v
22 Initia l Electnc Bicycles and its Development 15
_ 1 Solar Powered Mechanism Dts illl and its Developmen t 17
CHAPTER 3 - PROTOTYPE D E SIGN
30 Jntroduct Ion
3 J Purpose of thc Project -- 3 J I Shortcoming of the Existing Design ~
_J
32 Design Cr iteria 24
32 I Body Frame eat and Padd le __ 5
26
(a) fire Characteristic 29
(b) Tire Constructions middot 19
(c) TIre Threads Patte rn 30
-_ J Gear Selections 3 I
324 Steering 32
(a) Rack and Pinion 32
3 2 5 Batteri es middot 34
326 DC Motor 36
327 Photooltaic (P V) 37
318 Bearing middot 38
(a) Bearing Support 39
(b) Wheel Spindles 40
32 9 Chain 41
33 Operation of the c Mechamsm __ 42
VII
CHAPTER 4 - E XP E R IMENTAL D E S IGN
-10 General -14
-I I Purpose of the Experiment 45
Theoretica l Consideration 45
421 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 0
4 2 2 Velocity Acceleration and Power 46
-13 Apparat us 50
31 DC Motor 51
-1 32 Batte ry 51
Solar PV 52
434 Bicycle Tire
435 SWltche ~
~ 36 Chain _ S3
4 3 7 Tire Holder 5middot1
43 8 Analyzer Tachometer and Multimeter 5-1
middot3 9 WlrcgtCrocodiie C l lp~ Battery harger 55
44 Expen men t Procedures 56
CHAPTER 5 - RESU LTS AND DISCUSSIONS
50 Introduction 58
5 1 Changi ng Experi ment Design 59
52 Battery Charger Damage 59
53 DC Motor Fai lure 61
54 Concentration of lt unl ight fi2
I II
55 Rubber at tht I1otor Shaft 62
56 FITeCI of Voltage produce by PV 63
j 7 EfTeer of urrent produced b) PV 66
58 Velo ity (i9
_9 Solar Iower 69
C H APT E R 6 - CONC L USIONS AN D RECOMMENDATIONS
6 1 ConciuslOJlS n
6~ Recommendations 73
(a) Solar ell (PV) 73
(b ) Dc MotoL 74
(e) Battery 74
(d) Regularor 74
(e) Breaking System 75
(f) rearing y te rn 75
BIBLIOGRAPHy 76
APPEN DIX A 80
A P P E NDIX B 83
APPEN D IX C 85
IX
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 3 10
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
I NDEX OF F IGURES
Solar Panel on the roof 5
Solar Ce ll 7
Example of Electric Bicycle 21
Exa mple o f Solar Powered Bicycle 22
Padd le Sea t a nd Steering Connectio n 25
Directi o n o f Load on the Tire 26
Maximum Vector Forces Possible during a turn
(a) Large La teral Force while makin g a Sha rp turn 27
(b) Less Lateral Force wbile making a wild turn 28
Twist in the Tire Thread within the Footprint causing Slip Angle 28
Different Part of typical tire 30
A ll Season Radial Pattern Thread 30
Top View of Typical Rack and Pinion Steering Gear 33
Opera ti on o f Rack and Pinio n Stee ring Gea r 33
Typ ica l Man ual Rack and Pinion Steering Gea r 34
Pictori al Diag ram of Series Wound Moto r 36
Ba ll Bearing Contac t 38
Ball bearing can S upport Ax ial S ide Loads and Radi al Loads 49
Wheel Bea ring Movement to Minimize Fatigue 40
42Fron t View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimens io n
Top View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimension 43
x
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
ACKNOWL EDGEMENT
The author would like to give her special than ks and appreciat ion to her
_up rvisor Mr Nazcri Abd ul Rahman for hi s guidance and supportive encouragement tit
making of thi project a reality and obtained the objectives Through a ll the ~emeteri
many pople have helped in the thesis development and the author is grate fu l for their
valuab le suggestions and comment
Pcronally the author would like to thank Mr Masri and Mr Rh le T lOr the ir
helps ideas encouragement and support toward fini hing th is thesis project Abo
personal thank is dedicated to Mi ss Mahshuri Yusoff
A Series of thanks al so recorded to beloved parents and families for their
supportive respon5ihi lities during the making of this project
Lastly thanks are extended to Yayah Fauzi Ismail Murn i alri Hasli na and all
of author friends who always around during the author hard limes
III
ABSTRACT
This project designed new mechanism of solar powered bicycle with the
consideration on the aerodynamics and ergono mics Two main objectives that must be
fulfilled are to develop the mechanism of the solar bicycte and to minimize the energy
losses and to optimize the energy obtained from the sources To achieve these objectives
some designs consideration on the prototype design has been done and one experimental
des ign has been construct in orde r to make su re that the des ign of the new mechanism
wo rked Recommendation is included [or future development of the miles tone solar
bicycle mechanism des igned
lV
A S STRAK
Projek rekabentuk mekant~ma baru untuk ba~ik al solar ini bergantung kepada
pcnilaian terhadap aerodinamik dan ergonomik Terdapat dua objektif yang mesH dicapai
iaitu membina mekanisma baru basikal solar dan mem inimakan tenaga yang hllang sena
meningkatkan lenaga yang di perolehi daripada sumber tcnaga Bagi mencapai i-edua-dua
objektif ini penilaian rekabentk terhadap rekabentuk yang dlcipta telah dilakukan dan
tu rekabentuk eksplt itnent telah dibina untuk memastikan rekabenluJ bani basikal solar
ini belja a dan dapat digunakan Beberapa cadangan dl erlakan bagi kegullaan
pel11binaan rekabentuk mekanisma basikal solar ini pada masa akan datang
v
22 Initia l Electnc Bicycles and its Development 15
_ 1 Solar Powered Mechanism Dts illl and its Developmen t 17
CHAPTER 3 - PROTOTYPE D E SIGN
30 Jntroduct Ion
3 J Purpose of thc Project -- 3 J I Shortcoming of the Existing Design ~
_J
32 Design Cr iteria 24
32 I Body Frame eat and Padd le __ 5
26
(a) fire Characteristic 29
(b) Tire Constructions middot 19
(c) TIre Threads Patte rn 30
-_ J Gear Selections 3 I
324 Steering 32
(a) Rack and Pinion 32
3 2 5 Batteri es middot 34
326 DC Motor 36
327 Photooltaic (P V) 37
318 Bearing middot 38
(a) Bearing Support 39
(b) Wheel Spindles 40
32 9 Chain 41
33 Operation of the c Mechamsm __ 42
VII
CHAPTER 4 - E XP E R IMENTAL D E S IGN
-10 General -14
-I I Purpose of the Experiment 45
Theoretica l Consideration 45
421 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 0
4 2 2 Velocity Acceleration and Power 46
-13 Apparat us 50
31 DC Motor 51
-1 32 Batte ry 51
Solar PV 52
434 Bicycle Tire
435 SWltche ~
~ 36 Chain _ S3
4 3 7 Tire Holder 5middot1
43 8 Analyzer Tachometer and Multimeter 5-1
middot3 9 WlrcgtCrocodiie C l lp~ Battery harger 55
44 Expen men t Procedures 56
CHAPTER 5 - RESU LTS AND DISCUSSIONS
50 Introduction 58
5 1 Changi ng Experi ment Design 59
52 Battery Charger Damage 59
53 DC Motor Fai lure 61
54 Concentration of lt unl ight fi2
I II
55 Rubber at tht I1otor Shaft 62
56 FITeCI of Voltage produce by PV 63
j 7 EfTeer of urrent produced b) PV 66
58 Velo ity (i9
_9 Solar Iower 69
C H APT E R 6 - CONC L USIONS AN D RECOMMENDATIONS
6 1 ConciuslOJlS n
6~ Recommendations 73
(a) Solar ell (PV) 73
(b ) Dc MotoL 74
(e) Battery 74
(d) Regularor 74
(e) Breaking System 75
(f) rearing y te rn 75
BIBLIOGRAPHy 76
APPEN DIX A 80
A P P E NDIX B 83
APPEN D IX C 85
IX
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 3 10
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
I NDEX OF F IGURES
Solar Panel on the roof 5
Solar Ce ll 7
Example of Electric Bicycle 21
Exa mple o f Solar Powered Bicycle 22
Padd le Sea t a nd Steering Connectio n 25
Directi o n o f Load on the Tire 26
Maximum Vector Forces Possible during a turn
(a) Large La teral Force while makin g a Sha rp turn 27
(b) Less Lateral Force wbile making a wild turn 28
Twist in the Tire Thread within the Footprint causing Slip Angle 28
Different Part of typical tire 30
A ll Season Radial Pattern Thread 30
Top View of Typical Rack and Pinion Steering Gear 33
Opera ti on o f Rack and Pinio n Stee ring Gea r 33
Typ ica l Man ual Rack and Pinion Steering Gea r 34
Pictori al Diag ram of Series Wound Moto r 36
Ba ll Bearing Contac t 38
Ball bearing can S upport Ax ial S ide Loads and Radi al Loads 49
Wheel Bea ring Movement to Minimize Fatigue 40
42Fron t View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimens io n
Top View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimension 43
x
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
ABSTRACT
This project designed new mechanism of solar powered bicycle with the
consideration on the aerodynamics and ergono mics Two main objectives that must be
fulfilled are to develop the mechanism of the solar bicycte and to minimize the energy
losses and to optimize the energy obtained from the sources To achieve these objectives
some designs consideration on the prototype design has been done and one experimental
des ign has been construct in orde r to make su re that the des ign of the new mechanism
wo rked Recommendation is included [or future development of the miles tone solar
bicycle mechanism des igned
lV
A S STRAK
Projek rekabentuk mekant~ma baru untuk ba~ik al solar ini bergantung kepada
pcnilaian terhadap aerodinamik dan ergonomik Terdapat dua objektif yang mesH dicapai
iaitu membina mekanisma baru basikal solar dan mem inimakan tenaga yang hllang sena
meningkatkan lenaga yang di perolehi daripada sumber tcnaga Bagi mencapai i-edua-dua
objektif ini penilaian rekabentk terhadap rekabentuk yang dlcipta telah dilakukan dan
tu rekabentuk eksplt itnent telah dibina untuk memastikan rekabenluJ bani basikal solar
ini belja a dan dapat digunakan Beberapa cadangan dl erlakan bagi kegullaan
pel11binaan rekabentuk mekanisma basikal solar ini pada masa akan datang
v
22 Initia l Electnc Bicycles and its Development 15
_ 1 Solar Powered Mechanism Dts illl and its Developmen t 17
CHAPTER 3 - PROTOTYPE D E SIGN
30 Jntroduct Ion
3 J Purpose of thc Project -- 3 J I Shortcoming of the Existing Design ~
_J
32 Design Cr iteria 24
32 I Body Frame eat and Padd le __ 5
26
(a) fire Characteristic 29
(b) Tire Constructions middot 19
(c) TIre Threads Patte rn 30
-_ J Gear Selections 3 I
324 Steering 32
(a) Rack and Pinion 32
3 2 5 Batteri es middot 34
326 DC Motor 36
327 Photooltaic (P V) 37
318 Bearing middot 38
(a) Bearing Support 39
(b) Wheel Spindles 40
32 9 Chain 41
33 Operation of the c Mechamsm __ 42
VII
CHAPTER 4 - E XP E R IMENTAL D E S IGN
-10 General -14
-I I Purpose of the Experiment 45
Theoretica l Consideration 45
421 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 0
4 2 2 Velocity Acceleration and Power 46
-13 Apparat us 50
31 DC Motor 51
-1 32 Batte ry 51
Solar PV 52
434 Bicycle Tire
435 SWltche ~
~ 36 Chain _ S3
4 3 7 Tire Holder 5middot1
43 8 Analyzer Tachometer and Multimeter 5-1
middot3 9 WlrcgtCrocodiie C l lp~ Battery harger 55
44 Expen men t Procedures 56
CHAPTER 5 - RESU LTS AND DISCUSSIONS
50 Introduction 58
5 1 Changi ng Experi ment Design 59
52 Battery Charger Damage 59
53 DC Motor Fai lure 61
54 Concentration of lt unl ight fi2
I II
55 Rubber at tht I1otor Shaft 62
56 FITeCI of Voltage produce by PV 63
j 7 EfTeer of urrent produced b) PV 66
58 Velo ity (i9
_9 Solar Iower 69
C H APT E R 6 - CONC L USIONS AN D RECOMMENDATIONS
6 1 ConciuslOJlS n
6~ Recommendations 73
(a) Solar ell (PV) 73
(b ) Dc MotoL 74
(e) Battery 74
(d) Regularor 74
(e) Breaking System 75
(f) rearing y te rn 75
BIBLIOGRAPHy 76
APPEN DIX A 80
A P P E NDIX B 83
APPEN D IX C 85
IX
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 3 10
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
I NDEX OF F IGURES
Solar Panel on the roof 5
Solar Ce ll 7
Example of Electric Bicycle 21
Exa mple o f Solar Powered Bicycle 22
Padd le Sea t a nd Steering Connectio n 25
Directi o n o f Load on the Tire 26
Maximum Vector Forces Possible during a turn
(a) Large La teral Force while makin g a Sha rp turn 27
(b) Less Lateral Force wbile making a wild turn 28
Twist in the Tire Thread within the Footprint causing Slip Angle 28
Different Part of typical tire 30
A ll Season Radial Pattern Thread 30
Top View of Typical Rack and Pinion Steering Gear 33
Opera ti on o f Rack and Pinio n Stee ring Gea r 33
Typ ica l Man ual Rack and Pinion Steering Gea r 34
Pictori al Diag ram of Series Wound Moto r 36
Ba ll Bearing Contac t 38
Ball bearing can S upport Ax ial S ide Loads and Radi al Loads 49
Wheel Bea ring Movement to Minimize Fatigue 40
42Fron t View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimens io n
Top View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimension 43
x
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
A S STRAK
Projek rekabentuk mekant~ma baru untuk ba~ik al solar ini bergantung kepada
pcnilaian terhadap aerodinamik dan ergonomik Terdapat dua objektif yang mesH dicapai
iaitu membina mekanisma baru basikal solar dan mem inimakan tenaga yang hllang sena
meningkatkan lenaga yang di perolehi daripada sumber tcnaga Bagi mencapai i-edua-dua
objektif ini penilaian rekabentk terhadap rekabentuk yang dlcipta telah dilakukan dan
tu rekabentuk eksplt itnent telah dibina untuk memastikan rekabenluJ bani basikal solar
ini belja a dan dapat digunakan Beberapa cadangan dl erlakan bagi kegullaan
pel11binaan rekabentuk mekanisma basikal solar ini pada masa akan datang
v
22 Initia l Electnc Bicycles and its Development 15
_ 1 Solar Powered Mechanism Dts illl and its Developmen t 17
CHAPTER 3 - PROTOTYPE D E SIGN
30 Jntroduct Ion
3 J Purpose of thc Project -- 3 J I Shortcoming of the Existing Design ~
_J
32 Design Cr iteria 24
32 I Body Frame eat and Padd le __ 5
26
(a) fire Characteristic 29
(b) Tire Constructions middot 19
(c) TIre Threads Patte rn 30
-_ J Gear Selections 3 I
324 Steering 32
(a) Rack and Pinion 32
3 2 5 Batteri es middot 34
326 DC Motor 36
327 Photooltaic (P V) 37
318 Bearing middot 38
(a) Bearing Support 39
(b) Wheel Spindles 40
32 9 Chain 41
33 Operation of the c Mechamsm __ 42
VII
CHAPTER 4 - E XP E R IMENTAL D E S IGN
-10 General -14
-I I Purpose of the Experiment 45
Theoretica l Consideration 45
421 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 0
4 2 2 Velocity Acceleration and Power 46
-13 Apparat us 50
31 DC Motor 51
-1 32 Batte ry 51
Solar PV 52
434 Bicycle Tire
435 SWltche ~
~ 36 Chain _ S3
4 3 7 Tire Holder 5middot1
43 8 Analyzer Tachometer and Multimeter 5-1
middot3 9 WlrcgtCrocodiie C l lp~ Battery harger 55
44 Expen men t Procedures 56
CHAPTER 5 - RESU LTS AND DISCUSSIONS
50 Introduction 58
5 1 Changi ng Experi ment Design 59
52 Battery Charger Damage 59
53 DC Motor Fai lure 61
54 Concentration of lt unl ight fi2
I II
55 Rubber at tht I1otor Shaft 62
56 FITeCI of Voltage produce by PV 63
j 7 EfTeer of urrent produced b) PV 66
58 Velo ity (i9
_9 Solar Iower 69
C H APT E R 6 - CONC L USIONS AN D RECOMMENDATIONS
6 1 ConciuslOJlS n
6~ Recommendations 73
(a) Solar ell (PV) 73
(b ) Dc MotoL 74
(e) Battery 74
(d) Regularor 74
(e) Breaking System 75
(f) rearing y te rn 75
BIBLIOGRAPHy 76
APPEN DIX A 80
A P P E NDIX B 83
APPEN D IX C 85
IX
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 3 10
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
I NDEX OF F IGURES
Solar Panel on the roof 5
Solar Ce ll 7
Example of Electric Bicycle 21
Exa mple o f Solar Powered Bicycle 22
Padd le Sea t a nd Steering Connectio n 25
Directi o n o f Load on the Tire 26
Maximum Vector Forces Possible during a turn
(a) Large La teral Force while makin g a Sha rp turn 27
(b) Less Lateral Force wbile making a wild turn 28
Twist in the Tire Thread within the Footprint causing Slip Angle 28
Different Part of typical tire 30
A ll Season Radial Pattern Thread 30
Top View of Typical Rack and Pinion Steering Gear 33
Opera ti on o f Rack and Pinio n Stee ring Gea r 33
Typ ica l Man ual Rack and Pinion Steering Gea r 34
Pictori al Diag ram of Series Wound Moto r 36
Ba ll Bearing Contac t 38
Ball bearing can S upport Ax ial S ide Loads and Radi al Loads 49
Wheel Bea ring Movement to Minimize Fatigue 40
42Fron t View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimens io n
Top View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimension 43
x
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
22 Initia l Electnc Bicycles and its Development 15
_ 1 Solar Powered Mechanism Dts illl and its Developmen t 17
CHAPTER 3 - PROTOTYPE D E SIGN
30 Jntroduct Ion
3 J Purpose of thc Project -- 3 J I Shortcoming of the Existing Design ~
_J
32 Design Cr iteria 24
32 I Body Frame eat and Padd le __ 5
26
(a) fire Characteristic 29
(b) Tire Constructions middot 19
(c) TIre Threads Patte rn 30
-_ J Gear Selections 3 I
324 Steering 32
(a) Rack and Pinion 32
3 2 5 Batteri es middot 34
326 DC Motor 36
327 Photooltaic (P V) 37
318 Bearing middot 38
(a) Bearing Support 39
(b) Wheel Spindles 40
32 9 Chain 41
33 Operation of the c Mechamsm __ 42
VII
CHAPTER 4 - E XP E R IMENTAL D E S IGN
-10 General -14
-I I Purpose of the Experiment 45
Theoretica l Consideration 45
421 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 0
4 2 2 Velocity Acceleration and Power 46
-13 Apparat us 50
31 DC Motor 51
-1 32 Batte ry 51
Solar PV 52
434 Bicycle Tire
435 SWltche ~
~ 36 Chain _ S3
4 3 7 Tire Holder 5middot1
43 8 Analyzer Tachometer and Multimeter 5-1
middot3 9 WlrcgtCrocodiie C l lp~ Battery harger 55
44 Expen men t Procedures 56
CHAPTER 5 - RESU LTS AND DISCUSSIONS
50 Introduction 58
5 1 Changi ng Experi ment Design 59
52 Battery Charger Damage 59
53 DC Motor Fai lure 61
54 Concentration of lt unl ight fi2
I II
55 Rubber at tht I1otor Shaft 62
56 FITeCI of Voltage produce by PV 63
j 7 EfTeer of urrent produced b) PV 66
58 Velo ity (i9
_9 Solar Iower 69
C H APT E R 6 - CONC L USIONS AN D RECOMMENDATIONS
6 1 ConciuslOJlS n
6~ Recommendations 73
(a) Solar ell (PV) 73
(b ) Dc MotoL 74
(e) Battery 74
(d) Regularor 74
(e) Breaking System 75
(f) rearing y te rn 75
BIBLIOGRAPHy 76
APPEN DIX A 80
A P P E NDIX B 83
APPEN D IX C 85
IX
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 3 10
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
I NDEX OF F IGURES
Solar Panel on the roof 5
Solar Ce ll 7
Example of Electric Bicycle 21
Exa mple o f Solar Powered Bicycle 22
Padd le Sea t a nd Steering Connectio n 25
Directi o n o f Load on the Tire 26
Maximum Vector Forces Possible during a turn
(a) Large La teral Force while makin g a Sha rp turn 27
(b) Less Lateral Force wbile making a wild turn 28
Twist in the Tire Thread within the Footprint causing Slip Angle 28
Different Part of typical tire 30
A ll Season Radial Pattern Thread 30
Top View of Typical Rack and Pinion Steering Gear 33
Opera ti on o f Rack and Pinio n Stee ring Gea r 33
Typ ica l Man ual Rack and Pinion Steering Gea r 34
Pictori al Diag ram of Series Wound Moto r 36
Ba ll Bearing Contac t 38
Ball bearing can S upport Ax ial S ide Loads and Radi al Loads 49
Wheel Bea ring Movement to Minimize Fatigue 40
42Fron t View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimens io n
Top View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimension 43
x
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
CHAPTER 4 - E XP E R IMENTAL D E S IGN
-10 General -14
-I I Purpose of the Experiment 45
Theoretica l Consideration 45
421 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 0
4 2 2 Velocity Acceleration and Power 46
-13 Apparat us 50
31 DC Motor 51
-1 32 Batte ry 51
Solar PV 52
434 Bicycle Tire
435 SWltche ~
~ 36 Chain _ S3
4 3 7 Tire Holder 5middot1
43 8 Analyzer Tachometer and Multimeter 5-1
middot3 9 WlrcgtCrocodiie C l lp~ Battery harger 55
44 Expen men t Procedures 56
CHAPTER 5 - RESU LTS AND DISCUSSIONS
50 Introduction 58
5 1 Changi ng Experi ment Design 59
52 Battery Charger Damage 59
53 DC Motor Fai lure 61
54 Concentration of lt unl ight fi2
I II
55 Rubber at tht I1otor Shaft 62
56 FITeCI of Voltage produce by PV 63
j 7 EfTeer of urrent produced b) PV 66
58 Velo ity (i9
_9 Solar Iower 69
C H APT E R 6 - CONC L USIONS AN D RECOMMENDATIONS
6 1 ConciuslOJlS n
6~ Recommendations 73
(a) Solar ell (PV) 73
(b ) Dc MotoL 74
(e) Battery 74
(d) Regularor 74
(e) Breaking System 75
(f) rearing y te rn 75
BIBLIOGRAPHy 76
APPEN DIX A 80
A P P E NDIX B 83
APPEN D IX C 85
IX
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 3 10
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
I NDEX OF F IGURES
Solar Panel on the roof 5
Solar Ce ll 7
Example of Electric Bicycle 21
Exa mple o f Solar Powered Bicycle 22
Padd le Sea t a nd Steering Connectio n 25
Directi o n o f Load on the Tire 26
Maximum Vector Forces Possible during a turn
(a) Large La teral Force while makin g a Sha rp turn 27
(b) Less Lateral Force wbile making a wild turn 28
Twist in the Tire Thread within the Footprint causing Slip Angle 28
Different Part of typical tire 30
A ll Season Radial Pattern Thread 30
Top View of Typical Rack and Pinion Steering Gear 33
Opera ti on o f Rack and Pinio n Stee ring Gea r 33
Typ ica l Man ual Rack and Pinion Steering Gea r 34
Pictori al Diag ram of Series Wound Moto r 36
Ba ll Bearing Contac t 38
Ball bearing can S upport Ax ial S ide Loads and Radi al Loads 49
Wheel Bea ring Movement to Minimize Fatigue 40
42Fron t View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimens io n
Top View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimension 43
x
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
55 Rubber at tht I1otor Shaft 62
56 FITeCI of Voltage produce by PV 63
j 7 EfTeer of urrent produced b) PV 66
58 Velo ity (i9
_9 Solar Iower 69
C H APT E R 6 - CONC L USIONS AN D RECOMMENDATIONS
6 1 ConciuslOJlS n
6~ Recommendations 73
(a) Solar ell (PV) 73
(b ) Dc MotoL 74
(e) Battery 74
(d) Regularor 74
(e) Breaking System 75
(f) rearing y te rn 75
BIBLIOGRAPHy 76
APPEN DIX A 80
A P P E NDIX B 83
APPEN D IX C 85
IX
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 3 10
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
I NDEX OF F IGURES
Solar Panel on the roof 5
Solar Ce ll 7
Example of Electric Bicycle 21
Exa mple o f Solar Powered Bicycle 22
Padd le Sea t a nd Steering Connectio n 25
Directi o n o f Load on the Tire 26
Maximum Vector Forces Possible during a turn
(a) Large La teral Force while makin g a Sha rp turn 27
(b) Less Lateral Force wbile making a wild turn 28
Twist in the Tire Thread within the Footprint causing Slip Angle 28
Different Part of typical tire 30
A ll Season Radial Pattern Thread 30
Top View of Typical Rack and Pinion Steering Gear 33
Opera ti on o f Rack and Pinio n Stee ring Gea r 33
Typ ica l Man ual Rack and Pinion Steering Gea r 34
Pictori al Diag ram of Series Wound Moto r 36
Ba ll Bearing Contac t 38
Ball bearing can S upport Ax ial S ide Loads and Radi al Loads 49
Wheel Bea ring Movement to Minimize Fatigue 40
42Fron t View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimens io n
Top View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimension 43
x
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 3 10
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
I NDEX OF F IGURES
Solar Panel on the roof 5
Solar Ce ll 7
Example of Electric Bicycle 21
Exa mple o f Solar Powered Bicycle 22
Padd le Sea t a nd Steering Connectio n 25
Directi o n o f Load on the Tire 26
Maximum Vector Forces Possible during a turn
(a) Large La teral Force while makin g a Sha rp turn 27
(b) Less Lateral Force wbile making a wild turn 28
Twist in the Tire Thread within the Footprint causing Slip Angle 28
Different Part of typical tire 30
A ll Season Radial Pattern Thread 30
Top View of Typical Rack and Pinion Steering Gear 33
Opera ti on o f Rack and Pinio n Stee ring Gea r 33
Typ ica l Man ual Rack and Pinion Steering Gea r 34
Pictori al Diag ram of Series Wound Moto r 36
Ba ll Bearing Contac t 38
Ball bearing can S upport Ax ial S ide Loads and Radi al Loads 49
Wheel Bea ring Movement to Minimize Fatigue 40
42Fron t View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimens io n
Top View of the Solar Bicycle with Dimension 43
x
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
Fig e 41 Motion of Point P of the Tire 48
Figure 12 Proposed Design for Expe riment AnaJysis 50
Figure 13 Actual Design for Exper iment Analysis 50
Figure 51 Voltage (V) aga inst Time (hour) 65
Figure 52 Voltage (V) against Rotation Per Minute (RPM) 65
Figure 53 Current (A) aga inst Tim e (hour) 67
Figure 54 Current (A) aga inst Rotation Per Mi nute (RPM) 67
l igu re 55 Current (A) against Voltage (V) 68
Figure 56 Velocity (ms) against Ro tati on Per Minute (RPM) 70
Figure 57 Solar Power (Watt) against Rotation Per Minute 70
Figure 58 Solar Power (Watt) against Velocity (ms) 71
Xl
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
I NDEX OF T ABLE
Table 41 Specificalion~ of Ihe Solar Panel 54
X II
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
N O TATION
ex An gular ccel eration
dEl Ch ange in angle
OJ An gu lar elocity
dco hange in Angular VeloCIty
dt Change in lime
V VelocilY
r Radius
a Acceleration in tangential direction
an Acceleration in normal di rectio n
P Power Generated
Current Produced by PV
V Voltage produced by PV
XlIJ
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
10 Renewahle Energy
The technologies of renewable energy now produce an energy that ca n be
marketed by convert ing natural phenomenon into useful energy forms Mass ive
energy potential of this source will greatly exceed the poten ti al of fo ssil fuel
reso urces The renewable energy is a technology which play an import an t rol e in
achi ev ing the community goals for sustainable economic development and
environmental protection
Renewable energy is a domestic re source [t has the potentia l to
contribute or provide complete security supply It also can be Ll sed fOi multiple
applications which meets practically eve ry type of final energy demand
Resources of the renewable energy technologies are wi th the exception of wood
fuel and large hydro electri city Part of spec ific renewahle e nergy sources that has
prospect for the year 2000 are wind energy pholovoJt aics biomass gltolhermal
so lar tidal and ocea n thermal
1
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
Clrupler I Inrrt1fiucrifJIt
11 Ellergy Comparison
Ac ordi ng to Hisl op Drummond rI 992] for most developing countries the
interest in renewable tnergy technologies was origi nall y a response to the energy
shortages and price inc reases fue l in the arly and late 1970s However by mid
1990 mternational world prices were back to levels as low as in the late 19605
Demand for energy in developing countries i ~ creasing as the population
IS increasing and the economic development growth and stab le This pr cess
happened for per capita of the energy BIOmass energy provides e lectric ity fot
many years using steam turbine powe r generation 1 i~ in the fo rm of industrial
and agriculture residues Existing steam turbine conversion technology is cost
competitie in the South East Asia region It is due to the low cost of biomass
fuels availab le These technologies a re comparati e ly inefficient for the small si ze
req uirement for biomass electricity production However biomass encrgv is more
attractive feedstock at is easier to gasify and very low in sulfur content
WInd eneryy generating capacity now IS about 2000 MVv [Bu rnham
199] The va lue of wind electricity depends on the characteristics of the utility
system into which it is integrated
Solar thermal generation system use sunlight to heat fluids that dri ve
turbines These systems typically concentrate sunlight with mirrors A state of the
art so lar thermal electri c system would produce e lectric ity for about 9 3 cents per
kWh [Burnham 1993] This cost is highe r than the cost of base load electricity In
most regions The va lue of the solar thermal electric power dcpcnd~ n sunlighl
2
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
ChapUT I IlIfrmiuctffl
and often correlates well with peak electricity demands in wal lfl areas wtth heavy
conditioning loads
Ph(lOlotalc mod ules are so lid state devices II converts sunlight directly
into electricity with no rotating equipment Photovoltaic system can be built in
any size h ighly reliable and need only little maintenance These systems are cost
effective in many remote areas where alternative sources of power are impractical
or costl y Photovoltaic e lectrici ty is produced during periods of peak unlighL It
is closed to the sites where it is consumed thereby reducing the need for costl y
conventional peaking capacity
RlOmas energy has provided electric ity for many years suall it is in
the form of industri a l and agricultural residues According to Burnham [1993]
United States currently has more than 8000MW of generating capacity fueled
with such feedstock
12 Introductioll to Solar Energy Power
Energy that comes directly from the sunlight is called sOlIr ellergy It is a
type of energy sources for fuels and electricity In general terms so lar enerjY
means that all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun The emrgy prOVIdes
daylight makes the earth hot and it is the source of energy fo r the plants to grow
Without sun nothing could exist on the earth and earth would be as lifeless as the
moon The sun is o ur greatest and most basic source of energy Ileat and light
derived from the sun The rain and the winds are resultant from heat and li ght
3
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
Chapter I IlIlrodctulI
force from the sun Plants use solar energy to flourish Solar energy can be
harvested both directly and indirectly
The energy sources are all around liS Before usmg thi s energy one must
learn how to control it When energy is control the process is called power
Power is used to move automobiles airplanes and all other means of
transportation devices Solar energy power is defined as a process of conlrol for
encfY that comes directly from the sun Solar energy can be collected and put
mto work Supposingly that all the energy arriving from the sun each day could be
collected and controlled most of earth energy problems are solved Ways of
collecting and controlling solar energy are inefficient and expensive Furt hermore
it is impossible to collect solar energy at night or during cloudy middotcather
Nevertheless it is harder to store solar energy However some progress has b~en
made in utilizing soJar energy collectlve and usage ln the past several years If
research and development continues solar energy could become an important
direct energy source
Solar Energy can provide both heat and electricity Solar panels (refer to
Figure 1 t) are devices that collect solar energy to heat water We can al so
control solar energy with mirrors Mirrors concentrate the sunrays on a small area
and this heat can be used to produce steam for electncal generaLlrs operations
4
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
Chapter J rrrodllcnolt
Figure 1 Solar panel on the roof[McDonalds et aI 19861
Solar Energy is one of important energy sources McDonald et al [1986J
indicate that the sun provides 500 times more energy than the energy used ev ry
day By capturing only one-ten th of th ts energy the need~ of nit ed States every
day demands can be satisfied This sufficient energy could be captured wtth
collectors of only two percents of our nation swfacc [McDonald et aI 1986 j
Thus solar energy has a very great potential
5
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
Clwpter 1 InlrmlucrifJlt
121 Electricity from Solar
Two common u es for solar energy are hea ting and electrici ty Usua ll y for
heating it is used to heat both water and buildings It is over one quarter of
domestic energy usage for these purposes Therefore thi s is an important area to
be rlvrllped for solar energy Electricity is the most important u es of thIs solar
energy This energy can be converted directly into electricity It is usually use to
generate steam which can drive turbine toward electricity genera1ion
I he generation of electricity from solar energy has been poSSible since the
nineteenth century For the early generating devices it is only produced only a
small amount of electricity and this solar energy was only limited to certain
specia l uses
For recent years way of convert ing lage amount of so lar energy into
electric ity has been improved Many projects on electricity generation from th is
energy had been tri ed The most successful projects on thi s energy generation of
electri city arc for dome tic usage such as water heater pumps turbine and al so
for transportation needs sLlch as electric car and soJar bie c1e
13 Introduction 10 Sohir Cells (PV) aDd Batteries
Solar cells (see Figure 12) are devices that convert sun light to electricity
directly It is al so called photovotaic cells (IV) Solar cells lIsed photon ~ III convert
6
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
Chapler I fniroduNion
this sunlight into electricity By putting a number of solar cells together it will
increase the electric output
Figure 12 Solar Ccll (Hislop 1992]
Nowdays photovoltaic system is used to provide powcr for water pumping
refrigeration water treatment cathodic protection vacc ine refrigeration and many
others applications
The majority of the population in developing countries Jives in dispersed
community in rural area The provision of an electriCity supply to th is area is
difficult and costly extension of the main gnd is difficu lt for varied terrain and it is
generally not economical for smaJi power loads Photovoltaic model is more suited
for remote or In acce~sible location for power rr id can also provide an independent
and reliable electrical power source PV system component such as inverter is the
7
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
Clwpler I IlItrfHUCun
second most essential component after the so lar generator for the AC power
generation Although the inve rte r represents a conventional component but there is
effort on the development to improved its ef lcicncy
When thJ conventIOnal inverter operated in the partial load r~rlon the
effic iency of he CUllvelll ional Inverters aauged over longer lillie IptllImiddot IS low
t haI is typically about 70 to 80 171ltc convelltional inv(rters used Ihl rtSlors
switched ( low ji-(quencles exhihit decreased converlion elfieellelf (- YO) and
11I1IJIr lors when use in Ihe parlalload rgion [Wri xon WT et ai 19931
Performance of thl systim has shown that the problem of the system maybe tim 10
t Hardwa re design that is not-optimized
II Power Management that is not-optimi z d especially the banerics
lit Sizing of component is incorrect-particul arly the inverter
IV The changes in load demand
v Changes in load profi Ie
vt In adequate hardware backup and spare paT1~hartlwa re failures (cracked
modules inverter problems and short baneries life )
The batteri s are used to store electricity generate during dayltght hours
for later usage lt is because during the night day and bad weather solar
photovoltaic is not functiomng and rechargeable banencs arc reqUIred for thl~
pLlrpo~e of suppl ying electricity Usually for so lar electric system a lead-ac id
banerie~ is used for storage Rechargeab le battery is a type of batteries that can be
8
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9
ClIOller IntrfJtluction
recharged up from the di rect current source and can be reused mulliplc~
Electrochemical or wet cell is the simplest operating unit of batteries
A particu lar vo ltage will be produced by the battery depending on the
ma1crial s it used Ratteri es mean a group of cell s that is connected in series to
achieve a higher voltage Thi s is similar for the solar cell as it is connected in series
to fonn a solar module
OfMati on of the battery used by the solar PV can be group into two types of
c middotIes These cycles are as fo llow
I A shallow cycle each day
II Deep cycles over seycral days or weeks during cloudy weather and
winte r
When the chargi ng of the battery is not enough to supply (he amount of
energy used by the app liances a deep cycle will occur This will makl the statc of
charge is reduced slightly and further bui lds up to a deeper cyclc over a period of
time The state of extra charging will improve the cycle gradua ll y For the batteries
to perform well in a so lar PV system some characteristics must be considered The
characteri stics are
I High li fe cycle for deep cycle
II Low maintenance requirement
Ill Hi gh efficiencies charging
9