Jurnal Pendidikan Islam

Jilid 13 Bil 2 Julai 2009 / Rejab 1430EditorialUniversiti Teknologi MARA dari Arau ke Menggatal: Lima Puluh Tahun Transformasi Pendidikan Bagi Meningkatkan Taraf Bumiputera - Shaharuddin Badaruddin dan Zurina Md NenMenghidupkan Semula Pedagogi Inkuiri Falsafah di Kalangan Pendidik dan Pelajar Islam - Rosnani HashimKesan Keprihatinan Guru dalam Latihan Kemahiran Awal Bacaan - Khadijah Zon dan Fatimah SalehPembudayaan Ilmu: Perspektif Sejarah Tamadun Islam - Mohaini MohamedAmalan Reflektif dalam Pengajaran Matematik: Satu Kajian Kes - Zaharah Hussin dan Fatimah SalehMemahami Ilmu Perkembangan dan Pertumbuhan Kanak-kanak bagi Pendidikan Berkesan - Mahyuddin ShaariThe Integrated Approach in Malaysian Education: The International Islamic University Malaysia as a Model   - Sidek BabaHigher Learning in Islam: The Classical Period 700 AD to 1300 AD - Ulasan Buku

Jilid 13 Bil. 1 Ogos 2008 / Sya'ban 1429EditorialKonsep Kurikulum Bersepadu dan Perlaksanaannya di Institusi Pendidikan Islam Masa Kini: Tinjauan Semula - Rahimah EmbongPendidikan Sekolah Rendah Menegah dan Tahfiz ABIM: Rasional Falsafah Kurikulum dan Operasi   - Mahyudin AshaariLiterasi Sains: Implikasi Sosio-Budaya ke Atas Masyarakat Islam   - Rosnani HashimTeras dan Terap Pluralisme - Azhar Ibrahim AlweeKepelbagaian Pendekatan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Rasulullah SAW Demi Menjana Pendidikan Yang Berkesan - Che Noraini HashimMotivation and Student Learning: An Islamic Perspective - Zaleha Izhab and Ahmed MH HassoubahAl-Farabi Fi Mabadi Ara Ahl Al Madina Al Fadila - Book ReviewSARI

Sari: International Journal of Malay World Studies is published by the Institute of the Malay World and Civilization (abbreviated as ATMA from Institut Alam & Tamadun Melayu in Malay) in the National University of Malaysia. The primary of the journal, published biannually from 2009, is to publish in Malay or English research done by scholars in Malay world studies, including aspects of science and technology, language and linguistics, traditional and modern literature, culture, history and philosophy. Views expressed in the articles do not necessarily represent those of the editors or ATMA.

This journal is indexed online in http://myais.fsktm.um.edu.my, http://www.penerbit.ukm.my as well as Excepta Indonesica (Leiden) and offline in Index to Singapore Information (Singapore) and Malaysian Periodical Index (Kuala Lumpur).

Jilid 12 Bil. 2 Mei 2007 / Rabiul AKhir 1428EditorialPedagogi Kemanusiaan Kritis dan Telaah Sastera - Azhar Ibrahim AlweeLiberalisasi Pendidikan dan Cabarannya dalam Kontek Pendidikan Islam di Malaysia - Rosnani HashimPerspektif Pendidikan Islam terhadap Pembudayaan Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Ilmu - Ab Halim Tamuri dan Zarin IsmailKursus Keibubapaan Muslim dalam Memenuhi Keperluan Ibubapa Masa Kini: Satu Kajian Kes - N Suryani N A Karim, Haniza Rais dan Suhailah HusseinThe Educational Thoughts and Practices of Muhammad Yusof bin Ahmad (Tok Kenali) - W Mazwati W YusoffSecularism and Spirituality: Seeking Integrated Knowledge and Success in Madrasah Education in Singapore - Ulasan Buku

Jilid 12 Bil. 1 Julai 2006 / Jamadilaakhir 1427EditorialSuara Hati Guru Matematik dalam Perlaksanaan Dasar Bahasa Inggeris bagi Subjek Matematik: Satu Tinjauan - M Rashid M SaadPerspektif Islam Terhadap Kepimpinan dalam Pendidikan - Masribanun Duki dan Ab Halim TamuriKeberkesanan Program Falsafah untuk Kanak-Kanak Terhadap Kemahiran Membaca dan Berfikir Kritis: Kajian Kes di sebuah Sekolah Rendah - Rosnani HashimPenerapan Nilai dan Etika Islam dalam Mata Pelajaran Pengajian Perniagaan - N Aida A Rahman dan Norasmah OthmanSejarah Kurikulum dan Perkembangan Sekolah Rendah Islam Sungai Ramal Dalam: Perintis Sekolah Rendah Islam ABIM - Mahyudin AshaariChild Education: What Should Be Optimal - Mastura BadzisPendidikan Islam di Malaysia: Dari Pondok ke Universiti - Ulasan Buku

Jilid 11 Bil. 1 Ogos 2004 / Jamadil Akhir 1425EditorialFalsafah Penyelidikan Pendidikan dari Perspektif Islam: Konsep dan Matlamat - Rosnani HashimSistem Pendidikan Yang Berkualiti: Bagaimana Ia Diukur dan Dicapai - M Salleh LebarPendidikan Keusahawan dari Perspektif Islam - Norasmah Othman, A Halim Tamuri dan Khadijah A RazakPengamiran Islam dengan Sains: Gusutan dan Pelepasnya - Shaharir M ZainTaman Asuhan Kanak-kanak Islam ABIM: Sejarah Penubuhan Perkembangan dan Kurikulum - Mahyuddin AshaariIslamic Education and Pakistan Politics: A Case Study of the Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam - Najum MushtaqAn Education System Worthy of Malaysia - Ulasan Buku

Jildi 10 Bil. 4 Februari 2004 / Zulhijjah 1424EditorialSejarah Pendidikan ABIM   - Mahyuddin AshaariPendidikan Sepanjang Hayat: Perspektif Islam dan Barat - Hazri Jamil dan Khairudin SaeranInstitusi Pengajian Islam: Peluang dan Cabaran - Siddiq FadzilPemalsuanisme dalam Falsafah Sains al Biruni   - A Latif SamianMohammad Natsir Pendidik Ummah - Ulasan Buku

Jilid 10 Bil. 3 Jun 2003 / Rabiul Akhir 1424EditorialPendidikan Silang Budaya Menurut Perspektif Islam: Satu Perbincangan Awal - Ghazali BasriPersonaliti Wajadiri Pendidikan: Konsep dan Perkembangan Penyelidikan - Shahabudin HashimAplikasi Fizik Asas: Cabaran dan Implikasi Terhadap Pendidikan Fizik   - Khalijah M SallehMasjid Sebagai Pusat Pendidikan dan Penjanaan Ummat Cemerlang   - M Mokhtar ShafiiThe Retribution, Deterence and Reformation on Punishment in the Shariah Islamic Law: An Islamic Educational View - Adnan A RashidManagement Philosophy: A Radical-Normative Perspective - Ulasan Buku

Jilid 10 Bil. 2 Disember 2002 / Syawal 1423EditorialDualisme Pendidikan Umat Islam di Malaysia: Sejarah Perkembangan dan Cabaran Masa Depan   - Rosnani HashimInstitusi Pendidikan ABIM Perak: Satu Penilaian Awal - Mahyuddin AshaariPenyimpangan Sosial dan Kesannya Terhadap Masyarakat Islam Malaysia: Satu Penilaian Menurut Islam - Hasnan KasanPlanning an Affective Education for pre-school Children: Within Islamic and Western Perspective   - Mastura BadzisMenjejak Kualiti Menjana Kecemerlangan - Ulasan Buku

Jilid 10 Bil. 1 Ogos 2002 / Jamadil Akhir 1423EditorialKeperluan Profesional Guru Sains KBSR: Satu Tinjauan di Kemaman - N Azizah Salleh dan Mah C LingHassan al Banna - Sumbangannya Terhadap Pendidikan dan Kebangkitan Islam - M Mokhtar ShafiiKaunseling Perkahwinan di Malaysia: Satu Analisa Menurut Perspektif Islam - M Radzi M AliPendidikan Awal Berasaskan Fitrah: Memperjelas Arah Tuju dan Mengembeling Usaha Memenuhi Tuntutan - Ghazali BasriInvestigation on the Teaching of Critical and Creative Thinking in Malaysia - Rosnani HashimRevolusi Enam Sigma - Ulasan BukuPembangunan di Malaysia: Ke Arah Satu Kefahaman Baru yang Lebih Sempurna - Ulasan BukuThe Rise of Colleges - Ulasan Buku

Jilid 9 Bil. 4 November 2001 / Syawal 1422EditorialPendidikan al Quran Menjana Keupayaan Berfikir - Mahyuddin AshaariKurikulum Pendidikan dari Perspektif Islam dalam Konteks Pendidikan di Malaysia - Rosnani HashimPenerapan Nilai-nilai Murni Melalui Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Melayu di Sekolah Rendah - Nor Hashimah HashimTransaksi Jual Beli Melalui Internet dari Perspektif Islam: Implikasi Terhadap Pendidikan Ummah - M Rizal RazmanSecond Language Teaching and Learning from an Islamic Perspektive - Mohideen M AliIslamic Science: Towards A Definition - Book ReviewEducation and Cultural Diversity - Ulasan Buku

Jilid 9 Bil. 3  Jun 2001 / Rabiul Awal 1422EditorialStrategi Pendekatan Penyayang Dalam Pendidikan - Mahyuddin AshaariKonsep Pelaksanaan Pendidikan Bersepadu: Kurikulum dan Latihan Guru - Ahmad Mohd SaidIslamisasi Pendidikan dari Perspektif Metodologi - Hassan LanggulungEpistemologi dan Dimensi Kemanusiaan dalam Kajian Bandar: Satu Analisis Menurut Pendekatan Islam - Zaid AhmadImproving Malaysian Secondary School's Co-Curriculum Through School Based Curriculum Development - A Rahman Najib M NoorThe Teaching of Islamic Education with Respect to Child Development: Critique and Suggestions - Feryal El KhaldiAl Quran Menyuruh Kita Sabar - Ulasan BukuIssue in Islamic Education - Ulasan Buku

Jilid 9 Bil. 2 Disember 2000 / Syawal 1421 EditorialKeperluan Ketidak-Ummian Sains di Kalangan Ulama dan Kemestian Keiltizaman Penghayatan Islam di Kalangan Ahli Sains di Malaysia Masa Kini - Shaharir M ZainPerlaksanaan Tulisan Jawi dalam Sistem Pendidikan Malaysia - M Mokhtar ShafiiK-Ekonomi di Malaysia dan Masa Depannya - W Sulaiman W YusoffAsas Pendidikan Islam dan Kaedah-kaedahnya - Ulasan BukuJurnal Pendidikan Islam - Indeks 1984 - 1999

Jilid 8 Bil. 4 Nov-Dis 1999 / Rejab-Syaban 1420EditorialReformasi Pendidikan Nasional dari Perspektif Islam - Chatlinas SaidIslamisasi Pendidikan: Peranan Pendidik - Ahmad M SaidIslamisasi Pendidikan di Sekolah: Prospek dan Masalah - Zalmiah JahidinMasyarakat Madani dalam Kerangka Teori Masyarakat Umrani: Satu Kajian Perbandingan - Mahayuddin YahyaSistem Pengelolaan dan Penyelengaraan Madrasah Tsanawiyah Negeri - Susilaningsih

Islamic Economic Education: Some Obstacles to Curriculum Development - M Aslam Haneef

Jilid 8 Bil. 3 Jun 1999 / Safar 1420EditorialIdeologi Pendidikan Islam Mohammad Natsir - Mohammad NoerGejala Globalisasi: Peranan dan Tanggungjawab Institusi Ilmu - M Salleh Hassan dan Musa A HassanIndustrialisasi dan Globilasasi: Cabaran Teknologi Komunikasi dan Kesannya Terhadap Kelangsungan Pendidikan Generasi - Rahmah HashimReasons for Schools Children's Poor Attitude Toward Islamic Education: A Pilot Inquiry - M Sahari Nordin dan Hassan Langgulung

Jilid 3 Bilangan 1, April 1990 / Ramadhan 1410EditorialDari Pusat ke Pinggiran: Masa Kini dan Masa Depan Pondok di Malaysia - Mohamad Abu BakarPusat Pengajian Pondok Telong - Bachok Kelantan - Ghazali Basri et. al.Ekonomi dan Pendidikan: Peranan Institusi Wakaf - Rosnani HashimBudaya Ilmu Sebagai Asas Pembangunan Tamadun - Wan Mohd Nor Wan DaudKnowledge and Truth as Core-Values in Science and Religion - Hasan Langgulung

 

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PENJELASAN BUDAYA ILMU

PENJELASAN BUDAYA ILMU(Oleh: Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud)Diulas oleh: Kelana

‘Penjelasan Budaya Ilmu’ membicarakan satu perkara pokok dan asas dalam pembangunan diri insan, masyarakat dan tamadun. Buku ini mengandungi takrifan yang dinamik dan penuh implikasi tentang budaya ilmu dan perkara-perkara bersangkutan dan harus disemai dan disuburkan dalam diri dan masyarakat kita. Buku ini menyelami lautan sejarah pelbagai bangsa dan tamadun. Islam dan yang bukan Islam, dari zaman kuno sehingga ke zaman kini. Penulis juga ada memaparkan kisah-kisah dan nilai-nilai utama yang dapat dimanfaatkan. Gagasan pengIslaman ilmu yang dipercayai sebagai wadah utama bagi penmanfaatan ilmu dari setiap sumber, dihuraikan dan dipaparkan sejarahnya buat kali pertama. Sehubungan dengan ini, sejarah dan perkembangan tradisi keilmuan di Alam Melayu, khasnya di Malaysia, diselidiki. Peranan pemimpin politik, pentadbir, para cendikiawan dan guru serta ibu bapa juga dikaji dalam pembinaan budaya ilmu. Buku ini mengandungi enam (6) bab, iaitu :

1) Budaya Ilmu dan Tamadun2) Konsep Budaya Ilmu3) Sistem Nilai Budaya Ilmu dan Jelmaan Sejarahnya

4) Islamisasi Ilmu5) Budaya Ilmu di Malaysia6) Pelaksanaan di Malaysia

BAB 1 : Budaya Ilmu Dan Tamadun

Penulis telah menghuraikan bahawa pembinaan budaya ilmu yang bersepadu dan jitu merupakan prasyarat awal dan terpenting bagi kejayaan, kekuatan dan kebahagiaan seseorang dan sesuatu bangsa. Seseorang individu atau sesuatu bangsa yang mempunyai kekuasaan atau kejayaan tidak boleh mempertahankan miliknya, apatah lagi mengembangkannya tanpa budaya ilmu yang baik. Malah dia akan bergantung kepada orang atau bangsa lain yang berilmu. Segala unsur harta dan takhta bukanlah merupakan ciri sebati dengan diri seseorang atau bangsa malah ia boleh memeluk atau menganut nlai dan ciri tamadun lain jika tidak ditunjangi oleh budaya ilmu yang baik. Penulis menjelaskan bahawa bangsa yang tidak besar jumlahnya boleh memberi pengaruh yang besar kepada bangsa lain yang lebih besar dan kuat. Beliau juga telah menghuraikan enam (6) budaya ilmu mengikut bangsa iaitu :

1) Budaya Ilmu Yunani2) Budaya Ilmu Yahudi3) Budaya Ilmu di China dan India4) Budaya Ilmu di Barat5) Budaya Ilmu Islam6) Budaya Ilmu di Jepun

BAB 2 : Konsep Budaya Ilmu

Budaya ilmu bermaksud wujud satu keadaan setiap individu atau masyarakat melibatkan diri dalam kegiatan keilmuan bagi setiap kesempatan. Setiap tindakan diputuskan dan dilaksanakan berdasarkan ilmu pengetahuan sama ada melalui pengkajian atau syura. Selain itu, ia juga tidak mengiktiraf sifat jahil, bebal dan anti ilmu. Dalam zaman moden ini, makna ilmu telah disempitkan kepada pengetahuan tentang maklumat dan kemahiran sahaja. Misalnya di Barat, mereka berpegang teguh kepada kaedah sains iaitu ilmu yang hanya merujuk kepada fakta. Pada pandangan mereka ajaran agama telah terkeluar daripada takrif ilmu kerana agama dianggap sebagai kepercayaan atau dugaan semata-mata. Mereka ini tergolong dalam mazhab empirisisme yang didokong oleh tokoh seperti John Locke, David Hume, Herbert Spencer dan lain-lain. Mazhab rasionalisme juga menumpukan penekanan terhadap prinsip kekal yang diperolehi melalui akal rasional atau agama. Tokoh yang mendokong mazhab ini adalah seperti Socrates, Plato dan Descartes. Pertentangan antara dua mazhab ini yang mempunyai pengaruh dalam sejarah agama dan pemikiran Barat telah ditangani oleh golongan pragmatis seperti Charles S. Peirce, William James dan John Dewey. Ilmu dalam perspektif Islam dikenali sebagai sifat, proses dan hasil yang meliputi pelbagai perkara dan bermaksud al-Quran, syariah, sunnah, iman, kerohanian, hikmah, makrifat, sains dan pendidikan. Setiap manusia yang berilmu akan berdiri teguh di atas keyakinan dan kebenaran yang dimiliki untuk melakukan keadilan. Oleh itu, budaya ilmu bukan sekadar kesungguhan memahami, mendalami dan menghayati sesuatu bidang ilmu malah menjelmakan sifat keilmuan yang pelbagai bidang dan merentasinya. Sifat seperti ini harus disemai dalam diri setiap

anggota masyarakat dan negara.

BAB 3 : Sistem Nilai Budaya Ilmu dan Jelmaan Sejarahnya

Pembinaan budaya ilmu dan tamadun yang lahir daripadanya merujuk kepada sistem nilai, pandangan dunia dan idealisme sesebuah sistem sosial serta individu di dalamnya. Prinsip asas pembinaan budaya dan tamadun ilmu yang bersepadu ialah konsep dan realiti tuhan, konsep manusia dan alam semesta. Nilai yang harus dimiliki oleh sesuatu budaya ilmu itu adalah :

a) Kepentingan ilmuMeletakkan ilmu sebagai kebaikan utama dan asas bagi segala kebaikan lain. Nilai ini akan melahirkan sikap memberatkan pendidikan sebagai kaedah utama untuk menanamkan sikap memuliakan ilmu, menuntutnya dan terus menghayatinya seumur hidup

b) Berkekalannya usaha ilmiahSetiap usaha dan hasil yang berteraskan ilmu mestilah bersifat kekal di mana apa jua usaha menemukan kebenaran dan melaksanakan keadilan merupakan sumbangan dan amal kebajikan bagi diri sendiri dan manusia

c) Berterusannya usaha keilmuan – dari buaian ke liang lahadUsaha keilmuan mestilah menjadi usaha sepanjang umur kerana setiap manusia akan melalui pelbagai jenis tanggungjawab sepanjang hayatnya yang memerlukan ilmu untuk melaksanakan dengan sebaik-baiknya.

d) Nilai kepimpinanKepimpinan dalam masyarakat adalah faktor penting dalam menjamin pembinaan dan penyuburan budaya ilmu. Penggubalan polisi awam, pengagihan peruntukan, latihan yang boleh membina dan meneguhkan budaya ilmu memerlukan sokongan satu kumpulan bukan individu pemimpin yang berbudaya ilmu

e) Sikap homat-kritisKeberanian mencari kebenaran dengan menimba dan memperbaiki hasil pemikiran manusia terdahulu dan semasa. Sikap hormat kepada cendiakawan tidak sepatutnya menyekat seseorang untuk terus memperbaiki hasil pemikiran mereka.

f) Kesinambungan tradisi ilmuBudaya ilmu bermaksud mempunyai kepekaan dan kesedaran tentang kepentingan kesinambungan atau sejarah ilmu dan keilmuan. Ini kerana ilmu tidak terbatas dan manusia tidak mampu menghabiskan tenaga dan masa utuk sentiasa bermula dari bawah.

g) SyuraProses syura merupakan penjelmaan ciri budaya ilmu di mana seseorang itu tidak mampu mengetahui semua perkara yang diperlukan untuk hidup. Oleh itu, bermusyawarah adalah diperlukan dalam hal yang berkaitan dengan kebaikan orang ramai di samping itu ia mencerminkan umat Islam yang sebenar.

h) Pengiktirafan peranan wanitaKaum wanita merupakan lebih kurang separuh daripada umat manusia dan yang paling hampir dengan anak-anak dan remaja. Mereka memainkan peranan yang besar dalam menentukan kejayaan pembinaan budaya ilmu dan ketinggian tamadun manusia. Islam meletakkan tanggungjawab yang sama ke atas lelaki dan wanita untuk mencari ilmu dan melaksanakan tugas sebagai khalifah dan hamba Allah di bumi ini.

BAB 4 : Islamisasi Ilmu

Pemupukan budaya ilmu di peringkat individu atau masyarakat akan menghadapi persoalan dasar yang telah dirasai oleh dunia yang sedang membangun dalam bidang pendidikan iaitu penanaman semula benih pendidikan Barat. Ia mencerminkan penanaman semula yang tidak sempurna dengan sedikit perubahan dari segi perpindahan tempat pemusatan dari penjajah ke tempatan. Pemupukan budaya ilmu mengharuskan kita menfaatkan ilmu daripada semua sumber. Sepanjang sejarah umat Islam, telah berjaya melaksanakan pemanfaatan ilmu daripada pelbagai sumber dalam suasana psikologi yang kuat kerana kehebatan kedudukan ilmu dan tamadun Islam ketika itu. Para pemikir dan ilmuan Islam sentiasa berusaha menyebatikan idea daripada tamadun lain dengan ajaran Islam dan telah membawa hasil yang membanggakan. Ahli falsafah seperti al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina dan lain-lain telah memasukkan ajaran Islam dalam sistem falsafah mereka yang banyak diperolehi dari faksafah Yunani.

Dalam sejarah intelektualisme Islam moden, gagasan Islamisasi ilmu adalah gagasan yang paling hebat dan mempunyai kecemerlangan ilmu kreatif Islam masa depan. Ini adalah kerana pada ketika itu, umat Islam tidak mampu menangani ilmu moden dengan adil terutama dari Barat yang mempunyai kejayaan ekonomi dan teknologinya yang hebat. Islamisasi menurut Dr. Gaafar Syeikh Idris adalah usaha terancang dan beransur-ansur yang akan menghasilkan satu masyarakat yang berpegang teguh kepada keseluruhan ajaran Islam dalam semua aspek kehidupan masyarakat. Menurut penulis, Profesor Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas adalah tokoh Islam pertama yang mentakrifkan dengan jelas konsep proses Islamisasi iaitu “Islamisasi adalah pembebasan manusia daripada tradisi tahyul, mitos, animis, kebangsaan dan kebudayaan, akal serta bahasa dari pengaruh sekularisme”. Pemusatan proses Islamisasi menurut beliau tidak pada politik atau masyarakat tetapi pada akal dan diri manusia yang berkewajipan mengetahui dan bertindak dengan adil dan hikmah. Oleh itu, Islamisasi ilmu adalah sesuatu kewajipan, fardu ‘ain bagi setiap cendiakawan Islam yang terlibat dalam sesuatu disiplin ilmu.

BAB 5 : Budaya Ilmu di Malaysia

Kedatangan Islam di Kepulauan Melayu merupakan satu titik permulaan bersejarah dalam peningkatan akal budi orang Melayu. PengIslaman Kepulauan Melayu dikatakan bermula sejak pedagang Islam berbangsa Arab dan Parsi melarikan diri ke Kedah disebabkan keganasan Maharaja China, Hi-Tsung (878-889 M) di Khanfu. Wadah penyebaran Islam di rantau ini berlaku melalui tasawuf. Islam telah mengubah dasar pandangan dunia orang Melayu dan mengubah bahasa, pemikiran dan aspek-aspek sosio-budayanya. Mana-mana yang tidak secara terang bercanggah dengan ajaran Islam dibiarkan begitu sahaja. Di Indonesia menurut Profesor Mahmud Yunus, ilmu agama Islam diajarkan di madrasah, masjid, rumah dan di tepi perigi. Pengajaran kebanyakannya dijalankan melalui pendengaran kerana teknologi

penulisan masih baru dan budaya ilmu secara bertulis tidak tersebar luas di Alam Melayu. Ia terbatas kepada golongan berada dan istana seperti Tun Seri Lanang, Ibn Battuta dan lain-lain. Setelah Kesultanan Melaka jatuh ke tangan Portugis pada tahun 1511, Kesultanan Acheh telah menjadi pusat keilmuan, kerohanian, intelektualisme, kebudayaan dan perniagaan terpenting di Kepulauan Melayu. Pemimpin Acheh seperti Sultan Ala al-Din Ra’ayat Shah, Sultan Iskandar Thani dan Sultanah Taj al-‘Alam Safiyah al-Din Syah telah memainkan peranan penting dalam pengembangan berbagai ilmu keIslaman di rantau ini. Manakala cendiakawan-cendiakawan Islam yang telah mengembangkan budaya ilmu di sini adalah Nuruddin al-Raniri, Muhammad al-Hamid, Hamzah Fansuri, Abdullah Abdul Kadir Munsyi dan sebagainya.

Tamadun ilmu di Kepulauan Melayu pada zaman keagungannya mempunyai perbezaan yang nyata daripada apa yang tersebar di Timur Tengah, Sepanyol, Utara Afrika dan India. Ilmu yang banyak dibincangkan pada masa itu terhad kepada ilmu agama dan tasawuf sebagai memenuhi tuntutan ibadat seperti ilmu astronomi, ilmu hisab dan ilmu alam. Peranan Islam dalam pembinaan budaya ilmu di Malaysia adalah sangat ketara di mana ia telah mempunyai dasar dan potensi besar untuk disuburkan. Awal abad ke 20 telah membawa kesedaran betapa pentingnya pendidikan yang tersusun dan teratur untuk bangsa Melayu. Kesedaran ini telah memperlihatkan tiga aliran berasingan iaitu aliran agama tradisional, aliran pendidikan sekular berbahasa Melayu dan aliran sekular berbahasa Inggeris. Keadaan pemodenan dan pendidikan sekular tidak banyak berubah sehinggah Persekutuan Tanah Melayu mencapai kemerdekaan pada 31 Ogos 1957. Namun tujuan dan falsafah pendidikan hanya memberi tumpuan kepada melahirkan tenaga kerja bagi memenuhi tuntutan sebuah negara baru merdeka. Ilmu telah ditinggalkan dalam perkiraan nilai atau objektif utama pendidikan negara dan pembinaan program perubahan jentera kerajaan. Kedudukan ilmu sebagai satu perkara penting masih belum dapat menjelma dalam program pembangunan pengiktirafan terhadap golongan ilmuan dan belanjawan institusi masyarakat dan negara. Pengiktirafan kepada usaha yang disumbang oleh ilmuan seperti pendidik adalah masih rendah lagi. Menurut penulis, tujuan pengiktirafan adalah untuk menimbulkan rasa hormat kepada tugas pendidik dan menimbulkan semangat serta komitmen kepada golongan pendidik masa kini.

BAB 6 : Pelaksanaan di Malaysia

Bagi negara yang baru merdeka seperti Malaysia, golongan politik yang bertugas di peringkat tinggi dan pentadbir memainkan peranan yang penting dalam mencorakkan iklim budaya dan arah pembangunan bangsa. Bagi golongan politik, tindak-tanduk dan kenyataan mereka memberikan implikasi besar terhadap kehidupan rakyat dan negara bagi semasa serta masa hadapan. Tetapi golongan ini tidak mempunyai latihan khusus dalam bidang yang berpengaruh ini. Walaubagaimanapun, mereka mempunyai latihan profesional dalam bidang tertentu seperti bidang guaman, perguruan, kedoktoran dan lain-lain lagi yang sedikit sebanyak mempunyai pertindihan dengan ilmu politik dan pentadbiran awam. Di samping itu, “kursus dalam perkhidmatan” wajib diberikan kepada mereka tidak kira sama ada mereka dari parti kerajaan atau pembangkang yang memenuhi beberapa aspek asas.

Golongan kedua yang berperanan penting dalam pembangunan bangsa yang berteraskan ilmu ialah golongan guru dan ilmuan. Pandangan masyarakat masa kini terhadap golongan ini adalah lebih rendah

berbanding sebelum merdeka dan beberapa tahun selepasnya. Keadaan ini disebabkan oleh dua faktor iaitu nilai masyarakat yang telah berubah daripada nilai yang menghormati ilmuan kepada lebih menghormati kebendaan dan pensekularan peranan guru yang telah disempitkan kepada tugas perkembangan akal dan jasad murid.

Golongan ketiga yang perlu dikembalikan peranan ialah ibu dan bapa di mana golongan ini adalah yang paling heterogen (meliputi berbagai lapisan masyarakat). Perubahan sosial dunia moden memperlihatkan keluarga semakin kurang berperanan sebagai unit pendidikan dan ianya telah diambil alih oleh negara dengan sgala agensinya. Ia adalah kerana ibu bapa terlalu sibuk bekerja di luar rumah dan hubungan keluarga “extended” (datuk nenek atau kaum kerabat tinggal sebumbung atau berdekatan) sudah hampir pupus. Di tambah lagi agensi budaya dan hiburan komersial cuba menarik minat dan penumpuan kanak-kanak dan remaja menghayati nilai yang menjadi dasar perniagaan mereka. Peranan keluarga sebagai unit asas dalam pendidikan harus dikembalikan dan ibu bapa mestilah berperanan sebagai guru dan bukan hanya pemberi makan dan pakai sahaja.

Sistem pendidikan kita sama ada yang formal atau tidak terlalu cenderung ke arah penyediaan tenaga kerja yang lebih produktif. Masyarakat pula amat terdedah kepada nilai luar yang merosakkan melalui media cetak atau elektronik. Akibatnya, generasi akan datang akan membayar dengan harga yang mahal disebabkan kecuaian ini. Sekarang ini pun, golongan muda banyak yang terlibat dengan gejala negatif seperti penagihan dadah dan lain-lain berpunca daripada faktor keluarga yang tidak berfungsi sebagaimana sepatutnya. Oleh itu, peranan dan kerjasama golongan politik, guru dan ibu bapa amat penting bagi memastikan nilai yang terpancar daripadanya tersebar luas di kalangan masyarakat dan generasi akan datang.

Penulis di dalam buku ini telah memberi cadangan-cadangan untuk mencapai kebahagian sebenar di dunia dan akhirat, membina satu bangsa yang kuat dan mempunyai keupayaan pulih diri. Cadangan-cadangan itu adalah :

1) Sistem nilai dan falsafah pembangunan negara2) Penghormatan kepada ilmuan dan pendidik3) Merapatkan cendiakawan dengan masyarakat4) Pembacaan bermutu5) Peranan contoh pemimpin6) Ilmu dalam membuat keputusan7) Peranan media masa8) Persediaan bahasa ilmu dan kegiatan terjemahan

The Critical Tradition in Islam Azhar Ibrahim Alwee

 

A critical tradition begins with the recognition and appreciation for the space of critical thinking. The latter means the ability to discern and avert the inconsistencies, illogical and dehumanising ideas in our midst.

The prime purpose of critical thinking is to improve the existential conditions of man, which revolves around his freedom, liberty, accountability, spirituality, affiliation to his community, cultural identity and most importantly, the manner in which he unfolds his human potentiality and strengths. Critical thinking gives life to the growth and development of ideas, it ensures the correction against falsehood; clarity over ambivalence; the unmasking of ideological distortions and the creative interpretations of what already exist or accepted. Most importantly it raises the unthought-of as that we need to address and deliberate.  The main constituents of critical thinking are: (a) creative attitude in thinking about human predicaments and (b) the persistency to question established ideas which are deemed to limit the unfolding human potentialities and that affects his freedom (against human tyranny). The importance of critical thinking in religious thought as a human endeavour, should be considered as both his rights and duties. The meaning of any living and substantive religious system can only exist if there is a constant rethinking and reinterpretation of the religious universals within a particular cultural context in a certain historical period.

 

It is important at this juncture to emphasise that a critical thinking in religious thought is taken in a broader definition. This means religious thought is not exclusively confined to ritualistic obligations, or concerning the intuitive feelings of spirituality. Certainly these two aspects are the integral part of one’s religious sentiments. Religious thought, entails all aspects of human life, be it concerning man’s moral-ethics, socialisation, education, socio-economic affairs, cultural and political affiliations and the likes, apart from the human conviction of the efficacy and the ultimate union with the Divine mystery.  What is essential in critical reading/thinking is the will to identify and denounce the folly of cultural essentialism or a narcissistic proclamation of one’s superior tradition over the other. The neglect to develop critical thinking, or to defend its viability, means allowing the stagnancy and the corruption of ideas. Only through critical thinking that reforms can be made possible, rethinking made valid and dissenting space acknowledged. Indeed, the contemporary discourse on Islam is greatly in need of this.

 

Generally a critical mind is able to recognise the importance of preventing intellectual corruption apart from the ability to affirm the strength and potential of human altruism.  This means the ability to embark on a diagnostic analysis of the social conditions and the creative suggestions of solving human problems. Critical thinking is not necessarily anti-establishment in its posture. It is an intellectual and ethical honesty that makes it possible for man to have the courage to speak truth to power. A critical mind ideally knows no partisan, and no exception granted when it comes to examining a particular group’s ideas. Without critical thinking, dehumanisation will inevitably result. A religious life without a critical thinking is an imitative life and the surrender to potential/emergent despotism. The vitality of the religion therefore depends highly on the extent in which its adherents are committed towards critical thinking, unless one has already submitted to the idea of an ‘authentic’ fossilised religion.

 

The nurturing of a critical thinking is the outcome of various factors in society. Some factors are structural/institutions while others involve a real sense of human commitment and the will to think and criticise. No single factor is crucial than the rest, however. The prospects for developing a critical thinking will be enhanced if we also pay serious attention to its impediments. First is a developed sense of history. A critical sense of history is a basic foundation for any reformulation of our thought. Being critical to our history does not mean its rejection or abandonment of it altogether. Critical historical reading combines a judicious selection of history and being rigorous in correcting distortions, excesses and corruption of meaning as committed by historical actors/groups. Without a critical mind, the reading of history remains superficial, waiting to be exaggerated into historical romanticism and therefore ideological distortions. Affirming the cultivation of a sound historical thinking, Fazlur Rahman opines, “Muslim must decide what exactly is to be conserved, what is essential and relevant for the erection of an Islamic future, what is fundamentally Islamic and what is purely ‘historical’” ( Rahman, Islam, 1979 ) “A simple return to past is of course, a return to graves…But the real problem of Muslim society is to assimilate, adapt, modify and reject the forces generated within its own fabric  …. A simple return to the past is certainly no way to solve this problem --- unless we want to delude ourselves.” (Rahman, Islamic Methodology in

History, 1984). In short, appreciation of history must be done in  cautious and creative ways.

 

Second is the recognition and acceptance of the pluralistic traditions of Islam. The thoroughness in appreciating the pluralistic intellectual traditions is crucial for the nurturing of critical thinking in our religious thought.  Generally, the recognition and appreciation of the pluralistic traditions of Islam that can be generally identified as (a) the aqliah tradition (the rationalist philosophy); (b) the naqliah (the religious science by the orthodox savants); (c) the khasyfh tradition (the mystical/illuminative traditions) and (d) fiqh (the social ordering through legalism). Put in another way, there are Islams – that is, multiplicity of traditions that have throughout history, compete to define Islam. Apart from this the appreciation various theological schools (Ashaarism, Muktazilite, Ibadism, and others) and well as jurisprudential mazhabs(schools of thought) and sufistic groups (the ethical sufism versus its speculative variants), including that of the Sunni-Shii’te divide.  A sense of objective and critical reading of history is therefore essential.

 

Third is discerning appreciation of text and contexts. As we know, a Textual-based religious tradition like ours opens up an array of textual interpretations and criticisms. In the classical past, the development of textual interpretations reached a fairly high standard, based on the attainment of human knowledge at that time. A critical thinking will see a religious text always in the contexts in which a particular idea is being revealed, narrated or documented.  Ideas do not exist in vacuum, and this includes revelation for it is also contextual – that is it address to the needs and challenges that the Beloved Prophet was encountering. Furthermore, the commentaries on the Text (Qur’an) is also seen a product of the context, -- that is, how the interpreters mediated the Text with the context of his time and the socio-cultural background of the interpreters themselves.  To Muslims, the Scripture is Divine for it is God’s Word revealed to the Prophet. However, nowhere could it be asserted that interpretations of the Text are divine, protected by infallibility of the interpreters. All interpretations are human undertakings and must be subjected to human revaluations and reappraisals. A critical mind will be thorough in examining (a) how a text is being interpreted; (b) who interpreted it ; (c) when it was interpreted and (d) where it was interpreted. Other considerations are (e) what methodological approaches used in the interpretation; (f) how different one particular interpretation is from the rest (be it over time or space and others).

 

Throughout our religious history, a great many of learned man have studiously studied the Text, much to the neglect of the context, that is, the reality outside a text, which was taking place. In this instance, one needs to remember how the Beloved Prophet exemplifies his wisdom on this matter. In explaining what shall befall a Muslim to Ziad ibn Labeed, the Prophet said: “And that [misfortune] would take place when knowledge dissolves.” Zaid responded: “How could knowledge dissolve while we study the Qur’an and teach it to our children and our children will teach it to their children.” The Prophet quickly responded: “Woe unto you Ibn Labeed. I thought of you as one of the bright minds of Medina. Are not the Torah and the Bible in the hands of the Jews and the Christians, who are reading them but are not benefiting from their content?” The point that Prophet made, is not so much about the irrelevancy of the scriptures of the other religious communities, but the neglect of that community of believers to neglect the reality outside text (that is, the contexts). In short, any society that holds on to text and words without looking at what the words refer to, will very soon faced with the challenge of an obsolete intellectual-ethical thinking.

 

Fourth is the ethical concern in the deliberation of man’s existential conditions.  A critical mind is reformistic in nature because it desires for the search of truth and the betterment of what is already attained. An intellectual endeavour will only have substance if it is rooted to address the problems of man. In other words, such critical thinking does not operate as a form of academic vanity – claiming for a purely academic exploration --- but an intellectual commitment to address common human problems. Any intellectual project (which requires a critical mind) is devoid of human use if it is not rooted to answering the basic human moral-ethical inquiry.  Critical thinking can only come into the forefront if there is not only a genuine consciousness to tackle the vital problems of the society but also a moral courage to resist any

form of domination, prejudices, corruption, ambivalence and indifferences. All human ideas and versions of interpretations/formulations are fallible and must be subjected to scrutiny.

 

Fifth is the existence of democratic attitude in recognising and accepting diversity. The democratic attitude of recognising and accepting differences is a hallmark of a critical ethical-intellectual tradition. The diversity of human views and thinking, conditioned by historical necessity and cultural context is seen as a strength rather than a limitation. As it is, a Qur’anic injunction has made clear that diversity is created for mankind for him to compete for the good of the common humanity. Respect for differences does not prevent one from identifying common human experiences. A critical mind is foremost sharp to identify the absences (or the underdevelopment) of ideas within one’s own religious traditions, in comparison to what is available or articulated in other traditions. As such, the critical mind willing to learn from other religious traditions and incorporate them whenever necessary. Most importantly this democratic attitude entails the accountability to defend and/or deliberate on the positions that one has taken or dismissing it.  In our religious tradition, the wisdom of accountability of the authority is also expressed by Sayidina Ali as documented in Nahj al-Balagha, (Sermon 216) which he is purported to say: “Do not treat me with tolerance and compromise, and do not think that I cannot take bitter truth. I do not expect you to hold me in high regard, because one who is not capable of taking bitter truth, has a much harder time in practising truth. Hence do not refrain from speaking the truth and guiding me to justice, since I do not consider myself beyond reproach and error, unless God is my guide.” Herein lies the humility of an authority, its transparency in the name of truth, without fear or to be offended when they are being questioned or when their ideas are being scrutinised.

 

Furthermore, in the spirit of egalitarianism as pronounced by Sayidina Ali, a critical mind will oppose any form of distinctions based on status or creed. It rejects exclusivity, in the name of a common human dignity.  In classical Islam, the spirit of being sensitive and critical to prevailing or dominant ideas is well documented. Dissenting views exists side by side with the dominant ones, often supported by princely powers. Nevertheless in the age of intellectual diversity and eclecticism, Muslim scholars are observed not only receptive of ideas amongst each other, but exhibited liberality and openness to accept foreign ideas. Indeed, this is one of the traits of a critical thinking, where it is open to accommodate and appropriate exogenous ideas as long as it is deemed as beneficial to the local context. However, this openness should not be read as a wholesale imitation, but a selective borrowing that leads to synthesis of thought.

 

Constraints of space would not allow us to discuss the condition for the Development of Critical Thinking in greater detail here. Other points that need to be considered are:

 

(a) The affirmation of a humanistic commitment in appropriating the diagnostic social sciences. An exposure to diagnostic social sciences enables the critical mind to comprehend the problems at hand and to work out the possible solutions. For example, in the case where religious elites are exposed to diagnostic social sciences, this will augur well for the religious community since its leadership are able to address some of the pertinent challenges of the community, allowing for creative adjustment and accommodations. A disciplined and rational critical mind will not be easily swayed by clichés and myth-making. His intellectual conviction allows him to comprehend the issues objectively; bearing the responsibilities to solve it, emphatic to the situation and insightful in providing a way out. As Mannheimeloquently reminds “A diagnosis of the situation must precede any statement of new aims and proposed means.” (Freedom, Power, and Democratic Planning, 1951);

 

(b) The Curiosity of the Mind – We refer this as the thirst to uncover intellectual insights of issues of intellectual and ethical significance. Example the meaning of certain terms, say, ijtihad, ilm, adil, and

others. The will to understand means the resistance against accepting cliché which not only dulls the mind, but sways it towards intellectual indolence and tolerance for the corruption of meaning. However, this curiosity of the mind requires proper channelling and discipline. It cannot be associated with anarchic denouncement of all established ideas because a curiosity which is not based on intellectual soberness will in the end turn into nihilistic and/or fascistic tendencies. Herein lies the exposure to good readings and perspectives that are not made widely known amongst Muslim public. Such reading is a crucial step towards reflective thinking and being critical of one’s own situation. Unfortunately, in times of a rising tide of anti-intellectualism (as exemplified in the era of the revivalist dakwah movement), such readings remains at the periphery since pamphleteer Islam dominated the book market ;

 

(c) The acceptance of non-finality of ideas and the virtues of revisionism. This means a constant and consistent rethinking of one’s intellectual position. Rethinking is an adjustment and accommodation of the universal religious values, putting it in a particular context. This means each generation bears the responsibility to address its own problems and challenges, in contrast to the imitative attitude that sees the historical past as final, and that there is nothing more that man of contemporary times could decide or formulate.

 

Those who are strongly committed for critical thinking fear no harassment, intimidation and even being marginalised by the powers that be. Critical thinking also keeps in check superstition excesses as well as uncritical reading of (religious) history. Most significantly, the critical mind is never arrogant in proclaiming to have access to absolute truth. The only truth that he is convinced is that man needs to strive to correct his own positions and views in the direction of a higher truth.     To unfold human potential is without doubt a religious act. And such unfolding requires the blending of creative attitude and critical insights, coloured by an ethical-moral commitment to address common human predicament. Those who doubt and fear critical thinking has surrendered to passivity and ignorance. Even in the case where critical thinking induces doubt, it is still better that to fall in the abyss of ignorance. Indeed, Qur’anic admonitions of the need of man to reflect upon God’ signs (ayat) on earth is an enjoinment towards critical thinking. Only the latter gives substance and meaning to a religious life that is committed to a fulfillment of a life of saadah(or happiness).  The wisdom of our Beloved Prophet thus instructs, “The religion of man is his sense of understanding, and he who has no sense of understanding has no religion.”

 

To reiterate our point, critical thinking in religious thought is both our duty and right, the neglect of any one of the two is the abandonment of our responsibility to take up the role of God’s steward on earth. Those who abandoned it must be made accountable. The responsibility of Muslims today is to provide the necessarily social and intellectual environment for critical thinking to grow. We should not, in any case allow anymore the laments of the futility to speak up, as Abu’l Ala’ al-Ma’arri has pronounced a millennium ago, “My Lord is One, Unique. But He’s ordered us to reflect on His Creation. Yet when we do we’re dubbed as heretic. Save for natural rivalry, there would not be such books of disputation as the ‘Umad orMughni.”

About The Muslim Reader

This article was published in the latest issue of ‘The Muslim Reader’, Singapore. Ours is a tri-annual magazine that provides invaluable insights into the socio-economic and political issues surrounding Muslim communities in Singapore and the wider Asian region. The magazine targets policymakers and members of the intelligentsia group vying to understand Muslim societies in light of contemporary concerns like terrorism/extremism, environmentalism, and social issues like the casino and improving conditions for former prisoners. For more information, or if you want to subscribe to the magazine or write for it, contact Nazry Bahrawi (Editor} on nazry@...   Do also have a look at our website on www.darul-arqam.org.sg

 

Anthology of Rumi’s Poetry Description

Divan-i Mawlavī Rumi (Anthology of Rumi’s poetry) is a collection by the great Persian poet, Jalāl ad-

Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī, popularly known in Persian as Mawlānā and in English as Rumi (1207–73). The

collection includes poems on Sufism, supplications, and philosophy. The manuscript does not have a

title page. Every poem is individual and self-contained, and the name of the poet appears at the end of

most of the poems. Nothing is known of the copyist, although it is thought that this volume is 19th

century.

Author Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī, Maulana, 1207-1273

Date Created 1800 CE - 1899 CE

Language Persian

Title in Original Language دیوان مولوی رومی

Place Central and South Asia

Time 500 CE - 1499 CE

Topic Religion  > Philosophy & theory of religion Literature  > Other literatures > East Indo-European & Celtic literatures

Additional Subjects Persian poetry ;  Poetry ;  Prayer ;  Sufi poetry ;  Sufism

Type of Item Manuscripts

Physical Description 140 leaves, 276 pages ;16 ×12 centimeters

Institution Allama Iqbal Library, University of Kashmir

Hossein NasrFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about Seyyed Hossein Nasr. For other uses of Nasr, see Nasr (disambiguation).

Seyyed Hossein Nasr

Hossein Nasr at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology on October 1,

2007

Born 7 April 1933 (age 80)

Tehran

Era Modern era

Region Iranian philosophy

School Sufism, Shia Islam

Seyyed Hossein Nasr (in Persian:  نصر حسین is an Iranian University Professor (born April 7, 1933) (سید

of Islamic studies at George Washington University, and a prominent Islamic philosopher. He is the author of

many scholarly books and articles.[1]

Nasr is a Muslim Persian philosopher and renowned scholar of comparative religion, a lifelong student and

follower of Frithjof Schuon, and writes in the fields of Islamic esoterism, Sufism, philosophy of science,

and metaphysics.

Nasr was the first Muslim to deliver the prestigious Gifford Lectures, and in year 2000, a volume was devoted

to him in the Library of Living Philosophers.

Professor Nasr speaks and writes based on the doctrine and the viewpoints of the perennial philosophy on

subjects such as philosophy, religion, spirituality, music, art, architecture, science, literature, civilizational

dialogues, and the natural environment. He also wrote two books of poetry (namely Poems of the Way and The

Pilgrimage of Life and the Wisdom of Rumi), and has been even described as a 'polymath'.[2][3]

Nasr speaks Persian, English, French, German, Spanish and Arabic fluently.[4]

Contents

[hide]

1 Biography

o 1.1 Origins

o 1.2 Education

o 1.3 Back to Iran

o 1.4 Return to the US

2 Awards and honors

3 Works

4 See also

5 References

6 External links

o 6.1 Articles and biography

o 6.2 Media

[edit]Biography

[edit]Origins

Nasr was born in 1933 in south-central Tehran to Seyyed Valiallah, who was physician to the Persian royal

family, and one of the founders of modern education in Iran. His parents were originally from Kashan.

He is a descendant of Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri from his mother's side, and is the cousin of Iranian

philosopher Ramin Jahanbegloo, and the father of American academic Vali Nasr, a leading expert on political

Islam.

[edit]Education

Nasr went to Firuz Bahram High School in Tehran[5] before being sent to the United States for education at

thirteen. In the US, Nasr first attended Peddie School in Hightstown, New Jersey, graduating in 1950 as

the valedictorian of his class and also winner of the Wyclifte Award, which was the school's highest honor given

to the most outstanding all-round student.[6]

A scholarship offered by MIT in physics made him the first Iranian undergraduate to attend that university.

[4] There, he also began studying under Giorgio de Santillana and others in various other branches such

as metaphysics and philosophy. During his studies there he became acquainted with the works of the

prominent perennialist authority Frithjof Schuon. This school of thought has shaped Professor Nasr's life and

thinking ever since. Professor Nasr has been a disciple of Frithjof Schuon for over fifty years and his works are

based on the doctrine and the viewpoints of the perennial philosophy.

Upon his graduation from MIT, Nasr obtained a master's degree in geology and geophysics in 1956, and went

on to pursue his Ph.D. degree in the history of science and learning at Harvard University. He planned to write

his dissertation under the supervision of George Sarton, but Sarton died before he could begin his dissertation

work and so he wrote his dissertation under the direction of I. Bernard Cohen, Hamilton Gibb, and Harry

Wolfson.

At the age of twenty-five, Nasr graduated with his Ph.D. from Harvard completing his first book, Science and

Civilization in Islam. His doctoral dissertation entitled "Conceptions of Nature in Islamic Thought" was published

in 1964 by Harvard University Press as An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines.

[edit]Back to Iran

Seyyed Hossein Nasr began his teaching career in 1955 when he was still a young doctoral student at Harvard

University. He became a full professor by the age of 30.

After Harvard, Nasr returned to Iran as a professor at Tehran University, and then at Arya Mehr

University (Sharif University) where he was appointed president in 1972. Before that, he served as Dean of The

Faculty of Letters, and Academic Vice-Chancellor of Tehran Universityfrom 1968 to 1972.

Professor Nasr also learned Islamic philosophy from the prominent Muslim philosophers Allameh

Tabatabaei, Sayyid Abul-Hasan Qazwiniand Sayyid Muhammad Kazim Assar during that period leading up to

the revolution.

In the 1970s, Farah Pahlavi of Iran appointed professor Nasr as head of the Imperial Iranian Academy of

Philosophy, the first academic institution to be conducted in accordance with the intellectual principles of

the Traditionalist School. During that time, Nasr, Tabatabaei,William Chittick, Kenneth Morgan, Sachiko

Murata, Toshihiko Izutsu, and Henry Corbin would meet and hold various philosophical discourses. The famous

book Shi'a Islam was one product of this period.

[edit]Return to the US

Upon his return to the west, Nasr took up positions at University of Edinburgh, Temple University, and since

1984 has been at The George Washington University where he is now a full-time University Professor of

Islamic Studies.

Nasr helped with the planning and expansion of Islamic and Iranian studies academic programs in several

universities such as Princeton, the University of Utah, and the University of Southern California.

He was an advisor for the award-winning, PBS-broadcast documentary Muhammad: Legacy of a

Prophet (2002), produced by Unity Productions Foundation.

[edit]Awards and honors

In year 2000, a volume was devoted to him in the Library of Living Philosophers.

Templeton Religion and Science Award (1999)[7]

First Muslim and first non-Western scholar to deliver the prestigious Gifford Lectures

Honorary Doctor of Uppsala University, Sweden (1977)

He was nominated and won King Faisal Foundation award, but his prize was withdrawn upon the prize

knowledge of his being a Shia. He was notified of winning the prize in 1979 but later the prize was

withdrawn with no explanation. Extracts from (http://www.arabiaradio.org/ )

[edit]Works

Nasr is the author of over fifty books and five hundred articles (a number of which can be found in the

journal, Studies in Comparative Religion) on topics such as traditional metaphysics, Islamic science, religion

and the environment, Sufism, and Islamic philosophy. Listed below are most of Dr. Nasr's works in English (in

no particular order), including translations, edited volumes, and Festschriften in his honor:

As Author

The HarperCollins Study Quran

In Search of the Sacred, with Ramin Jahanbegloo

Islam in the Modern World

Islam and the Plight of Modern Man

Ideals and Realities of Islam

An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines

Knowledge and the Sacred online

Islamic Life and Thought

Islamic Art and Spirituality

Sufi Essays

Sadr al-Din Shirazi and His Transcendent Theosophy, 2nd edition

A Young Muslim's Guide to the Modern World

The Need for a Sacred Science

Traditional Islam in the Modern World

Man and Nature: The Spiritual Crisis in Modern Man

The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia, edited by Mehdi Aminrazavi

The Garden of Truth: The Vision and Promise of Sufism, Islam's Mystical Tradition

Three Muslim Sages

Science and Civilization in Islam

Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study

Religion and the Order of Nature

Muhammad: Man of God

Islamic Studies: Essays on Law and Society, the Sciences, and Philosophy and Sufism

The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity

Islamic Philosophy from its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy

Poems of the Way

The Pilgrimage of Life and the Wisdom of Rumi

Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization

Islam, Science, Muslims, and Technology: Seyyed Hossein Nasr in Conversation with Muzaffar Iqbal

The Essential Seyyed Hossein Nasr, edited by William Chittick

As Editor

The Essential Frithjof Schuon

Religion of the Heart: Essays Presented to Frithjof Schuon on his Eightieth Birthday, edited with William

Stoddart

History of Islamic Philosophy, edited with Oliver Leaman

The Essential Sophia, edited with Katherine O'Brien

An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia, edited with Mehdi Aminrazavi (5 vols.)

Islamic Spirituality (Vol. 1: Foundations; Vol. 2: Manifestations)

Shi'ism: Doctrines, Thought, and Spirituality, edited with Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr and Hamid Dabashi

Expectation of the Millenium: Shi'ism in History, edited with Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr and Hamid Dabashi

In Quest of the Sacred: The Modern World in the Light of Tradition, edited with Katherine O'Brien

An Annotated Bibliography of Islamic Science, edited with William Chittick and Peter Zirnis (3 vols.)

Isma'ili Contributions to Islamic Culture, edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr

Mecca the Blessed, Madina the Radiant, photographs by Ali Kazuyo Nomachi; essay by Seyyed Hossein

Nasr

As Translator

Shi'ite Islam by Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i

Works About Nasr

The Works of Seyyed Hossein Nasr Through His Fortieth Birthday, edited by William Chittick

Knowledge is Light: Essays in Honor of Seyyed Hossein Nasr, edited by Zailan Moris

Beacon of Knowledge - Essays in Honor of Seyyed Hossein Nasr, edited by Mohammad Faghfoory

The Philosophy of Seyyed Hossein Nasr, edited by L.E. Hahn, R. Auxier, and L.W. Stone

In Search of the Sacred by Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Ramin Jahanbegloo

[edit]See also

Sufi studies

Higher Education in Iran

Iranian traditional humanism

Other religious and traditional scholars

Rene Guenon

Titus Burckhardt

Martin Lings

Jean-Louis Michon

Tage Lindbom

Kurt Almqvist

Ivan Aguéli

James Cutsinger

Frithjof Schuon

Julius Evola

Ismail Faruqi

Allameh Tabatabaei

Louis Massignon

Henry Corbin

William Chittick

Syed Waheed Ashraf

[edit]References

1. ̂  John F Haught, Science and Religion, Georgetown University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-87840-865-7, p.xvii

2. ̂  Egbert Giles Leigh Jr (1998). "Review: Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Religion and the Order of

Nature", International Journal for Philosophy of Religion, Volume 44, Number 2, p. 124-126 [124]

3. ̂  Clivre Irving (1979), Crossroads of civilization: 3000 years of Persian history, Littlehampton Book

Services, p. 145

4. ^ a b Biography / Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr

5. ̂   . رامین. ) جهانبگلو نصر ( دکتر با مصاحبه قدسی امر جستجوی . در نی. 1385نشر

Interview with Ramin Jahanbegloo in: Dar Jostejooye Amr e Qodsi. ISBN 964-312-848-2 p.229

6. ̂  Sheikh, Nadia. "Islamic scholar calls GW home", The GW Hatchet, February 20, 2007. Accessed

February 5, 2011. "As a 12-year-old, Nasr came to the United States to study at the Peddie School, a New

Jersey boarding school where he graduated in 1950 as valedictorian."

7. ̂  Press Release Archive: University Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr Wins Award For Best Course In

America In Science And Religion

[edit]External links

[edit]Articles and biography

Understanding Seyyed Hossein Nasr

The Foundation for Traditional Studies

Sophia: The Journal of Traditional Studies

The Seyyed Hossein Nasr Foundation

Nasr's CV

Biography of Sayyed Hossein Nasr  by Ibrahim Kalin

George Washington University commemorating Seyyed Hossein Nasr

Islam and ecology - Nasr

[edit]Media

Encounters with Islam and Nature  Downloadable interview with Nasr regarding Islam and the environment.

June 15, 2007.

Nasr on PBS

In The Beginning Was Consciousness . 2003 Dudleian Lecture at Harvard University.

Development and Muslim Societies . Lecture at the World Bank.

Unlearning Intolerance . U.N. Conference on Islamophobia. Keynote address given by Seyyed Hossein

Nasr.

PilgrFile: The Heart of Islam . Lecture at the Washington National Cathedral.

This is America - Show 925 . Seyyed Hossein Nasr television interview on Google video.

Controversy over the Pope's Remarks . Radio interview on The Diane Rehm Show.

The impact of Hadith perception on disputes between ahl al-Sunnah and al-Shriah al-Imamiyyah al-Ithna 'Ashariyyah

Demirel, Serdar (2011) The impact of Hadith perception on disputes between ahl al-Sunnah and al-Shriah al-Imamiyyah al-Ithna 'Ashariyyah. Intellectual Discourse, 19 (2). pp. 245-262. ISSN 0128-4878

PDF (The impact of Hadith perception on disputes between ahl al-Sunnah and al-Shriah al-Imamiyyah al-Ithna 'Ashariyyah) - Published Version 

Official URL: http://www.iium.edu.my/intdiscourse/index.php/isla... Abstract One of the main reasons for the controversies among legal schools in Islam revolves around the

methodology of distinguishing authentic ahadith from those of rejected ones and applying the acceptable ahadith to different cases. This article studies ahadith perception in the light of this methodology to reveal the nature of disputes between ahl al-Sunnah and al-Shariah al- Imamiyyah al-Ithna 'Ashariyyah which is the biggest madhhab (school) among other madhahib apart from the ahl al-Sunnah. The disagreements among the madhhab of the ahl al-Sunnah are confined to al-furu' (applications related to secondary issues), whereas the disputes between the Sunni and the Shi'ah schools are based on both al-usul (principles) and al-furu'. The main ground for this difference is their perception of ahadith. If this fact is overlooked, the differences between the two schools cannot be grasped appropriately.

Kata Pengantar

by Faridu'd-Din Attar

Karya Attar, yang dalam bahasa aslinya berjudul Mantiqu’t-Thair dan berbentuk puisi yang berwatak mistis religius,

agaknya ditulis dalam pertengahan kedua abad kedua belas Masehi. Sejak waktu itu, setiap selang beberapa tahun

terbit edisi baru di negeri-negeri Timur Tengah dan Timur Dekat.

Terjemahan bahasa Indonesia atas karya itu dikerjakan dari teks terjemahan bahasa Inggris dari C. S. Nott, berjudul

The Conference of the Birds.

Semula Nott mengerjakan terjemahan itu terutama untuk kepentingan sendiri dan beberapa sahabatnya; tetapi

karena terjemahannya itu merupakan terjemahan paling utuh yang pernah terdapat dalam bahasa Inggris selama

itu , maka agaknya telah menarik kalangan publik yang lebih luas. Maka diterbitkanlah The Conference of the Birds

itu buat yang pertama kali pada tahun 1954 di London dan selanjutnya buku itu beberapa kali mengalami cetak

ulang.

Dalam penterjemahan ke bahasa Inggris, buat sebagian besar Nott mempergunakan terjemahan Garcin de Tassy

dalam bahasa Perancis yang berbentuk prosa dan yang dikerjakan dari teks bahasa Parsi yang diperbandingkannya

dengan teks dalam bahasa Arab, Hindu dan Turki (Paris, 1863). Di samping itu, Nott juga mempergunakan sumber

penjelasan dari teks dalam bahasa Parsi lewat sahabatnya, seorang Sufi, disamping juga dari terjemahan-

terjemahan dalam bahasa Inggris yang masih ada. Dari yang tersebut terakhir itu ia mempergunakan tiga buah

terjemahan, yang semuanya kelewat diperingkas. Yang pertama terjemahan Edward Fitzgerald, bersajak dan agak

sentimental; yang kedua terjemahan Ghulam Muhammad Abid Saikh, terlalu harfiah, berupa 1170 bait dari 4674

masnawi dalam bahasa aslinya (India, 1911); yang ketiga (dan yang terbaik dari semuanya itu) ialah terjemahan

Masani, berbentuk prosa, meskipun hanya kira-kira setengah dari aslinya yang diterjemahkan (Mangalore, India,

1924). Ketiga buah terjemahan itu sudah lama tidak dicetak lagi. Terjemahan Garcin de Tassy lengkap, dan, seperti

dikatakannya, “seharfiah yang dapat saya usahakan untuk bisa dimengerti.” Tassy juga mempertahankan

keharuman, semangat dan ajaran puisi Attar itu.

Dalam terjemahan Inggris itu Nott tidak menyertakan paroh terakhir dari Madah Doa — dalam teks Hindu bagian itu

tidak terdapat, dan dalam teks Turki diperingkas. Tentang Akhirul Kalam yang mengakhiri karya Attar itu, Nott hanya

menyertakan bagian pertamanya, karena selebihnya, karena terdiri dari cerita-cerita kecil (anekdot), akan merupakan

antiklimaks. Dalam teks-teks Hindu dan Turki Akhirul Kalam itu dihilangkan sama sekali, sedang dalam manuskrip-

manuskrip lain berbeda-beda adanya. Nott juga tidak menyertakan atau hanya menyarikan saja beberapa cerita kecil

(anekdot) dalam karya Attar itu, baik karena cerita-cerita kecil itu terasa bersifat mengulang-ulang atau karena artinya

“gelap”. Tetapi segala yang berhubungan dengan “Sidang” atau “Musyawarah” Burung-burung itu, sebagaimana

yang dituturkan dalam manuskrip aslinya, disajikan dalam terjemahan Nott itu.

Dalam penomoran bagian-bagian, Nott mengikuti terjemahan Tassy, yaitu menurut manuskrip aslinya.

Nott membubuhkan pula catatan-catatan tentang Attar dan Kaum Sufi. Untuk ini, di antara sumber-sumber lain, ia

mempergunakan sumber keterangan dari The Dictionary of Islam dan Encyclopaedia of Islam.

Kecuali itu, ia pun membubuhkan pula Glossarium dengan maksud agar pembaca, dengan lebih dulu membaca

keterangan-keterangan dalam Glossarium itu, akan dapat menangkap lambang-lambang, kias dan sebagainya yang

terdapat dalam karya Attar itu dengan lebih jelas.

Terjemahan dalam bahasa Indonesia di sini sepenuhnya mengikuti terjemahan Inggris Nott. Hanya Glossarium itu

tidak diberikan sebagai bagian yang tersendiri, melainkan diberikan di sana-sini sebagai catatan kaki, den itu pun

hanya diambil mana yang kiranya perlu dijelaskan bagi pembaca Indonesia.

Sementara itu, dalam menelaah karya Attar (dari terjemahan Nott), penterjemah Indonesia banyak menemukan

bagian-bagian yang dapat dicari rujukannya dalam Al-Quran. Dan dengan menemukan rujukan-rujukannya dalam Al-

Quran, bagian-bagian yang semula gelap baginya, dapat dicerahkan. Hal-hal demikian, dalam terjemahan Indonesia,

dibubuhkan pula sebagai catatan kaki. Dalam mencari rujukan-rujukan dalam Al-Quran itu penterjemah Indonesia

mempergunakan The Meaning of the Glorious Koran dari Mohammed Marmaduke Pickthall, di samping The Holy

Qur’an dari Maulawi Sher ‘Ali.

Demikianlah catatan-catatan kaki itu, seperti juga Glossarium dalam terjemahan Nott, dimaksudkan untuk seberapa

mungkin mencerahkan bagian-bagian yang gelap dalam karya Attar itu.

Hartojo Andangdjaja

An Analysis of the Islamization of knowledge project International Islamic University Malaysia as a case study

Demirel, Serdar (2011) An Analysis of the Islamization of knowledge project International Islamic University Malaysia as a case study. In: International Symposium on Religious and Philoshopical Texts : Rereading, Understanding and Comprehending Them in the 21st Century, 21-22 October 2011, Istanbul, Turkey.

Islamization of knowledge is a project to reorient systematically and restructure the entire field of human knowledge in accordance with a new set of criteria and categories, derived from, and based on the Islamic worldview. This paper aims to provide further suggestions to contribute to the the project.

Item Type: Conference or Workshop Item (Paper)

Role of the Sabbatian movement in the westernization process of Turkey

Demirel, Serdar (2011) Role of the Sabbatian movement in the westernization process of Turkey. Al-Shajarah , 16 (2). pp. 273-295. ISSN 1394-6870

Al-Shajarah: Journal of the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC)

Al-Shajarah is a refereed international journal that publishes original scholarly articles in the area of Islamic thought, civilization, and science.

Islam and its Challenges in the Modern World

By: Dr. I. Bruce Watson

[Article first appeared in Insight, vol. 12, issue 1 May 1997, no. 33]

Islam today is facing challenges from within and from the wider world. The critical problems are the fundamental tensions within Islam. The attitudes and criticisms common in the outside world can be ignored as misguided or hostile, but the tensions within Islam throughout the world must be confronted. In a simple geographical sense, Islam has to come to grips with its changing centres. The religious centres define the heartland: Saudi Arabia maintains its guardianship of the shrines at Mecca and Medina, and the conduct of the hajj, against the claims of Shii Iran, the Shii tradition, and other sects disillusioned with Saudi Arabia's credentials within the ummah. Saudi Arabia enjoys much of its strength to repudiate other claims because it remains the economic centre of the ummah. It takes a combination of the incomes of Kuwait, Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, Iran and Yemen even to come close to Saudi Arabia's oil wealth. However, this wealth is based on finite resources, and in the years to come the economic centre will shift to those parts of the Muslim world with sustainable resources and reproductive assets. West Asian financial investments recognise this long-term problem, but they remain overwhelmingly located in the Western and non-Muslim economies. The intellectual centre of Islam is Al-Azhar in Cairo. The ideas and attitudes taught here are spread throughout the ummah, particularly through the population centres of Islam: Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, India and Malaysia. The relative power of the different centres is shifting. Over time the claims on and against the heartland from and by the peripheral Muslim communities will exacerbate the tensions already present. The conservative centre will be under greater pressure from the more vigorous, prolific and liberal Muslim societies on the periphery.

Despite the ideals promoting an equitable and productive material life, the overwhelming majority of Muslims experience living standards which are hardly enviable by any standard. This frequently appears to be a greater paradox in the wealthy oil-producing Muslim countries. Where justice and brotherhood are recommended by the ideals, in such countries we see the conspicuous consumption of the very rich, the purchase of very expensive military technology and armaments, and we see the exploitation of 'guest workers': fellow Muslims from Palestine, Pakistan, the Philippines, among others. The plight of these groups was obvious during and after the Gulf War in 1990-1991. Unemployment of masses of people; rapid urbanisation; unbalanced development - all need to be addressed quickly by the ummah, if the ummah is to become the social force of international Islam. The wide imbalances in the distribution of incomes and wealth between Muslim societies are obvious, but since effective redistribution is not happening within

most Muslim societies it is unlikely to occur to any major degree between different Muslim societies.

Development investment in Muslim countries is slow simply because investors are put off by the more extremist agitations and the perceptions in the West about Islamic legal proscriptions of such financial mechanisms as interest. Muslim investors appear quite happy to send their money into the non-Muslim economies, where greater profits are available and the political and social circumstances are much more settled. In other cases, where people are trying to help their communities they often encounter problems from unlikely sources. The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh has been lending small sums of money, mostly to rural women so that they can engage in small enterprises, but also to collective groups. The sums are small and the interest is fixed, with the principal being repaid first and the interest calculated on the diminishing principal. Twenty per cent interest per year still seems high, but it is tiny when compared with the twenty per cent per month or ten per cent per day demanded by the traditional money-lenders, or the compound interest at Bangladesh's commercial banks. The Grameen Bank lends money to people who would not be eligible in the normal commercial sense. People are helped to determine the best way to satisfy their needs and are helped by the bank's officers in the villages. The Grameen Bank goes out to its clients and it permits the good sense and honesty of its clients to prevail: it has a recovery rate of some ninety eight per cent. The bank faces conflict from the traditional money-lenders, the commercial banks which claim that the scheme is too small to create the economic growth necessary in Bangladesh, and from the Muslims who see the scheme emancipating women in the villages. The bank fulfils the ideals of Islamic thinking, but is attacked by established interest groups defending their interpretation of Islamic practice.

Economic frustration and unequal opportunities are fertile breeding grounds for dissent and protest. Equally important is the failure of most Muslim governments to confront the demands of general education. "Modernity, the circumstance of being 'modern', is, in a central sense, inescapable. It is the necessary context for every tolerably well-informed life-journey undertaken in the contemporary world."[1] Being modern does not mean being Western but it does mean that some degree of secular knowledge will have to be given far greater prominence in Muslim epistemologies. Dr Mahathir bin Mohamed has made the point that there can be no separation between secular and religious knowledge because all knowledge, all life, is encompassed by Islam. It is interesting that so prominent and successful a Muslim leader as Dr Mahathir had to tread a fine line: advocating on the one hand an independent and

progressive Muslim attitude to acquiring the widest possible knowledge, while placating the traditional sensibilities by insisting on the moral rectitude of learning as the only way to protect the faith. There are Muslim intellectuals working to understand what it means to be a Muslim in the modern world, but they do not receive the prominence given to the extremists in Western reports. Western media are more interested in the violent and emotional than they are in quiet, but deeply significant, debates about the eternal values that remain, despite the anarchic individualism of Western communities, the essence of being human. Not only are Muslim intellectuals under pressure from the conservative elements of their own societies, they are not receiving the recognition and support they deserve from the West. Yet it is at this level of ideas and reassessments that Muslim leaders will have to convert the de facto modernisation of their societies into general acceptance. The renaissance of ijtihad will be needed to reinterpret the principles of Islam, to retain the critical moral core while jettisoning the dubious accretions of traditional and worldly Muslim authorities.

The whole panoply of modern knowledge and technology is acceptable, but its Western manifestations are to be avoided if all they achieve is the perpetuation of the Muslim world's dependence on Western developments. A fundamental problem here is that which bedevils Western societies: can the use of and reliance upon new technologies alter perceptions, change desires, force social changes? Do the people who create and maintain the new technologies become the new high-priests. All knowledge and technology entail more than the physical and objective characteristics; they also contain the moral questions about how the new technologies should be used, what controls should be placed on them and who should be responsible for the implementation of the regulations. These are moral questions the simply secular authorities cannot answer, if only because utilitarian arguments lead us only to numerical quantities not qualitative priorities.

There is a very real danger involved if Muslims are not critical enough of Western world perceptions and if they take things for granted. There needs to be an increase in criticism in the light of Islam criteria. Without a heightened critical faculty Muslims are in danger of considering

"Islam as a partial view of things to be complemented by some modern  deology rather than as a complete system and perspective in itself, whose very totality excludes the possibility of its becoming a mere adjective to modify some other noun which is taken almost unconsciously as central in place of Islam...He who understands the structure of Islam in its totality knows that it

can never allow itself to become reduced to a mere modifier or contingency vis-a-vis a system of thought which remains independent of it or even hostile to it." [2]

The main danger arises if Muslims accept the more extreme view of the difference of Islam and the insistence on establishing 'the third way'. If everything Western is to be discarded, then the creative and productive dynamism inherent in Islamic traditions will be suppressed yet again. Is Islamic resurgence giving enough attention to the challenges of poverty and hunger, disease and illiteracy? Have Islamic resurgents gone past, or are they still stuck on, their rhetoric regarding education and knowledge, science and technology, politics and administration, economics and management in their preferred Islamic order? To what extent have Islamists become pre-occupied with forms and symbols, rituals and practices? Do they regard laws and regulations in a static rather than a dynamic manner ? Is there a tension between the extremists' positions and the principles of the Quran and sunnah about the roles of women in society and the place of minorities in Muslim societies? Is the main problem a betrayal of the spirit of the Quran in the extremists' exclusiveness in a variety of matters ranging from charity to politics? Are the activities of extremists encouraging sectarianism in the umma through their insistence on their interpretations being the only correct ones? Have extremist views contributed to the factionalism and fragmentation of the ummah. [3]

The moral question is at the heart of the matter. Fazlur Rahman stated the position precisely. Islam needs: "some first-class minds who can interpret the old in terms of the new as regards substance and turn the new into the service of the old as regards ideals". [4] Can the modernists who want modernisation without Westernisation expect to realise their hopes? There is evidence enough in Western society that modernisation, with all its technological developments, has radically changed values by putting traditional attitudes under pressure and then instituting a new ethic.

Untrammelled economic growth and development has resulted in consumerism, institutionalised selfishness, ill-gotten wealth, rising expectations, laxity in sexual behaviours, the dissolution of the family, essentially independent electronic media, the influx of foreigners and foreign values, the materialism of modern science and technology and greater amounts of secularism. [5]

In an Increasing Secular World, can Islam unite a Modern Society?

Western secular politics is based on the notion that sovereignty belongs to individuals who select their governors through political consensus arrived at during free and regular elections. Islam believes, in theory at least, that sovereignty belongs only to God and that a legitimate temporal government is so only for as long as it implements God's will and the Sacred Laws. Whatever the theory asserts, the reality is that governments have to find the equilibrium that produces social prosperity and harmony under the guiding impulses of a strong moral code. The problem is made more complex when the moral code is itself subject to sectarian divisions: between orthodox and heterodox claims to revelation and legitimacy. We have to return to the questions: whose Islam, what Islam, where and when? It is clear that in states which have declared Islam as the ideology of political order, Saudi Arabia, the Sudan, Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan, there has been little reduction in domestic conflict or the reduction of conflict with their neighbours, Muslim or otherwise. In these states there is little real evidence of effective redistribution of wealth or substantial economic and social benefits flowing down to the general population. The benefits promised by Islam are not being realised.

In the Muslim communities with an emphasis on the secular ideology of politics, such as Turkey and Egypt, the general welfare is only slightly better, although there appears to be a greater freedom of belief and action. The majority of Muslims live under governments with a qualified acceptance of a secular ideology. These states have taken Western models for modern political and social institutions and have imbued them with a strong Islamic character. [6] The problem remains: how does Islam deal with public morality and public order? What institutional frameworks can define, separate, and regulate private vice and public morality? What arguments can be raised in favour of, and against, the devout who insist that there exists already a definitive, well-known and comprehensive path revealed by God? In our reflections on the issues, we must remember to distinguish between the genuinely devout people and those utilising religious symbols to promote their own positions.

Political Islam is under challenge from its own rhetoric and message to be self-critical: to live up to its own standards; to live up to the principles it espouses and demands of others; to avoid and denounce excesses committed by governments and movements that identify themselves as Islamic; to take or share responsibility for the failures of Muslim societies, and not simply to blame the West for all the problems. [7] One of the central questions will be the treatment of minorities under Islamic governments, and the behaviour of Muslim minorities in other countries. At present the political

ideology of Islam cannot entertain an equal and pluralist society of Muslims and non-Muslims. [8] This is not just a matter of tolerance: it entails the recognition in ideal and reality of the unqualified equality and citizenship rights of people of all faiths irrespective of whether they are male or female. The role and influence of political dissent, trade unions, and the media will have to be re-examined along with the social and legal issues. A new equilibrium will have to be reached between the legitimate demands of the individual and the legitimate demands of the society in which he or she lives.

In the same way, Muslim minorities will need to reach a new accommodation with the ruling groups in their countries. Indian Muslims (about one hundred millions, or twelve per cent of the population), and Muslims in the Philippines (about six millions, or eight per cent of the population), will have to control the extremist elements within their communities. The examples of Pakistan and Bangladesh are clear demonstrations that separatism is not a viable option. Religious homogeneity is no more capable of establishing a harmonious society than is the ethnic homogeneity being attempted by the Bosnian Serbs. The spread of Islamic terrorism into the emerging Muslim states in Central Asia, in Africa, as well as the sporadic outbreaks in Western countries, will need to be suppressed. At the same time the legitimate demands of Muslim minorities must be recognised by the governments of their countries. Some fifty million Chinese Muslims cannot be ignored even within a population as large as China's.

In international terms, Islamic states are increasingly significant economically, financially and politically. Across the ummah local interests and national politics appear to be more important than simple identification of interests based on Islamic traditions. The Islamic states antipathetic to the West (Libya, Iran, Iraq, Yemen) are balanced by those which are firmly supportive (Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Brunei). This is not to say that the states with positive relations with the West are not critical of the West. Many of the criticisms of leaders such as Dr Mahathir, Lee Kuan Yew, and Goh Chok Tong (Prime Minister of Singapore), among others, are incisive and go to the heart of many of the problems in the West. 

Despite the overwhelming global influence of Western ideas, the West, of course, is not a monolithic presence. The twentieth century has proved beyond any doubt that the ideals espoused in the West do not prevent hypocritical justifications for untenable attitudes towards the rest of the world, nor do they prevent total war between European nations. 

The West has to understand Islam; not because Islam is the next great threat, but because Islam contains so many ideas and moral values that the West, for all its rampant secularism, still shares. The West must also recognise the diversity of Muslim experiences across the world. Muslim societies do not only suffer from 'Islamic' problems; they suffer the same problems long familiar in the West: political, economic, ecological, social and moral development. As such, these are shared human experiences and the beneficial resolutions: in science, technology, medicine, education should also be shared equitably. If Western nations believe in the value of their defining concepts: individualism, liberalism, constitutionalism, human rights, equality, liberty, the rule of law, democracy, free markets, and the separation of church and state [9] then they will have to be shared through sympathetic dialogue, not forced upon others. The idea of contending world views which define the good states from the bad states will have to be scrapped. It has not worked in the West's relationships with China, where the hypocrisy of the West's stance on human rights has been highlighted by the West's attitudes towards Algeria and Bosnia. Western support, especially that by the United States, for the authoritarian regimes in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Pakistan while denigrating other exclusive Islamic authorities in Iran, Syria, Iraq, and the Sudan, does not generate confidence among Muslim societies around the world. Western nations supported the Mujahideen in Afghanistan, yet helped to oppress Palestinians through support for Israel. The continued existence of Israel is not negotiable, but the ways in which Western nations have treated the concerns and sensibilities of the Palestinians have not been sympathetic enough. Neither have the more aggressive Muslim attitudes helped the situation. 

Western attempts to propagate ideas about Western civilisation as 'universal civilisation' have resulted in significant reactions against a new imperialism: 'cultural imperialism', 'human rights imperialism', and so on. The religious revivals and reaffirmations of local, traditional values, among the younger generations in Islamic and Hindu cultures especially, are often reactions against the insidiousness of Western cultural influences. 

Just as Western societies must reassess their ideas about the superiority of their ideals, so too must Muslim societies understand that their traditions need reinterpretation. It is pointless for the ulama to keep on insisting that Islam is not simply a different tradition: it is a superior tradition. In this light Western ideas are not only inferior, they are inapplicable and irrelevant to Islam and Muslim society. [10] At the level of ideals the arguments depend eventually on the leap of faith: whether divine authority rests in the Torah, the Bible or the

Quran. People who accept the superior divinity of only one of these not only have the problem of repudiating other claims, they must also address the people who do not accept the authority of any divine revelation. It is useless to quote the authority of the Quran to people who do not accept it. The arguments have to be conducted on other levels: rational and empirical levels. Here the ideals can be seen to have been debased over the centuries by the practical realities of living. This does not mean that the ideals are worthless, but it does mean that demands for a return to the simplicity of Islamic principles must be tempered by courageous and clear-sighted analysis of the differences between the Quranic ideals and their historical development. 

Islam and the West have much to offer each other. Nothing productive will develop while the dominant attitudes are those of suspicion, bigotry, and fear. Islam once played an essential role in preserving knowledge during the ignorance and barbarism of Europe's 'dark ages'. The rediscovery and refinement of this knowledge helped to set Europe on the road to its modern dominance of science and technology. The grip of worldly and corrupted religious leaders was broken in Europe. At the same time the suppression of ijtihad and rational dissent within Islamic societies by similar sorts of rulers caused the decline of the Islamic world, permitting the Europeans to indulge in imperialism and colonialism from the eighteenth century to the mid-twentieth century. A sympathetic exchange of knowledge, flowing this time from Western societies to Islamic societies, may well revivify Islam and permit Islamic societies to enjoy a more creative and significant role in the modern world. 

Simple material transfers are not enough. There has to be a reworking of the central ideas in both societies. It may seem an obvious point, but in the bigotry of the religious confrontation it is necessary to emphasise that non-Muslims must recognise as a fact God's revelation of truth to Muhammad. If we can accept our own monotheistic traditions and the role of prophets we must recognise the genuine prophetic claims of others. We can critically examine the traditions but we must do so from recognition and knowledge not from denigration and outright rejection. Islam offers much to Western societies presently dominated by the anarchic demands of rampant 'isms': individualism, materialism, consumerism and secularism.

Islam has preserved the central position of moral values as the defining character of human society. Francis Lamand, President of the French Association 'Islam and the West', considers that: "Islam can contribute to the rebirth, in the West, of three essential values: the sense of community, in a

part of the world that has become too individualistic; the sense of the sacred; and the legal sense. This can be the contribution of Islam to Western societies". [11] In return the West has to control its arrogance and reassess its stance towards the rest of the world. The notion of there even being a 'rest of the world', from whatever perception, is something we all have to change.

Notes

1. Shabbir Akhtar, A Faith for All Seasons: Islam and Western Modernity (London, Bellew, 1990), p. 104.

2. Sayyed Hossein Nasr, Islam and the Plight of Modern Man (London, Longman, 1975), pp. 131-132. 

3. For an interesting treatment of this issue see Chandra Muzaffar, 'Dominant Western Perceptions of Islam and the Muslim', The Thatched Patio, Vol. 6, no.3 (1993), pp. 25-26. See also Shayk Fadhlalla Haeri, The Elements of Islam (Shaftesbury, Element Books, 1993), esp. pp. 129-35, 143.

4. Fazlur Rahman, Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual tradition, (Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 139.

5. P. J. Vatikiotis, Islam and the State [1987], (rep. London, Routledge, 1991), p. 67.

6. J. L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? (New York, Oxford, 1992), p. 78.

7. Ibid., pp. 206, 209. 

8. Vatikiotis, Islam and the State, p. 97. 

9. S. P. Huntington, 'The Clash of Civilisations?', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, no. 3 (1993), p. 40.

10. Vatikiotis, Islam and the State, p. 16. 

11. Cited in M. A. Yamani, 'Islam is not an enemy of the West', rep. Australian Muslim News, Vol 1, no. 5 (1994), p. 9. 

Copyright: [© IFEW 1997] This material is published in Insight and is the

property of the Islamic Foundation for Education and Welfare (IFEW) [http://www.IFEW.com/].

-----------------------------[Dr I. Bruce Watson is a Lecturer in South Asian and Islamic History at the University of New England, Armidale, Australia; Coordinator of the Graduate Program in Islamic Studies at UNE; Assistant Editor of "South Asia"; Member of the International Editorial Committee of "Periodica Islamica".]