LOCAL & TRANSBOUNDARY HAZE STUDY HAZE: Help Action toward Zero Emissions 6/1/2016 ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MALAYSIA ASM Task Force on Haze
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ASM LOCAL & TRANSBOUNDARY HAZE STUDY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ......................................................................................................................................... 4
PREFACE .............................................................................................................................................. 6
ADVISORY AND WORKING GROUPS ........................................................................................... 8
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................... 13
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................. 14
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................................. 15
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................. 16
PURPOSE OF THE REPORT ......................................................................................................... 20
BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................................. 21
METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................... 22
ACTION LINES ................................................................................................................................... 24
Air Quality & Haze Episodes ........................................................................................................ 24
Haze History in Malaysia ........................................................................................................... 24
Air Quality Measurement ........................................................................................................... 26
Sources of Haze ......................................................................................................................... 27
Meteorological Conditions ......................................................................................................... 30
Impacts of Haze .......................................................................................................................... 31
Haze Related Policies ............................................................................................................... 33
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 36
Way Forward ............................................................................................................................... 38
Peat Area & Water Management ................................................................................................. 42
Tropical Peat ............................................................................................................................... 42
Importance of Tropical Peatlands ............................................................................................ 45
Peatland Use and Conversion.................................................................................................. 48
Policy and Administrative Frameworks ................................................................................... 49
Issues and Challenges .............................................................................................................. 51
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 53
Way Forward ............................................................................................................................... 55
Waste to Resources: Energy or Materials .................................................................................. 60
Biomass Residues ..................................................................................................................... 61
Conversion Pathways ................................................................................................................ 63
Economic Potential .................................................................................................................... 68
Challenges of Biomass Conversion in Malaysia ................................................................... 72
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Science and Policy Interface .................................................................................................... 73
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 74
Way Forward ............................................................................................................................... 74
THE WAY FORWARD ....................................................................................................................... 77
ANNEXES ........................................................................................................................................... 80
A. Air Quality & Haze Episodes ................................................................................................ 81
B. Peat Area & Water Management ....................................................................................... 171
C. Waste to Resources: Energy or Materials ........................................................................ 231
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................... 283
INDEX BY AUTHOR ........................................................................................................................ 316
INDEX BY SUBJECT ....................................................................................................................... 319
ACKNOWLEDGMENT .................................................................................................................... 322
FOREWORD [DRAFT]
[In circulation for approval]
In 2015, we experienced an unprecedented occurrence of haze where it lasted for
more than two months from August to October. 7,646 schools were closed impacting
more than 4 million school children. 517 flights were either cancelled or rescheduled
and thousands of travellers were stranded. To make thing worse, the source of haze
was not within our boundary and we do not have direct control of the root cause of
this daunting phenomenon.
When the Malaysian Prime Minister was officiating the third meeting of the
Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Chief Science Advisors and Equivalents
held in KL on 15-16 October 2015, he had challenged the scientific community to
come up with a scientific solution to the haze problem. What was once a local
problem has now turned into a regional and global complication of huge proportion.
There is a strong interest to find a solution to the 20-year haze problem afflicting our
region. If 20-25 years is equivalent to a generation, then this could even be regarded
as an inter-generational problem.
As a thought leader of the nation for matters related to science, engineering,
technology and innovation, ASM is compelled to analyse the situation and identify
where science, engineering and technology (SET) can contribute to the solution and
accordingly make recommendations to the Government.
However, as is being agreed all round, this is not a simple SET issue but one
with numerous social, economic, political and diplomatic consequences. Maslow's
hierarchy of needs is also at play. If we dig up the untold story behind the haze
phenomenon, we will find evidence which suggests that it is a case of the continuing
struggle between development and the environment. That in itself poses a challenge
that we have to overcome.
I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere appreciation to the
Haze Task Force Committee and the Working Groups, led by Professor Dato’ Ir Dr
Abu Bakar Jaafar, for their concerted works and efforts in carrying out the
transboundary haze study and producing the draft report. We would also like to
sincerely thank all government ministries, agencies, institutions of higher learning,
research institutes as well as industry and corporate entities who have participated in
providing inputs and data for not only the ASM Transboundary Haze Study, but also
our other studies relating to Water and Sustainable Mining (Bauxite, Erosion and
Sedimentation), to name a few.
This is just the beginning. The findings and recommendations of this study
open up more rooms for improvement in our needs to act either proactively or
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reactively in facing the transboundary haze. We invite you to provide us with your
expert inputs in reviewing and enhancing the Transboundary Haze Study report. Our
main aim is for the report to serve as a basis to establish the position of ASM and
ultimately the Government of Malaysia. It is our hope that the recommendations
made under the study will be finally brought to the ASEAN Secretariat (ASEC) level
through the appropriate available channels.
Science is important to informed decisions on all levels of government.
However, in order to catalyse and find lasting solutions to the haze problem and to
sustain such efforts, strong political will and good governance are crucial. We also
need to engage in science diplomacy. In order to solve this three decades long
Southeast Asian problem, we need to coordinate our efforts and continue our
engagement through the ASEAN community. In fact, science diplomacy would help
our global fight against the impact of climate change in the long term.
Last but not least, I would like to thank one and all who have contributed
either directly or indirectly to this ASM Transboundary Haze Study.
Tan Sri Dr Ahmad Tajuddin Ali FASc
President
Academy of Sciences Malaysia
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PREFACE
The ever changing climate that is generally attributed either to the natural cycle,
namely, El Nino, the build-up of green-house gases in the atmosphere, or to both,
has been no longer the controlling factor in explaining the increase in the frequency
of haze episodes in the south-western part of the South East Asia. Since 1982, the
frequency of the episodes has been reduced from once in nine years to every other
year, if not every year. There must have been other factors that compound the
worsening environmental conditions: (i) the loss in the capacity of the natural forest
eco-system to recover itself in after one dry season to another, and during wet
seasons, and (ii) not only the traditional slash-and-burn, but also the increase in and
the extent of open burning of both forested and peat areas during the dry periods,
particularly during the inter-monsoon period over the months of August to October.
Established since 17 November 2015, the Academy of Sciences Malaysia Task
Force on Haze (ASM H-TF) has been mandated to carry out intensive studies and
review of the said episodes and to develop a position for the Academy, and
hopefully, for the relevant Ministries, and thus, the Government of Malaysia. This
task force is organised in three working groups: (i) assessment on air quality, haze
episodes, and impacts on health, agriculture, transportation, tourism and other
sectors of the economy, (ii) peat area management, and (iii) conversion of biomass-
waste to bioenergy or materials.
The Task Force is to focus its works specifically on the need (i) to manage peat
areas by improving water management not only during dry seasons but also by
channelling flood waters into peat areas, and any excess thereof, throughout the
year; and (ii) to look into the techno-economic feasibility of biomass-waste
conversion to either electricity, hydrogen fuel, or bio-energy such as ethanol. The
proposed solution rests not so much on enforcement within the existing policy and
legal framework but the value it would create as such the biomass material after
being cleared, not to be wasted nor to be burned off, but to be sent either to a nearby
waste-to-energy conversion mobile-units, or to centralised Waste-to-Energy Facilities
for a fee, to be paid by the owners of such facilities to settlers, farmers, or planters.
To disseminate the outcome these studies through the Reports of the Task Force
and its various Working Groups, the ASM has established a dedicated website:
http://haze.akademisains.gov.my/. It is also the purpose of this website to seek
feedbacks or comments from all stakeholders and the public in general.
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One and all are most welcome to share your thought and suggestions by writing in or
in participating in a range of activities organised by ASM. Your invaluable
contributions would certainly do help action toward zero emissions for our region to
be free from haze.
Prof Dato’ Ir Dr A Bakar Jaafar, PEng,FIEM, FASc
Chairman
ASM Haze Task Force
E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail2: [email protected]
Mobile/SMS/Whatsapp: +60123207201
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ADVISORY AND WORKING GROUPS
The Academy of Sciences Malaysia (ASM) wishes to acknowledge the contribution
of the following towards the ASM Report entitled “HAZE: Help Action toward Zero
Emissions”:
STEERING COMMITTEE
ADVISOR
Academician Tan Sri Omar Abdul Rahman FASc
Founding President and Senior Fellow
Academy of Sciences Malaysia
CHAIRMAN
Professor Dato’ Ir Dr A Bakar Jaafar FASc
Fellow
Academy of Sciences Malaysia
ASM FELLOWS
Academician Datuk Fateh Chand FASc
Academician Professor Dato’ Ir Dr Chuah Hean Teik FASc
Academician Professor Emeritus Dato' Sri Dr. Zakri Abdul Hamid FASc
Academician Tan Sri Dr Salleh Mohd Nor FASc
Professor Dato’ Dr Ahmad Ibrahim FASc
Professor Dato’ Dr Mohd Jamil Maah FASc
Professor Dr Fredolin Tangang FASc
Professor Dr Heong Kong Luen FASc
Professor Dr Lee Soo Ying FASc
Professor Dr Low Pak Sum FASc
Professor Dr Mohd Shafee'a Leman FASc
Professor Dr Muhammad Awang FASc
Professor Dr Raymond Ooi Chong Heng FASc
Professor Dr Tan Soon Guan FASc
Professor Dr Wickneswari Ratnam FASc
Professor Dr Zaharin Yusoff FASc
Datuk Dr Abdul Rahim bin Nik FASc
Datuk Dr Ahmad Tasir Lope Pihie FASc
Dr Francis S.P. Ng FASc
Dr Goh Swee Hock FASc
Dr Mazlan Madon FASc
Dr Hj Rahimatsah Amat FASc
Dr Salmah Zakaria FASc
Dr Selliah Paramananthan FASc
Dr Tan Swee Lian FASc
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Ir Dr Ting Wen Hui FASc
Ir P Lal Chand Gulabrai FASc
OTHER MEMBERS
Prof Dr Mohd Talib Latif
Unversiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Dr Ahmad Hazri Abd Rashid
SIRIM Industrial Biotechnology Research Centre
Dr Haslenda Hashim
Process Systems Engineering Centre (PROSPECT)
Dr Lulie Melling
Tropical Peat Research Laboratory
Prof Ir Dr Nasehir Khan EM Yahya
NAHRIM Research Centre for River Management
Hazami Habib
Acting Chief Executive Officer, ASM
CHIEF EDITOR
Dr Helena Muhamad Varkkey
University Malaya
WORKING GROUPS
AIR QUALITY AND HAZE EPISODES
Prof Dr Fredolin Tangang
Co-Chair & Editor
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Prof Dr Mohd Talib Latif
Co-Chair & Writer
Unversiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Puan Murnira Othman
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Puan Mashitah Darus
Department of Environment
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Zamzul Rizal Zulkifli
Air Division, Department of Environment
Ms. Wan Portia Hamzah
Independent Consultant
Prof Dr Nik Meriam Nik Sulaiman
Associate Fellow
Academy of Sciences Malaysia
Dr. Liew Juneng
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Dr. Md Firoz Khan
Centre for Tropical Climate Change System (IKLIM)
Assoc. Prof Ahmad Makmom Abdullah
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Dr Mazrura Sahani
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Dr. Jegalakshimi A/P Jewaratnam
University of Malaya
Dr Nasrin Agha Mohammadi
University of Malaya
PEAT AREAS AND WATER MANAGEMENT
Dr Lulie Melling
Co-Chair & Editor
Tropical Peat Research Laboratory
Prof Ir Dr Nasehir Khan EM Yahya
Co-Chair & Writer
NAHRIM Research Centre for River Management
Nur Azima Busman
Tropical Peat Research Laboratory Unit,
Liew Yuk San
NAHRIM Research Centre for River Management
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Prof Dr Ahmad Ainuddin Nuruddin
Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Product (INTROP)
Faizal Parish
Global Environment Centre (GEC)
Julia Lo Fui San
Global Environment Centre (GEC)
Kamaliah Kasmaruddin
Wetlands International
Salahudin Yaacob
Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)
Tuan Haji Zubaidi bin Johar
NAHRIM Research Centre for River Management
Mavath Chandran
Independent Consultant
WASTE TO RESOURCE: ENERGY OR MATERIALS
Dr Ahmad Hazri Abd Rashid
Co-Chair & Editor
SIRIM Industrial Biotechnology Research Centre
Dr Haslenda Hashim
Co-Chair & Writer
Process Systems Engineering Centre (PROSPECT)
Dr Lim Jeng Shuin
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Dr Tan Sie Ting
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Prof Jean Marc Roda
CIRAD, Malaysia, CIRAD, France & UPM, Malaysia
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Ir P Lal Chand Gulabrai FASc
Fellow
Academy of Sciences Malaysia
Dr Laili Nordin
Independent Consultant
Puvaneswari Ramasamy
MYBiomass
Dr. Ho Wai Shin
Process Systems Engineering Centre (PROSPECT)
Dr. Alias Mohd Sood
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Ong Chu Lee @ Candice
Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products
Brenna Chen
Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products
ASM Analysts
Nitia Samuel
Esther Wong Kum Yeen
Abu Hanipah Jalil
Nurfathehah Idris
Fatin Athirah Amani Mohd Nasir
Muhammad Syazwan Alauddin
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Value of Air Pollutant Index (API) and its relation with health effect 25
Table 2. Aggregate value of haze damage in 1997 (Mohd Shahwahid & Othman,
1999) 32
Table 3. Regional Measures in Terms of Preparedness and Prevention 35
Table 4. Chemical properties of surface peat (0-50 cm) (Lim et al. 2012) 43
Table 5. Benefits of intact peatlands 45
Table 6. Oil palm crop area on peatland (Adapted from Wahid et al., 2010) 48
Table 7. Summary Table 55
Table 8. Land use in Sumatera in year 2015/2016 62
Table 9. Properties of biomass 62
Table 10. Types of product derived from biomass 63
Table 11. Characteristics of shredded and pelletised EFB 65
Table 12. Summary of Biomass to Power Conversion Technologies 66
Table 13. Ethanol production cost ($/l) reduction by improving the debt: equity ratio
or interest rate 71
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Haze history in Malaysia 26
Figure 2. Oil palm production by country in year 2014 (Mosarof et al. 2015) 29
Figure 3. Contribution of different sources with API at 300 41
Figure 4. Map of peatlands in Southeast Asia (ASEAN Peatland Forests Project) 43
Figure 5. Formation of tropical peatlands 45
Figure 6. Percentage of oil palm area planted on peatland 47
Figure 7. The components of Integrated Fire Management 56
Figure 8. Land use distribution in Sumatera, Indonesia 61
Figure 9. Conversion of biomass to product 64
Figure 10. Process of biomass pelletising 65
Figure 11. Process of conversion into biofuels and biochemicals 67
Figure 12. Breakeven of electricity selling price for biomass-to-power in Malaysian
context 69
Figure 13. Breakeven of ethanol selling price for biomass-to-ethanol in Malaysian
context 70
Figure 14. The price of ethanol with different capacity and capacity cost 70
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In an effort to identify the root causes of transboundary haze that has overwhelmed
Malaysia and the rest of the Southeast Asian countries particularly in the recent
years, the ASM Transboundary Haze Study looks into the following three main
aspects of the issue:
Air Quality & Haze Episodes
The transboundary impacts of haze on human health, the economy, agriculture, the
environment and biodiversity have not only affected countries within the region but
even beyond, thus challenging international attempts to address these issues.
Despite its perpetuity, transboundary haze is not a natural event. Although an El
Niño event, along with prevailing wind directions, does intensify the severity of a
haze episode, El Niño cannot be said to be the cause of haze. Studies indicate that
haze is made up of atmospheric pollutants that are mainly the result of
anthropogenic activities. Digging deeper into the problem reveals the complex socio-
economic, ecological, and governance issues that require multi-pronged approaches
including strong political will and good governance along with the engagement of
science diplomacy at both the local and regional level.
Peat Area & Water Management
Identified as one of the main sources of the miniscule particles that make up the
transboundary haze, peat fires are closely linked to episodes of haze. Peat soil
needs to be kept moist at all times so that the organic matter contained within would
not easily catch fire. Socio-economic needs compel the utilisation of peatlands either
for timber extraction, agriculture, settlements or even infrastructure. However, the
peat ecosystem is so fragile that a slight disturbance from a single drain could leave
hectares of peatland high and dry. Likewise, a single spark, be it manmade or
otherwise, could set these dry peatlands aflame. Thus, the importance of sound
peatland management in haze mitigation need to be acknowledged and effective
peatland and water management practices need to be implemented, including within
areas that have been already opened up for development, abandoned areas and
pristine peatlands.
Waste to Resources: Energy or Materials
Waste is by nature unwanted, however there is the possibility that the perception of
certain waste materials can be changed to something of value instead. In the case of
plantations, there are substantial amounts of biomass residue (or ‘waste’) generated
at various stages of planting and harvesting processes, and these residues are often
burnt in an attempt to get rid of them quickly, easily and cheaply. This ASM
Transboundary Haze Study explores the possibility of instead utilising the biomass
residue produced on plantations to become higher value bio-products, with monetary
returns to the plantations and farmers. If such a strategy could incentivise plantations
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and farmers not to resort to fire as a primary way to clear the biomass residues, this
would then be a positive step towards substantially reducing the severity of haze
episodes in the region.
In moving forward, the ASM Transboundary Haze Study concluded that a problem
so rooted in socio-economics such as the haze would likewise require solutions
rooted in socio-economics as well. The recommendations include:
Slash, not to burn, but to earn additional income
Recognising that “slash, not to burn, but to earn additional income” could be a
potential socio-economic solution to the transboundary haze problem, it is
recommended that the concerned Government should consider investing, through its
privately linked companies, in the development of biomass-to-material or biomass-to-
energy conversion facilities through private-public equity partnerships. In addition,
the concerned Government should also provide a conducive investment
environment, including low interest rates, competitive or subsidised pricing or bio-
products, and well-planned concession areas (large enough to support a sustainable
supply of biomass to a designated conversion facility, and close enough to the
facility) in order to promote investment in the proposed facilities.
Noting that the proposed conversion of biomass to energy would likely be
viable, it is recommended that the private sector be encouraged to take the lead in
the proposed investments, with the participation of government investment arms or
government linked companies, and with the cooperation of local communities made
up of farmers, settlers, smallholders, and adjacent plantation companies. Interested
parties should conduct the necessary techno-economic environmental feasibility
studies prior to investment, namely, the conversion of biomass to ethanol or biomass
to electricity, or if not, hydrogen fuel by mobile gasification and hydrogen generation
(by electrolysis) units. This could be an alternative to overcoming the high cost of
logistics to centralised facilities.
Manage peat, keep the fire away
Recognising that water management is critical in peat areas, it is recommended that
those who have received governmental permission to develop peat areas for
plantations or any other agro-forestry land development should carry out the
following measures to reduce fire risk:
a) suitable site selection;
b) maintenance of natural drainage or sound drain development;
c) land clearing and stacking;
d) compaction; and
e) re-compaction.
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Likewise, those who have already developed plantations in the peat areas
should make it a priority to maintain a high water table by containing stream flows
throughout the plantation irrigation systems. Plantations would also have to be aware
of (and made responsible for) the forested areas adjacent to the plantations. There is
evidence showing the forest areas adjacent to the drains constructed along the
periphery of plantation areas have caught fire, and those without such construction
have not.
Disturbed, abandoned, or underdeveloped peat areas should be identified and
promoted for investments and rehabilitation by undertaking the above measures in
order for such lands to be no longer a fire hazard. Excess flood waters could be
redirected to these areas to encourage rehabilitation and reversion to its natural flow.
Seeing through the haze
Recognising that transboundary haze cannot be effectively controlled at all times, it
is recommended that the enforcement agencies step up measures to ensure that no
open burning is allowed, particularly during the southwest monsoon period from the
months of June to early October. In addition, a local contingency plan should be
developed and put into operation during any severe haze episode (emergency of
higher than 500 API) in order to reduce local sources of pollution by the source
apportionment method.
Noting that El Niño does significantly influence the severity of haze, and that it
is now possible to predict any El Niño event six months ahead of time thanks to well-
established forecasting systems already in place, it is recommended that the
relevant authorities should disseminate the forecast and alert all concerned; and at
the same time, every relevant authority and other concerned stakeholders should
take precautionary measures, well in advance before any El Niño event sets in.
Research & Development Areas
Noting that there are still gaps in our knowledge, it is recommended that systems
studies, including socio-economic and legal implications of the proposed local
contingency plans to respond in the event of severe haze episodes, be undertaken in
order to formulate detailed measures to control local sources of pollution. Apart from
that, R&D, including radioisotope tracing and modelling studies, on the high
percentage of unidentified sources of pollution should also be carried out.
To better understand the impact of haze towards health, social life and the economy,
studies need to be conducted especially in the areas that most affected by haze
episodes in Malaysia. Studies on health should focus on the toxicological properties
of haze particles and systematically assess the health and social burden of diseases
due to haze episodes. Among others are:
i. Epidemiological study on the burden of diseases of air pollutants;
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ii. Toxicity assessment of particulates from forest fires; and
iii. Evaluation of the indoor school environment during haze episodes.
Admittedly also, current research and development on potential biomass utilisation
directly related to the mitigation of the haze problem is still at its infancy. There is a
need for more research funding in the area, as well as the development of databases
and support systems for researchers. More specifically related to this report, the
choice of technology or combination of technologies to be selected for possible
demonstration or even commercialisation requires a more detailed study. This is to
determine with greater accuracy on the investments needed and the possible
economic returns to complement the social and environmental benefits of potential
solutions to the haze problem.
Communicating the sciences, for all
“How can current scientific knowledge be synthesized and translated into
policy-relevant information to aid policy and decision-making, management and to
suggest further research?” This question addresses the all-important science-policy
interface that is the core of ASM’s work. At the policy-making level, the importance of
communicating scientific findings to support policy development is especially
important. A better communication policy could be realized by better coordination of
research conducted by research institutions, better use of social media to promote
and create public dialogue on critical issues, multi-stakeholder activities such as field
visits and active public engagement with governmental agencies to positively
influence the policy process.
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PURPOSE OF THE REPORT
The purpose of this report is to identify and establish a specific position for Academy
of Sciences Malaysia (ASM) in relation to the regional transboundary haze issue,
addressing various stakeholders ranging from Government ministries and agencies,
policy makers, industry sectors, academics and the affected communities in
Malaysia and the region. The focus of the report is on the six members of
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), namely, Brunei Darussalam,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.
Specifically, the report aims to:
a. Identify any existing and current policies, studies and/or initiatives relating to
transboundary haze;
b. Identify the gaps in knowledge, action and related-issues;
c. Identify and discuss technologies/methodologies/solutions in combatting the
root causes;
d. Gather and document inputs from the various experts and stakeholders; and
e. Provide policy inputs and recommendations on the transboundary haze issue
to the Government of Malaysia and its relevant authorities, particularly on the
following aspects:
i. Legal-Policy Framework;
ii. Institutional Arrangements;
iii. Socio-Economics; and
iv. Science and Technology (S&T).
The production of this report is in fulfilment of ASM’s many functions, amongst which
are to provide independent, evidence-based, reliable and timely advice to the
Government in order to solve national problems via the innovative use of S&T for a
sustained and sustainable development. Subject to Ministry of Science, Technology
and Innovation (MOSTI)’s approval, we aim to produce a paper from this study to be
tabled at the National Science Council chaired by the YAB Prime Minister and a
Cabinet Paper to advise the Government on our stand on the transboundary haze
problem. The report will also be disseminated and made available to the various
relevant ministries, government agencies, higher education institutions, research
institutes and non-profit entities for wider public consumption.
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BACKGROUND
Since the first haze experience in Malaysia, the interval of the haze episode period
has shortened from 9 years, to 7, 5, 3, and now, it has become an annual event
come August-September-October months. The changing climate is no longer the
controlling factor; there are other factors that compound the increasing severity of
the annual haze episode, including the capacity of the damaged ecosystem to
recover itself during the wet periods. The lands have become drier, and there has
been a continuing lowering of groundwater tables, particularly in the dried up low-
lands that are made up of peat soils.
No doubt, haze pollution gives rise to serious health and economic
implications. Fires and haze alone cost 300 trillion to 475 trillion rupiah (USD3.5
billion) of losses to Indonesia in the past few years (Chan 2015; Meijaard 2015).
Apart from that, there is massive amount of greenhouse gases, including carbon
dioxide, that are released into the atmosphere. It has been estimated that
greenhouse gas emissions from the 2015 haze episode to be as much as that of the
yearly US carbon emissions, equivalent to power consumption of 3,000 Terawatt
hours (TWh) generated from fossil fuels (citation required). Although some Nordic
countries have long practised the burning of peat for energy generation, it is not
encouraged in the tropical regions. This is because tropical peat is different in
composition and characteristics from that of temperate peat since the dead plants
that form the peat are different (citation required).
Improved understanding of the haze episodes would certainly call for
necessary knowledge virtually in all science disciplines, but the solution to the
problem would have to be found in the following four aspects of governmental and
intergovernmental interventions:
1. Legal-policy framework;
2. Institutional arrangements;
3. Socio-economics; and
4. Science and technology.
In short, as guided by one of the principles embodied in the UN Declaration on
Human Environment (Stockholm Declaration of 1972), a prior assessment is pre-
requisite to effective management.
In order to solve this over three-decade long Southeast Asian problem, there
will be a need for a series of follow-up measures, including science diplomacy, by
close collaboration, cooperation and coordination between Indonesia, Malaysia and
Singapore at sub-regional level as well as at ASEAN regional level.
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METHODOLOGY
This report is a result of intense collaboration between a select group of academics,
experts, practitioners and other individuals from all fields related to the study of haze
and its mitigation, collectively known as the Academy of Sciences Malaysia Task
Force on Haze (ASM h-TF). The ASM h-TF team works on a collective
understanding that not only prevention is better than cure, but also a thorough
assessment of the issue at hand is a prerequisite to its effective management. This
report is meant to serve as a tool for science diplomacy, where science can
effectively contribute to informed-decisions at all levels of government and other
stakeholders.
Those individuals initially involved in the work of the task force were identified
by ASM. And as the work of the task force evolved, other individuals were invited by
the Task Force and working group Chairs to provide further inputs in their specific
areas of expertise. All contributors are acknowledged at the end of this report.
The individual experts involved were organised by the Task Force with its
three working groups: Working Group 1 on Air Quality and Haze Episodes (WG1),
Working Group 2 on Peat Areas and Water Management (WG2), and Working
Group 3 on Waste to Resource: Energy and Materials (WG3). Each working group
was co-chaired by an expert and a writer, and anchored by ASM Secretariat with a
lead analyst and four (4) other supportive analysts, and a webmaster.
Due to time constraint and the nature of such a complex subject, the Task
Force decided to focus its work by carrying out a desktop study, including literature
review, as well as soliciting inputs, comments, or suggestions from those individuals
or organisations involved, and by gaining access to a number of databases including
that of the Department of Environment of Malaysia relating to air quality data.
The given terms of reference of each Working Group were as follows:
i. to identify the issues and challenges;
ii. to compile the relevant references and to analyse the required data
and other supporting material;
iii. to hold regular meetings at least once a month;
iv. to formulate strategies to address those issues and to develop the
required measures to overcome the identified challenges; and
v. to make recommendations relating to policy implications and further
research required.
In meeting those terms of reference, every Working Group draft was rapidly
reviewed, commented upon, and re-edited by both writers and editors, the Chief
Editor, the Secretariat Analysts, and the Chief Writer. In finalising the drafts of every
Working Group Report, the Task Force convened a Stakeholders’ Engagement
Workshop on 12 May 2016. All stakeholders including any member of the public was
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also given the opportunity to comment on the final version of the Report that is
accessible by the public through the ASM Haze website
(http://haze.akademisains.gov.my/). There is no definitive deadline for further inputs
through this consultative mechanism.
[While the ASM Haze-TF has attempted to be as exhaustive as possible given
the resources available, executive decisions were made concerning the final scope
of the study to ensure that the report remains tightly focused on its original
objectives. Hence, the 'assessment' portions of this study was limited to
assessments of the situation (pertaining to air quality measurements, peatland
management etc) within Malaysia alone, and not throughout the region. Preventive
measures were focused on the prevention of fires (in line with the ASEAN haze
mitigation strategies) and does not include in-depth discussion on the prevention of
land mismanagement. This area would require a separate study altogether. Finally, it
is important to note that although assessment is limited to Malaysia, it is hoped that
the 'management' aspects the study (moving forward) can offer some guidance for
haze mitigation beyond Malaysia; in Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei Darussalam and
other parts of the Southeast Asian region.]
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ACTION LINES
Air Quality & Haze Episodes
Transboundary haze has been one of the major environmental issues plaguing
Southeast Asia for more than three decades. The Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) defines haze as ‘sufficient smoke, dust, moisture, and vapour
suspended in air to impair visibility’, and haze pollution can be considered
‘transboundary’ if its density and extent is so great at source that it remains at
measureable levels after crossing into another country’s air space.
There is a common misperception that this haze is a ‘natural’ event. This
misperception stems from the conscious choice by ASEAN member states to use the
term ‘haze’ (denoting a natural event) at the regional level, instead of the more
accurate term, ‘transboundary atmospheric pollution’ (not necessarily natural).
Indeed, as the report details, there are complex socioeconomic, ecological, and
governance issues involved in bringing about this almost annual phenomenon.
WG1 has released its detailed report as per Annex A of this Report. It
attempts to address and correct this misperception, highlighting the controllable
human factors that work hand-in-hand with meteorological factors to exacerbate
haze conditions in the region. In relation to this, the report also evaluates the
presently available air quality monitoring and weather-forecasting systems, and its
effectiveness in presenting accurate information on the haze phenomenon, and its
effects on health, the economy, agriculture and also the broader environmental
issues in the region. The report also provides an overview of haze related policies
that are presently in place, and how these policies tie in with available air quality and
weather-forecasting data in various efforts as much to prevent as to mitigate any
effects of the haze.
The followings are the highlights of the WG1 report:
Haze History in Malaysia
The Malaysian Air Pollution Index (API) is a type of Air Quality Index (AQI) indicator
of the air quality including the haze and was developed for Malaysia based on
scientific assessment to indicate, in an easily understood manner, the presence of
pollutants in the air and its impact on health1. Six criteria pollutants namely PM10,
PM2.52, sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ground level ozone (O3) and
1 While all countries calculate their AQI based on the method suggested by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA), there different countries use slightly different calculations due to different parameters, breakpoints and thresholds used. Singapore uses their Pollutant Standards Index (PSI) while Indonesia uses their Air Pollutant Standards Index (APSI). 2 While PM 10 has been more consistently recorded in Malaysia since the early years of air quality monitoring,
in the recent years government agencies and researchers (see Pinto et al, 1998 and Amil et al, 2016) have been recording PM2.5 as well, to help provide a better understanding of the finer particulates in haze.
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carbon monoxide (CO) are measured and used to calculate the API. API indicators
are used throughout this report summary to depict severity of haze episodes. A
summary of API indicators and their related health effects and advisory is listed in
Table 1.
Table 1. Value of Air Pollutant Index (API) and its relation with health effect
Haze was first formally recorded as a disruption to daily lives in Malaysia in
late 1982. There were other moderate haze episodes recorded in 1991 and 1994,
followed by a serious event in 1997. Certain parts of Malaysia were more seriously
affected than others, with Sarawak declaring a 10-day emergency in September
1997 when the API went beyond 500. Haze again returned drastically in 2005, with
the API again reaching beyond 500, and this time, in the Peninsular. An emergency
was again declared in August 2005 that lasted for three days. During this time, flights
were suspended, schools were closed, and operations at one of Malaysia’s major
ports, Northport, were also halted due to health and safety concerns. Both
Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah-Sarawak experienced moderate haze episodes for
several months in the years 2006 and 2009. The haze episode in 2010 hit the
southern part of Peninsular Malaysia very drastically, requiring the closure of all
schools in the District of Muar, Johor on 21 October 2010 when the API reached
432.
The years 2011, 2012 and 2013 saw the haze episodes returning in short
periods but very intense during the dry months. The worst hit States during the 2013
episode were Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, and Johor. All schools in areas with API
levels above 150 were advised to avoid outdoor activities, and over 600 schools
were closed when API levels went beyond 300. Another haze emergency was
declared in June 2013 for two days in the Muar and Ledang districts, Johor, where
API levels surpassed the 500 mark. During the haze episodes of 2014 and 2015,
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schools were closed in the Peninsula, Sabah and Sarawak, as API levels reached
‘very unhealthy’ to ‘hazardous’ levels.
As shown in Figure 1, the Central Region of the Peninsula experienced in
history the highest PM10 concentrations in the year 2005 and experienced less
severe haze in the year 2015. The Southern Region experienced the highest
concentrations in the year 2013. For Sabah-Sarawak, PM10 concentrations were
found to be the highest before the turn of the 21st Century. Sarawak recorded highest
concentrations in 1997 while Sabah experienced record high concentrations of PM10
in 1998.
Figure 1. Haze history in Malaysia
Air Quality Measurement
The Malaysian Department of Environment (DOE) monitors the country’s ambient air
quality through a network of 52 stations. These monitoring stations are strategically
located in residential, commercial, and industrial areas to detect any significant
change in the air quality that may be harmful to human health and the environment.
Other than the five criteria pollutants, namely, PM10, SO2, NO2, ground level O3, and
CO, PM2.5 and several heavy metals such as lead (Pb) are measured once in every
six days. Most of these air quality stations are equipped for climatological
measurements: wind speed, wind direction, temperature, relative humidity, solar
radiation etc. so that simultaneous and continuous observation of both
meteorological and air pollution conditions could be recorded. This is also to ensure
that a comprehensive data set comprising of both air quality and meteorological data
would be available for assessment of any air pollution event.
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In addition to the monitoring carried out by the DOE, individual groups of
researchers, namely from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) also monitor and
analyse the composition of particulate matter in order to establish the sources of
haze. For instance, carcinogenic substances such as polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbon (PAH) levels were recorded as 8 times higher on hazy days compared
to clear ones in Kuala Lumpur (Omar et al. 2006). PAHs are usually released into the
atmosphere as a result of combustion from biomass burning (Shen et al. 2013). This
study and other related studies do confirm positively the link between forest fires,
combustion of fossil fuels and related economic activities, and haze in Malaysia.
Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) modelling
uses the movement of air parcels to determine the source locations of haze-
producing fires. Using such method in 2001, researchers found that the thick smoke
from fires in Sumatra was transported and dispersed by the circulation of wind to
Malaysia, and also Singapore and Brunei Darussalam.
In the urban context, severe pollution episodes in urban environment are
related not only to sudden increases in the emission of pollutants, but also to certain
meteorological conditions that diminish the ability of the atmosphere to disperse
pollutants (Kalkstein & Corrigan 1986). These include climatology parameters like
wind direction and speed in a horizontal plane, atmospheric stability, precipitation
scavenging, and radiation and sunshine in photochemical processes. Man-made
structures in the urban area complicate the airflow pattern and hence air pollutants
dispersion (Sham 1979; 1987; 1991).
Researchers have found that the situation in Klang Valley, Malaysia during
haze episodes is complex due to the area’s unique topography. Sani (1991) noted in
his study that surface inversion had an effect of trapping haze particles within the
Klang Valley. Dispersion of haze in the area is blocked by the mountain range
surrounding the Klang Valley. A study by Keywood et al. (2003) showed that the
composition of atmospheric aerosols in urban areas increase in potassium (K) and
oxalate on days of excessive haze. Sulphate is a major composition of atmospheric
aerosols during haze episodes, but the variation of its composition at different
locations during haze suggest the influence of other local sources of SO2 before it
was oxidized to sulphate. Motor vehicles, industries and coal-fired power plants are
among major local sources to contribute to the amount of sulphate in the
atmosphere.
Sources of Haze
Based on the scientific data discussed above, the sources of the Southeast Asian
haze can be broadly categorized into two: land use change (particularly the use of
fires in this context), and non-agricultural sources. Fire is commonly used in
Indonesia as well as in the rest of Southeast Asia to clear land and to get rid of the
plant residues for the establishment of plantations and other crops. But more often
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than not, the fires blaze out of control especially during the dry seasons and the
flames engulf vast areas thus causing smoke or haze to blanket the region. It
became more serious than otherwise when the peat areas caught fire.
An empirical model developed by Azman and Abdullah (1993) to quantify the
contribution of particulates from external and local sources indicated that emissions
from external sources (largely forest fires) while virtually insignificant during the non-
haze period, became more dominant during the haze.
Research into large fire events of 1997/1998 found that both smallholders and
large-scale plantations used fire as a tool, primarily for land clearing but also in
specific contexts in extractive activities (Applegate et al., 2001; Suyanto et al., 2002).
The smallholder context is categorised by slash and burn practices. Sedentary
farmers burn their small plots of land after harvest to rejuvenate the soil and to keep
their land free of weeds (Wosten et al. 2008). Shifting cultivators on the other hand
practice the slash and burn technique to clear a stretch of the forest for cultivation.
Sometimes, these indigenous peoples have also deliberately set fires on plantations
in protest to their lands being taken away. Vogl and Ryder (1969) have reported that
the process of slash and burn affected the physical structure of the soils due to the
high temperature of the burning and addition of ash and charcoal. The damage
usually persists for 15 years or longer. As these farmers have no knowledge on soil
properties and soil management, they tend to use slash and burn practices without
understanding its impact.
Barber et al. (2000) and Qadri (2000) explained how the timber boom, i.e.
human intervention that began with timber extraction from virgin forest, saw the
beginnings of vast areas of forest been cleared for agricultural development in the
region. This later involved forest and land use policies of various Southeast Asian
governments, especially Indonesia, encouraging the development of oil palm and
pulp and paper plantations (Dauverge 1998; Cotton1999; Barber et al. 2000; Seth-
Jones 2006; Tacconi et al. 2006; Varkkey 2011; Varkkey 2013).
Oil palm is currently enjoying unprecedented expansion in the region, thanks
to the wide application of palm oil in the production of food and other products, as
well as biodiesel. The crop grows well in the Indonesian and Malaysian climate, as it
requires a fair amount of sunshine, a hot climate, and wet and humid tropic
conditions with high rainfall rate (Awalludin et al. 2015). Oil palm also enjoys a
comparatively low production cost and high productivity if compared to other major
oil crops (Murdiyarso et al. 2010). About 85% of world’s crude oil palm is supplied by
Malaysia and Indonesia (Sulaiman et al. 2011, please see chart below). Clearing
palm oil plantation land by fire is also common, especially in Indonesia, and to a
lesser extent in Malaysia. A study by Gaveau et al. (2014a) found that 52% of the
total burned area (84,717 ha) in Borneo during the 1997/1998 fires was within
concessions, i.e. land allocated to companies for plantation development. The
detection of two excavators preparing land for planting in the burned areas one
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month after fire suggests these fires were associated with agricultural (oil palm)
expansion.
Figure 2. Oil palm production by country in year 2014
(Mosarof et al. 2015)
The rapid expansion of oil palm plantation in Indonesia and Malaysia
increases demand for large land areas which include not only natural tropical forests
but also peatland forests. Research has shown that fires in the peatswamp forest
zone produce a disproportionately large amount of smoke and haze per hectare
burnt (Murdiyarso et al. 2002). Indeed, fires in peatland areas have been found to be
the main cause of haze episode in the region. Particularly, Fuji et al (2015)’s results
show that Indonesian peat fires strongly contributed to the carbonaceous organic
elements in PM2.5 found in Petaling Jaya in the years 2011 and 2012. Working
Group 2’s report on Peat Area & Water Management provides an in-depth
discussion of the peat-haze connection.
Non-agricultural sources of haze are mainly contributed by anthropogenic
activities related to transportation, industrial and biomass burning (Du et al. 2011).
Afroz et al. (2003) have discovered that the major non-agricultural source of air
pollution in Malaysia comes from motor vehicles (70-75% of total air pollution). Petrol
combustion from motor vehicle emissions affects the spatial and temporal
distribution of ambient concentrations of particles (Kim & Guldmann 2011). Biomass
(open) burning in rural areas also contribute to this. Open burning pollutants are
diffused to urban areas, which then mix with emissions from fossil fuel combustion
(Wang et al. 2009). Industrial emissions can also contribute to air pollution and haze,
and is a major source of metal particles in the air.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Indonesia Malaysia Thailand Colombia Nigeria Papua New
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Meteorological Conditions
Much of the misperception of the ‘natural’ nature of transboundary haze is a lack of
understanding of the weather patterns, particularly the El Niño - Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) in the region. This stems from the fact that there is a clear cycle of wet and
dry seasons in the region, and haze tends to occur more frequently during the dry
seasons. However, this rather simplistic conclusion warrants further analysis.
The surface climate over the Southeast Asian region is dominated by two
monsoon regimes – the winter and summer monsoons, which modulate the annual
wet and dry seasons in the region. In addition to this seasonal cycle, the year-to-year
(interannual) variability associated to ENSO is also considerably large. The ENSO is
a coupled atmosphere-ocean phenomenon over the Pacific Ocean. The warm phase
of ENSO is called El Niño while the cold phase is called La Niña.
In normal years, the Southeast Asian region is fed by moisture convergence
brought by the low level trade winds to sustain the deep convection and create a
low-pressure system over the Southeast Asia. However, during an El Nino event, the
anomalous warming of the tropical Pacific sea surface temperature shifts the low-
pressure centre from the Southeast Asia region to the central Pacific Ocean. This
establishes an anomalously high pressure and a strong divergence centre over
Southeast Asia, causing drier than normal conditions during an El Nino event.
This dry conditions coupled with warm temperatures associated with El Nino
(e.g. Tangang et al. 2007) creates an extremely friendly environment for large-scale
fire outbreaks in Sumatra and Kalimantan (Tangang et al. 2010; Reid et al. 2012), as
well as certain parts of Malaysia. However, it must be repeated that these conditions
do not start the fires, they merely provide a suitable environment for the fires to
flourish, once lit. It also provides a suitable environment to facilitate the
transboundary transmission of the smoke. Anomalous winds during El Nino is
southerly i.e. the winds blow to the north from Kalimantan and Sumatra. Using a
numerical modelling experiment for the 2006 (El Niño) and 2007 (normal) Southeast
Asia fire seasons, Xian et al. (2013) concluded that smoke typically lasts longer and
can be transported farther in El Niño years compared with non El Niño years. This
wind pattern facilitates the long-range transport of smoke from Sumatra and
Kalimantan northward to Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak, Brunei and
Sabah.
Although it is expected that the role of El Nino in haze would be secondary in
nature since the fire is associated primarily to human related activities in agriculture,
forestry and plantation sectors (e.g. Field et al. 2009) as discussed above, El Nino
plays an important role in altering the regional atmospheric composition via the
modification of the atmospheric meteorological field (Inness et al. 2015) as well as
the emission and transport characteristics.
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Research by Juneng and Tangang (2008) has shown that precipitation
anomalies in the region can be forecasted at least 5 months in advance using sea
surface temperatures in the tropical Pacific as predictors. Given the fact that an El
Nino is a predictable event by at least 6 months in advance (e.g. Latif et al. 1998;
Tangang et al. 1998), regional climate forecast information is invaluable in mitigating
the risk of forest fires. While long-range forecasts are useful for mitigation and better
fire management, near real-time (short) forecast of accurate air quality can be crucial
for emergency response. Hertwig et al. (2015) demonstrates that by using satellite
derived emissions and a Lagrangian dispersion model, the PM10 concentrated at the
surface over the region can be quantitatively forecasted up to several days lead time.
Therefore, it is obvious that both long-range and near real-time forecasting is
important in combating haze. However currently, forecasting has not played a major
role in both national and regional haze mitigation strategies. Since short-term
forecasts depends critically on quality of the local observation, the dense network of
air quality monitoring stations already available in Malaysia (as detailed above) and
in other parts of the region (like the ASEAN Specialised Meteorological Centre or
ASMC) can be incorporated into the development of an accurate and useful
forecasting system.
Impacts of Haze
The transboundary impacts of the fires, smoke and haze are hardly limited to
reduced visibility. As mentioned above, severe haze episodes have been related to
school, airport and sea port closures, as well as national emergencies. Researchers
have also carried out detailed investigations into specific impacts of transboundary
haze on human health, the economy, agriculture, and also broader environmental
effects.
Air pollutants, especially fine particulate matters, released in the air during
transboundary haze can cause severe impact on human health. A systematic
analysis of all major global health risks reported in the Lancet found that outdoor air
pollution in the form of fine particles is a much more significant health risk than
previously known, contributing annually to over 3.2 million premature deaths
worldwide and over 74 million hears of healthy life lost (Murray et al 2015). Particles
as small as one micrometer can easily infiltrate buildings, making exposure
unavoidable even for people who remain indoors (Kunii et al. 2002). Smaller
particles are more hazardous because they remain longer in the atmosphere and
also penetrate more deeply into the lungs. The long-term health effects of isolated
haze events are difficult to document, due to the difficulty to separate its effects from
general air pollution (Glover & Jessup 1999, Kunii et al. 2002, Johnston et al. 2012).
However, a study by Othman et al. (2015) on specific haze-related illnesses during
the 1997 haze period (August – September) revealed that there were significant
increases in asthma and acute respiratory infections in Kuala Lumpur. Outpatient
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visits in Kuching, Sarawak, increased between 100-200% during the peak haze
period while daily respiratory illness outpatient visits to Kuala Lumpur General
Hospital increased by 200%. Sahani et al. (2014), in a case-crossover analysis of
forest fire haze events and mortality in Malaysia, pointed out that hazy days between
2000 and 2007 were responsible for an immediate increase (19%) in mortality from
respiratory causes. This research also concluded that exposure to haze events
indicated not only immediate, but also delayed effects on mortality.
Likewise, economic effects of haze are also difficult to determine, as not every
possibledamage could be valued due to limited data and estimation methods.
However, Mohd Shahwahid & Othman (1999) made a valiant effort to find the
aggregate value of haze damage to Malaysia in 1997 (shown in the table below).
Their calculations included the reduced industrial and commercial activity due to the
ten-day state of emergency in Sarawak. The second major loss is the decline in the
number of tourist arrivals. A more specific study by Othman et al. (2014) focused on
valuation of health impacts of smoke haze pollution in the Klang Valley. Based on
the unit economic value of RM160 (USD53) for an average hospital stay of two days,
haze damage was valued at RM0.273 million (USD91,000), or RM14,368
(USD4,789) per hazy day.
Table 2. Aggregate value of haze damage in 1997
(Mohd Shahwahid & Othman, 1999)
Hazy conditions, especially in terms of its effect on sunlight and resultant
photosynthetic activity and transpiration in plants, have also been shown to affect
agricultural and natural fauna productivity in Malaysia. A research by the Forest
Research Institute of Malaysia found that two varieties of hybrid rice in Malaysia,
MR151 and MR123, experienced a 50% reduction in growth rate during the haze. A
more pertinent study was carried out by Henson (2000), which modeled the effects
of haze on oil palm productivity and yield. As mentioned above, the oil palm requires
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high amount of sunlight for optimal growth. The study indicated that the reductions in
solar radiations due to haze could have long-term effects of oil palm yields. Similarly,
reduced photosynthetic activity and transpiration in plants can affect the food chain
for wildlife which in turn will influence animal health and behaviour. Loss of fruit-trees
can also lead to overall decline in bird and animal species that rely on fruits for food.
The haze also brings about a myriad of broader negative environmental
effects. Firstly, forest fires unlock carbon and other greenhouse gasses stored in soil
and allow it to escape into the atmosphere. This contributes to global warming and
climate change, and has catapulted Indonesia to a position among the top carbon
emitters in the world. In the longer term, lands that are burned are at higher risk of
further burning in the future, due to excessive dryness. Repeated burning will lead to
loss of habitat and shelter and is detrimental for forest biodiversity.
Haze Related Policies
Compelled by the severe effect of the haze as detailed above, the Malaysian
government has incorporated fore, smoke and haze considerations into their
policymaking and administrative frameworks. This has been complemented by
policies and initiatives at the ASEAN level as well, which shall be discussed in detail
below.
One of the most significant policies at the Malaysian level in relation to this
was the Environment Quality Act 1974, which was amended in 1998 to provide a
more stringent policy for open burning offences. According to the Act, any person
found guilty shall ‘be liable to a fine not exceeding RM500,000 or to imprisonment for
a term not exceeding 5 years or both’. In addition to this, the Environmental Quality
(Declared Activities) (Opening Burning) 2003 act that prohibits open burning of
certain activities under specified conditions and in certain designated areas came
into force on 1 January 2004. The zero burning technique was developed and
promoted by Malaysian agencies as a way of replanting without violating any of the
regulations mentioned above. The technique is an environmentally sound practice in
which the old strands of oil palm or other tree crops are felled and shredded and left
in situ to decompose naturally. The technique also replenishes soil organic matter,
improves the physical and chemical properties of the soil and thus enhances its
fertility.
To further complement these policies, the government of Malaysia established
the National Haze Committee which is made up of representatives of all relevant
agencies. The Committee meets regularly to assess, weather conditions, the
preparedness of the relevant agencies in dealing with fires and the transboundary
haze as well as to consider further actions that needed to be taken. The Committee’s
activities are guided by the National Haze Action Plan (steps to be taken at different
API alert levels), the Fire Prevention Action Plan (surveillance to curb and prevent
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open burning activities in fire prone areas), and the Clean Air Action Plan (CAAP;
strategies to improve air quality, including public awareness).
Other related initiatives at the national level include the Peatland Management
Programme and the ‘Fire Danger Rating System’ (FDRS). The Peatland
Management Programme is an imitative to prevent peat fires through the
construction of check dams, tube wells, and watch towers. The FDRS was
developed to provide early warning of the potential for serious fire and haze events,
using data available from the MMD. The effectiveness of the FDRS however is
dependent on a good understanding of local fire behavior and reliable forecasted
weather data. The CAAP mentioned above includes provisions for the development
of expertise in air quality prediction and modeling, however as explained above,
there is still room for improvement for the incorporation of forecasting techniques in
Malaysia’s air quality measurement and prediction systems.
The ASEAN approach to environmental management stresses three norms
(Koh & Robinson 2002): non-interference or non-intervention in other Member
States’ domestic affairs, consensus building and cooperative programme preferred
over legally-binding treaties, and preference for national implementation rather than
reliance on a strong region-wide bureaucracy. Haze was first placed on the regional
agenda on 1985, with the adoption of the Agreement on the Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources which made a significant reference to air pollution and
‘transfrontier environmental effects’. The Informal ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on the
Environment held in 1995 witnessed the declaration that ASEAN constituted ‘one
ecosystem’, an acknowledgement that in principle, environmental problems could not
be adequately addressed solely within the domestic context and would require a
regional approach (Wan 2012).
A series of regional documents and initiatives relating to haze followed,
including the 1995 ASEAN Cooperation Plan on Transboundary Pollution, the Haze
Technical Task Force 1995, the 1997 Regional Haze Action Plan, the ASEAN
Peatland Management Initiative, the ASEAN Peatmand Management Strategy
(through which the National Haze Action Plans were developed), culminating in the
2002 ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (Haze Agreement) and
its related follow-up documents and initiatives. At the same time, dialogues on
Transboundary Haze Pollution were initiated at the Track 2 level, led by the ASEAN
Institute of Strategic and International Studies (ASEAN ISIS) and the Council for
Security Cooperation to the Asia Pacific (CSCAP). These dialogues were useful in
garnering the involvement from many different stakeholders, including regional non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), not-for-profit associations, think tanks,
academic institutions as well as private sector companies.
The Haze Agreement was adopted in June 2002 and entered into force in
November 2003, with the ASEAN Environment Ministers meeting as Conference of
Parties (COP) responsible for its implementation. It is legally-binding and reaffirms
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Principle 2 of the Rio Declaration, which states that sovereign states have a
‘…sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their environmental and
development priorities, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their
jurisdiction do not cause damage to the environment of other States’. It provides for
a collective framework for dealing with forest burning and transboundary haze
problem within the overall context of sustainable development. However, the
Agreement is constrained by weak, ‘non-intrusive’ parameters range from requesting
and giving assistance, monitoring, reporting, exchanging information to absence of
enforcement and liability provisions. Indonesia only ratified the Agreement in 2015,
after 13 years.
The following table gives a helpful overview of the obligations of each ASEAN
Member State (AMS) or organization involved within the ASEAN haze cooperative
framework:
Table 3. Regional Measures in Terms of Preparedness and Prevention
There are many constraints to the success of these national and ASEAN level
initiatives. Studies by scholars such as Koh undated; Nguitragool (2011); Quah and
Varkkey undated; Tan (2005); Tay (2002); and Varkkey (2013) have documented
the complexity and magnitude of the problem, ranging from the law and policy to the
changing political scenario, economics and the rise of oil palm, an important export
crop, as well as the socio-cultural dimensions. Firstly, effectiveness of ASEAN level
initiatives like the Haze Agreement depends very much on compliance from one
state party – Indonesia. The complexities of compliance at the Indonesian level can
only be understood by appreciating the political economy of forest resource
exploitation, environmental governance, and regional autonomy of Indonesia (Wan
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2012). Indonesia faces problems of weak enforcement because of its relative poverty
and legal shortcomings as well as the decentralized democratic system in Indonesia.
Indonesia’s own anti-burning law does exist and the penalties are not
inconsequential, however there are conflicting applications of rules such as
Indonesia’s Law 32 that allows burning in forests for traditional uses, which further
complicates enforcement.
Another factor is the sheer cost of clearing land using zero burning
techniques. Malaysia’s zero burning technique was adopted at the ASEAN level in
1999. However, costs related to zero burning can be as high as USD 665 per
hectare (estimate by Center for International Forestry Research or CIFOR), when
burning methods can be as low as USD7 per day. In legal terms, international law
holds that a state is responsible for transboundary harm that results in activities on
its territory, caddied out by the state, or within its control. However, ASEAN members
states, including Malaysia, are constrained by the ‘ASEAN Way’ which makes it
unlikely that any ASEAN member state will impose ‘state responsibility’ on Indonesia
(Tay 1999). Indeed, the usage of the term ‘haze’ by ASEAN was a diplomatic choice,
to avoid having to confront the state that causes the problem by linking it with
principles of state responsibility under international law.
On a more local level, Malaysia is currently studying the possibility of adopting
the Singaporean model of a Transboundary Haze Pollution act, which empowers a
country to take legislative measures against local or foreign companies that cause or
contribute to the haze pollution in that country. However Malaysia must be wary of
the similar types of challenges that Singapore is currently facing in the effort to
implement this law, including the difficulty of obtaining indisputable evidence, proving
causation, and evaluating claims for damages.
Conclusion
The report produced by Working Group 1 has highlighted several important things.
Most significantly, haze is not entirely a natural phenomenon. Indeed, while wildfires
have been a feature of Southeast Asia ecology for centuries. However, in recent
years, increasing evidence has surfaced linking fires and haze to manmade
activities, namely slash and burn activities by smallholders, and land clearing
activities of medium and large-scale plantations. In relation to this, the perception
that haze is directly linked to the El Niño phenomenon is flawed. While El Niño does
not start the fires, they merely provide a suitable environment for the fires to flourish,
once lit. It also provides a suitable environment to facilitate the transboundary
transmission of the smoke. However, good knowledge of ENSO patterns allow for
effective long-range and near real-time forecasting for better haze mitigation and fire
management, and also for quicker emergency response. Unfortunately, despite the
availability of forecasting technologies, its applicability in Malaysia’s FDRS, and the
CAAP initiative that provides for the development of expertise in air quality prediction
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and modeling, there is still room for improvement for the incorporation of forecasting
techniques in Malaysia’s air quality measurement and prediction systems.
Furthermore, haze mitigation at the ASEAN level is constrained by the unwillingness
of ASEAN member states, Malaysia included, to impose ‘state responsibility’ on
particular states.
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Way Forward
There is renewed vigour at the ASEAN level following Indonesia’s ratification
process in 2015. However, in connection to this, the Indonesian President Joko
Widodo recently announced that “it would take three years for results to be seen
from efforts to end the huge annual fires” (The Jakarta Post, 30 September 2015).
While three years may be considered highly ambitious by some scholars, Working
Group 1 has explored prospective options that could be implemented at within this
timeline and beyond, which could bring about more effective and innovative
approaches to the transboundary haze problem. On climate science, various
members of Working Group 1 have drawn extensively on their knowledge and
expertise to create a vision for moving forward. The group has also put forward
recommendations for future trajectories from the perspectives of health, economy,
and engagement at the regional as well as society level. By bridging lessons learned
from the research findings and by analyzing viable science-policy options, it is hoped
that this paper can serve to shed some light on achieving real progress.
Firstly, scientists could contribute to a better understanding of the
characteristics and origin of transboundary haze. The composition of organic and
inorganic substances in atmospheric aerosols or haze particles, for example, could
be traced back to biomass burning and in some cases be identified as an ideal
indicator or marker of biomass burning. Equally important is the understanding of
meteorology and the ability of the atmosphere to disperse or dilute pollutants, for
example, the source of the pollutants (biomass burning or vehicular emissions) as
well as the impact on the air quality in urban areas (eg. the effect of inversion) during
the haze. At the same time, weather data is crucial for the FDRS to mitigate fire-
related problems. On the other hand, while better and more advanced satellite
technology is helping to identify locations and patterns of fires, the pairing of satellite
data with on-the-ground investigations is crucial. Thus, strengthening the science-
policy interface calls for the scientific parameters described to be included in future
analyses to address transboundary haze.
Secondly, science involves complexity, uncertainty and indeterminacy but
science produce knowledge as well as to a lesser extent predictions (van den Hove
2007). As pointed out, El Nino is a predictable event, and the information is relevant
in preventing the risks of fires and recurrence of haze. Seasonal forecast outlooks by
meteorological centers (such as the APEC Climate Center) are increasingly
becoming more accurate especially during El Nino years. Moving forward, it is crucial
to perform more related research, for example, the influence of El Nino and how the
trajectory of the haze is likely to change in the future. Other targeted studies should
also include the relevance of climate change for El Niño periods which may change
future drought characteristics. The information on the forecastibility of the El Nino
phenomenon is important for Malaysia and ASEAN in designing a more viable policy
framework to respond pro-actively to the challenges. For instance, it has been
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discussed above how improved forecasting can greatly improve the effectiveness of
Malaysia’s FDRS system. A preventive approach would be of great benefit to the
region.
Thirdly, and more generally, innovative efforts are also emerging with
mapping software and tools. Available technologies are also being constantly
upgraded, hence there are opportunities to look into the usage of things like special
sensors and drones to map burn scars to indicate a more reliable percentage of real
fires.
In the field of health, the short-term mortality effects of high air pollution
suggest that there may be long-term effects associated with exposure to elevated
levels of air pollution over an extended period. There is tremendous value in
shedding light and developing a better understanding of the mortality and morbidity
particularly in areas of high exposure and equally important of the long-term effects
of air pollution even though the interpretation is not straightforward. One implication
of the results from studying the short-term effects in Malaysia of the haze is that the
effects in Indonesia itself must have been huge. The indications of mortality effects in
Malaysia many miles away from the main fires strongly support this notion. Another
implication is that like many other environmental risk factors such as unsafe water,
air pollution, the mortality burden attributable to haze falls disproportionately on low-
income regions of ASEAN.
To overcome the economic challenges standing in the way of proper
implementation of policies in Indonesia and elsewhere, the working group proposes
the stakeholders’ approach to cost-sharing. The idea is that the cost of an effective
fire prevention and control programme in Indonesia should be shared among the
various stakeholders and other interested institutions both inside and outside the
region (Tan 2005). For instance, it is not uncommon to witness at the international
level, processes such as Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and
Intergovernmental Platform on Biological Diversity and Ecosystem (IPBES) re-
inforcing their interfaces and shaping responses to global environmental challenges.
Past pilot ‘Adopt-a-District’ projects in Riau (supported by Malaysia) and Jambi
(supported by Singapore) can be re-examined and adapted to fit this cost-sharing
approach, focusing particularly on maximum stakeholder involvement for maximum
ownership at all levels.
Another way to overcome economic constraints is the ecosystem services
approach. Ecosystem services are the economic benefits that ecosystems provide to
humanity. According to Schrier-Uijl et al. (2013), tropical forests provide a large
number of ecosystem services both at the global level (eg. climate control) and at the
local level, including cultural, provisioning and regulating services such as soil
erosion, hydrological control, delivery of natural forest products, fisheries and
tourism. Under the ‘one ecosystem’ concept, ASEAN can adopt this approach to
help member states understand the ‘true’ or real value of the natural resources (such
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as forests) so that the way the resources are being used and the policy decisions
made will reflect those values.
The increasing interest and concern from society concerning haze issues in
general also provides an interesting opportunity moving forward. Media content
research by Forsyth (2014) for example, has discovered that the public is
increasingly critical of the policy approaches to haze as well as the errant companies
that are investing in palm oil activities. Public concerns about environmental
problems such as transboundary haze create narrative structures that do have an
influence on policy by allocating roles of blame, responsibility and appropriate
behaviour. Hence, the potential role of the public cannot be ignored, as haze
mitigation efforts do not need to be confined solely to the government or academia.
One area that is worth exploring is in terms of public pressure on errant companies,
a strategy that has proven to be very powerful in other parts of the world.
As a whole, the recommendations to the government as presented by
Working Group 1, roughly progressing from national to regional level, can be
summarised as follows:
(1) The government should invest in enhanced monitoring and the
inclusion of other scientific parameters even at times when there is an
economic downturn.
(2) A priority area of transboundary haze risk management should be the
development of systematic health preparedness. Towards this goal, the
government should support the development of a better understanding
on not only mortality, but also morbidity related to haze, particularly
over long periods of exposure (long-term effects) and in areas of
especially high exposure.
(3) There is a need to recognize a country’s limitations and explore
collaborative actions in monitoring, predicting and conducting
assessments. Related to this, efforts by Malaysia in Riau and
Singapore in Jambi should be re-examined so as to address the gaps
and get full participation of the target groups such as the small-holders
and the large actors in future initiatives.
(4) At the ASEAN level, Malaysia should propose for its FDRS to be
adopted at the ASEAN level, and to provide the foundation for regional
resource-sharing and for the resources to be deployed during times of
extreme danger.
(5) ASEAN should enshrine and adopt the concept of a ‘true’ or real value
of the natural resources (such as forests) so that the way the resources
are being used and the policy decisions made will reflect those values.
This would complement the already accepted concept of ASEAN as
‘one ecosystem’. This unified concept of an ecosystem would also help
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in moving towards some region-wide consensus on breakpoints used,
for a more uniform and useful AQI.
While all the suggestions above may fall into the category of ‘long term’
strategy and planning, one particularly interesting finding highlighted by Working
Group 1, which could be useful for more immediate policy intervention is research by
Amil et al (2016). This research estimated source apportionment during haze
episodes of around 300 API, pictured below. These findings may be useful to
determine what local level action can be taken during severe haze episodes and
emergencies (since regional level action may be slow or improbable). The illustration
below shows that about 18% of the haze can be traced back to local sources.
Hence, these could be potential targets for policy intervention during periods of
emergency; particularly the government can call for an immediate stop to local
burning, fuel combustion, industry activity and traffic, which may bring down haze
levels by at least 18% - a significant amount.
Figure 3. Contribution of different sources with API at 300
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Peat Area & Water Management
As indicated in the previous summary report, fires in peatland areas have been
found to be the main cause of haze episode in the region. This is because fires in the
peatswamp forest zone produce a disproportionately large amount of smoke and
haze per hectare burnt (Murdiyarso et al. 2002). Rapid expansion of plantations in
the Southeast Asian region, especially in Indonesia and Malaysia, has increased
demand for peatland forests for development. Peatlands are very delicate
ecosystems that are very sensitive to disturbances, and extreme disturbances will
result in fires.
There is currently an active debate in academic circles on whether peatlands
should be preserved in its pristine condition, or if it can be developed, in a
sustainable manner. Working Group 2 does not intend to provide a conclusive
answer to this debate, but instead takes a pragmatic approach that accepts that vast
swathes of peatlands have currently already been developed for plantations, both in
Indonesia and Malaysia. Therefore, given the current situation, it is important to shed
light on best management practices on peatlands that have already been developed,
to reduce as far as possible the negative impact of human disturbances so that
untoward incidences, like fires, can be avoided or reduced in the future.
Malaysia has committed at the ASEAN level to achieve zero haze emissions
by 2020. Hence, a better understanding of tropical peat and its sustainable
management will help Malaysia achieve this commitment. As such, tropical
peatlands deserve to be better studied and understood so that all stakeholders can
take preventive and remedial action to overcome this annual scourge which affects
populations, economies and international relations. The detailed report of Working
Group 2 is reproduced at the end of this publication, however the key findings of the
report are highlighted here.
Tropical Peat
Tropical peatlands are found in Southeast Asia (SEA), the Caribbean, Central
America, South America and Central Africa. Page et al. (2011) estimated the area of
tropical peatlands at 44.1 million hectares (MHA), equivalent to 11% of the global
peatland area. Fifty-six percent (56%) of the world’s tropical peatlands are located in
Southeast Asia, equivalent to approximately 23.7 MHA (Page et al. 2011). Peatlands
in Southeast Asia mostly occupy low-altitude coastal and sub-coastal environments
and are usually located at elevations from sea level to about 50 m (Rieley et al.
2008). Peatland distribution in the region is presented in the following map.
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Figure 4. Map of peatlands in Southeast Asia
(ASEAN Peatland Forests Project)
Peat is comprised of partially decayed organic matter such as leaves, stems
and roots. Most of the peat found worldwide is temperate peat (peat found in
temperate regions), which is largely composed of non-woody material such as
sedges and mosses. However, the peat found in Malaysia and Indonesia is
considered tropical peat (peat that is found in tropical regions), consisting largely of
un-decomposed and semi-decomposed woody materials originating from dead trees
and often contains logs and tree roots. Tropical peats have very low bulk density
(compared to mineral soils) and extremely high compressibility, porosity and
permeability. Tropical peat comprises largely of organic carbon, ranging from 35% to
60% in dry weight (Melling and Henson 2011). Other chemical properties of peat are
presented in the table below.
Table 4. Chemical properties of surface peat (0-50 cm)
(Lim et al. 2012)
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Lim, 2006 Melling et al, 2006
(Riau, Indonesia) (Sarawak, Malaysia)
pH 3.7 3.7
Organic C (%) 41.1 45.4
Total N (%) 1.56 1.69
C/N ratio 26.3 26.9
Exch. Ca (cmol/kg) 6.68 0.76
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Exch. Mg (cmol/kg) 9.55 1.01
Exch. K (cmol/kg) 0.61 0.19
CEC (cmol/kg) 70.8 41.4
Extr P (mg/kg) 120.0 21.4
Total Cu (mg/kg) 4.1 1.4
Total Zn (mg/kg) 28.0 17.1
Total B (mg/kg) 5.0 1.1
Total Al (mg/kg) 1.35
Total Fe (mg/kg) 108.8 67.7
Hydrology is the dominant factor controlling peat formation (size, functions
and ultimately the preservation of peat swamps) (UNDP 2006). Peat water contains
tannins that are derived from incompletely decomposed organic matter. The tannins
give peat water its characteristic appearance: tea-coloured by transmitted light and
black by reflected light. Moisture content increases with depth, from 100-400% at
about 50 cm depth to about 1200% to 1400% at 1 m depth. The waterlogged
condition creates an anaerobic environment which slows down the decomposition of
organic matter. Peat is formed when the accumulation rate of organic matter
exceeds its decomposition rate. Peat accumulates in layers year after year to form
deposits which may reach 20 m deep. A peat swamp can be regarded as a single
hydrological unit which may consist of various interconnected sub-catchments
(Kselik and Liong 2004). Lowland peatlands are characteristically dome-shaped (the
cross section is lenticular or lens-shaped) and thus the peat thickness varies -
shallower at the peatland edge and increasing towards the peat dome apex. A
depiction of how the peat dome is formed is available below.
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Figure 5. Formation of tropical peatlands
Malaysian peatsoils are defined as soil with high organic matter content (more
than 65%) and a depth of at least 50 cm. Estimates of the extent of peatlands in
Malaysia range from 2.3 to 2.8 MHA with most around 2.7 MHA. Originally peat
swamp forests (PSF) covered all peatlands in Malaysia. Over the years development
pressures on PSF have seen its total area reduced. An estimated 1.5 MHA of PSF
still remains in Malaysia; 70% located in Sarawak, less than 20% in Peninsular
Malaysia and the remainder in Sabah (UNDP 2006). The area of PSF under
Permanent Reserved Forest in Peninsular Malaysia is 0.26 MHA (Forestry
Department of Peninsular Malaysia 2014), and in Sarawak 0.32 MHA remains as
Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) (Chai 2005).
Importance of Tropical Peatlands
The uniqueness of tropical peat as discussed above allow it to also support a unique
ecosystem that is an important reservoir of biodiversity and performs invaluable
ecosystem services, and have national and local economic significance as well as
educational and research value, as detailed in the table below.
Table 5. Benefits of intact peatlands
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Whilst PSFs are less species-rich than mixed dipterocarp forest in terms of
tree species, it comprises vegetation communities that are globally significant for
biodiversity conservation (most significantly those of the peat domes in Sarawak).
For example, Alan (Shorea albida) and Kapur paya (Dryobalanops rappa) trees are
endemic to north-west Borneo. These ecosystems are also home to many rare and
endemic flora and fauna species due to the ecosystem’s unique characteristics
(Posa et al. 2011). They are home to at least 60 vertebrate species listed as globally
threatened. These include the Orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus), Proboscis monkey
(Nasalis larvatus) and Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatranus) (UNDP
2006). A range of reptile species has been recorded in peatlands in Malaysia,
including four species of global significance. The black waters of the peat swamp
forests are known to have some of the highest freshwater fish biodiversity in the
world.
The peatland ecosystem provides various ecosystem services to communities
(Maltby and Acreman 2011), especially in terms of reservoirs of water. As explained
above, in their natural state peatlands are waterlogged due to a high water table,
high permeability and high water retention capability. During periods of heavy rainfall
peatlands act as natural reservoirs, absorbing and storing water like a sponge and
thus mitigating floods. They release this water gradually during dry periods, thereby
maintaining base flows in rivers and mitigating droughts in surrounding areas. Other
hydrological functions are sediment removal and prevention of saline water intrusion
(UNDP 2006). Thus, peatlands can provide a supply of water for potable and
industrial purposes year-round. Such functions are crucial to maintaining the integrity
of downstream ecosystems and in preventing economic losses to agriculture and
industry.
Tropical peat forest also provides climatic regulation services on a global level
(UNDP 2006). Peatlands are one of the few ecosystems which, in their natural state,
accumulate carbon. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is sequestered as organic carbon in the
dead organic matter comprising the peat. Peatlands are thus important carbon sinks,
preserving carbon in the organic matter accumulated over long periods of peat
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formation (Page and Banks 2007). Maltby (1997) estimates that 70 gigatonnes (GT)
or up to 20% of total soil carbon, is stored in peatlands.
Peatlands also play an important role in a country’s economy, as a source of
both timber and non-timber forest products (NTFP). In Malaysia a substantial
number of poor households lives on and adjacent to peatlands, which can play a vital
socio-economic role in local communities’ well-being. The ecosystem has long
provided these local communities with sustenance (meat from wild animals, fish),
building materials and NTFP such as vegetables and medicinal, ornamental or resin-
producing plants. These they collect to use and also sell for cash (Page et al. 2006).
They also use peatlands as reserve areas for agricultural extension.
An a larger scale, peatlands are also important in terms of its role in the oil
palm sector. In 2014, Malaysia contributed 42% of the global palm oil trade, making
it the fourth largest contributor to the Malaysian economy, employing some 600,000
people (JPM 2015). World demand has led to the opening of even more areas for
plantations, and the scarcity of suitable agricultural land areas forces peatland areas
to be used. In 2009, 13% of total plantation area was on peatlands (Wahid et al
2010). Sarawak has 37% of its oil palm plantations on peat, as the figure below
shows. These plantations have brought socio-economic benefits to rural
communities, especially in terms of employment. In this way, local communities living
on peatland areas are able to supplement their income received from collecting
NTFPs.
Figure 6. Percentage of oil palm area planted on peatland
Peatlands are also a precious educational and research resource. Peatlands’
unique ecosystems provide huge potential for research and development in various
scientific fields such as socio-economics, biodiversity, climate change and
biotechnology. It is also likely that many new plant and animal species will be
discovered in peat swamp forests in the future, since only a relatively small number
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of biodiversity surveys have so far been conducted in PSF, compared to other types
of forest in Malaysia.
Peatland Use and Conversion
Even though it is clear that pristine peatlands offer many important benefits,
developmental pressures on PSF have seen a substantial change in its use. Land
use change in the peatlands in Southeast Asia, especially in Indonesia and
Malaysia, can be broadly categorised into three types: timber extraction, conversion
to agriculture, and to a lesser extent, development of settlements and infrastructure3.
Although the variety of timber species in PSF is lower compared to its lowland
counterparts, the species found in PSF are of high value, for example the highly
sought-after Ramin (Gonystylus bancanus) (Fatimah & Indraneil, 2006; Chai, 2005).
Ramin and other commercial species are harvested from tropical PSFs, mostly
under selective management system monitored by the forest departments, but also
sometimes illegally. Illegal logging in PSFs is often linked to clear-felling as a way to
prepare for conversion into agriculture (explained below). Timber extraction in a PSF
required canals to be built to transport the logs out of the forest.
Agriculture has also been a major driver for land use change in peat areas.
Over the past 20 years, more than 1 MHA of peatlands having been converted for
agricultural purposes in Malaysia. To prepare peatlands for agriculture purposes,
canals have to be built to lower the water table, vegetation (including the stumps of
residual trees ) have to be removed, and sometimes the peat has to be compacted
to improve water moisture management. Because of the high moisture levels, only
certain crops are suitable, for instance oil palm, rubber, sago, coconut, paddy and
pineapple. In Malaysia, oil palm occupied the largest agricultural area on peat with a
total of 666.038 ha, with 66% of the total area in Sarawak (see table below).
Table 6. Oil palm crop area on peatland (Adapted from Wahid et al., 2010)
Region Area
ha %
Peninsular Malaysia 207,458 31.2
Sabah 21,406 3.2
Sarawak 437,174 65.6
Total 666,038 100
The conversion and development of peatlands without proper management
can result in various deleterious outcomes. Peatland conversion leads to changes in
3 The high costs involved in specific construction methods to avoid consolidation and settlement
makes urban development rare on peat.
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the composition and structure of the pre-existing vegetation. For instance, logging
leads to a loss of canopy cover. Miettinen et al. (2011) showed high levels of canopy
loss in peatland areas of Southeast Asia that relate positively with the rate of
deforestation. In less than 20 years 5.1 MHA of the total 15.5 MHA of peatlands had
been deforested (Miettinen et al. 2010).
Canals that are constructed for logging and other drainage activities inevitably
drain the water out of the peat dome and lead to changes in the hydrological regime,
causing a decrease in peat moisture (Seigert et al. 2001, Ainuddin et al. 2006). Dry
peat is extremely combustible and fires spread easily even when water tables are
close to the surface (Sabah Forestry Department 2005, Lo and Parish 2013). Most
fires burning in peat soil occur as smouldering combustion below the peat surface,
and can persist for weeks or longer. Fires have been found to occur in unmanaged
peatlands commonly within or near plantations. Fire incidents in Raja Musa Forest
Reserve for the past 10 years have been linked back to drainage resulting from
existing logging canals. Furthermore, there is a trend of recurrent fires in peat areas.
Grasses such as Lallang (Imperata cylindrica) and ferns such as Gleichenia spp.
colonise burnt peat swamp forest and suppress the regeneration of trees (Ainuddin
and Goh 2010). The burnt areas are thus open and become drier and more
flammable during dry periods and these conditions encourage the recurrence of
fires.
Burning causes changes in peat physical characteristics such as hydraulic
conductivity and peat bulk density (Lailan et al. 2004). Combustion of biomass fuels
also produces gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), methane and nitrogen oxide.
High concentrations of total suspended particulates (in smoke) degrade air quality,
cause light scattering and lower visibility, or in other words, haze (Cheang et al.
1991). Other detrimental impacts of peat fires include the significant decrease or loss
of important endemic flora and fauna populations (which may lead to a long term
reduction in biodiversity), and negative effects on the socio-economic status of
communities dependent on peatland resources.
Most importantly, fires can also cripple an important ecological service that is
provided by peatlands, which is carbon sequestration. Fires lead to the release of
high levels of CO2 (as mentioned above, peatlands are a vitally important carbon
sink) and other greenhouse gasses (GHG) like methane (CH4) into the atmosphere
(Page et al. 2002), due to the decomposition and degradation of the exposed and
burnt organic materials. CO2 emissions from drained peatlands in Southeast Asia
were estimated at between 355 and 855 metric tonnes per year (MTy-1) in 2006
(Hooijer et al. 2010). CO2 is also, of course, implicated in global climate change.
Policy and Administrative Frameworks
The use and conversion of peatlands in Malaysia is underpinned by an extensive
policy and administrative framework, with a general aim to reduce the negative
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impacts of peatland development as detailed above. These policies further intend to
integrate biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management in development and
planning processes.
While land and natural resources in Malaysia are mainly managed at the state
level, there are several overarching national policies that guide the formation of state
government’s own policies and regulations 4 . The National Forest Policy 1978
(amended 1992) was formulated to ensure sustainable forest resource management
and development including in peat swamp forests in line with national interests and
goals. In 1992 the policy was revised as a consequence of growing concern over the
importance of the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of genetic
resources and the role of local communities in forest development. The policy
establishes that Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) should comprise sufficient areas,
strategically located throughout the country and designated in accordance with the
concept of rational land use5. Other policies that support the National Forest Policy
are the National Policy on Biological Diversity 1998, the National Policy on the
Environment 2002, the National Agricultural Policy 2003, and the Common Vision for
Biodiversity 2009. Malaysia’s Five-year Development Plans also reflect the
promotion of natural resources management.
There are also policies that more specifically deal with peatland management.
The National Wetland Policy 2004 calls for sustainable and wise use of wetlands
with respect to their ecological characteristics. The National Physical Plan
complements this policy by recommending that all important wetlands be conserved
and gazetted as Protected Areas and managed as Environmentally Sensitive Areas
(ESA) (areas of critical importance in terms of the goods, services and life-support
systems they provide, such as water purification, pest control and erosion
regulation). All these policies are tied in to Malaysia’s larger National Policy on
Climate Change 2010, due to peatlands’ well-understood role in climate regulation.
The above policies are supported by institutional arrangements consisting of
both formal government organizational structures as well as informal structures6 that
are in place. These arrangements are crucial as they provide the government at all
levels (federal, provincial and local) with the administrative framework within which to
formulate and implement policies. In Malaysia, federal level agencies are responsible
for implementing policies, action plans and guidelines. They require state
governments’ cooperation on enforcement because land is a state matter and state
4 In Sarawak the Sarawak Forest Ordinance 1954 provides the necessary legal framework while in
Sabah, the Sabah Forest Enactment 1968 provides the legal backing to ensure the implementation of
state forest policy (Woon and Norini 2002).
5 The peatlands classified under PFEs in Sarawak are managed under this policy.
6 Informal institutional structures include the general public, non-government organisations and private sector groups that are not official institutions.
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governments decide on land use planning and enforce the necessary requirements.
As such, coordination between different agencies, both at the federal and national
level, is important to ensure the success of any programme related to conservation
of natural resources.
In terms of an overall administrative framework, the Economic Planning Unit
under the prime Minister’s Department has established an Environment and Natural
Resource Economic Section that is responsible for leading and coordinating the
national environmental and natural resources stability with better efficiency and
effectiveness. Under this framework, the key ministries and agencies involved in
forest, land, agriculture, water and wildlife resources management include the
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) and its Department of
Environment (DOE), Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities (MPIC),
Ministry of Agriculture and Agrobased Industry (MOA), Ministry of Energy, Green
Technology and Water (KeTTHA), Ministry of Urban Wellbeing, Housing and Local
Government, Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD, focal point for the FDRS
detailed in the previous group’s report), and the Department of Agriculture (DOA).
At the regional level, there are several peatland specific plans that have been
briefly mentioned in Working Group 1’s report, which can be dealt with in a more
detailed manner here. Specifically, the ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy
(APMS) 2006 aims to promote sustainable management of peatlands in ASEAN
region through collective actions and enhanced cooperation to support and sustain
livelihoods, reduce risks of fire associated haze and contribute to global environment
management. Implementation at the national levels would be through the
development and implementation of National Action Plans (Malaysia’s NAP has
been discussed in Working Group 1). Implementation at the regional level is through
the the ASEAN Peatland Forests Project (APFP-SEApeat) (2009-2014) run by
Global Environment Facility and funded by the European Union. Following the
success of the APFP and SEApeat projects, the ASEAN Environment Ministers
endorsed the development of the ASEAN Programme on Sustainable Management
of Peatland Ecosystem (APSMPE) for the years 2014-2020.
Issues and Challenges
With continuous peatland degradation and fire incidences taking place, questions are
being asked about the effectiveness of the available governance infrastructure and
tools detailed above. The root cause of these problems must be identified in order to
move forward towards a haze-free region. Working Group 2 has identified several
root causes, namely ineffective policies and implementation, improper peatland and
water management, and socio-economic issues. These root causes lead to further
issues, e.g. failed projects on peatlands and abandoned degraded peatlands.
If examined closely, it becomes clear that the plethora of policies detailed
above are actually not harmonised, especially in terms of peatland management.
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The Malaysian policy framework suffers from serious gaps that create conflicts for
peatland management, and are insufficient to prevent peatland degradation and
particularly fires. Sometimes, resistance from stakeholders have prevented cetain
sensitive things to be included into policy guidelines, like preventing soil emissions
from being better represented in the formulation of climate policies. The potential for
peatland management measures to mitigate soil emissions could be better utilised
by reviewing agricultural and land use policies to include soil type and societal costs
as criteria in decisions affecting croplands management. Policies should be
supported by other mechanisms to yield success stories about GHG mitigation by
land use measures. This is further compounded by ineffective law enforcement that
enables illegal activities in forest and peatland areas, such as land clearing by
burning, particularly in forest and land concessions belonging to corporations, to
continue.
Apart from policy weaknesses, peatlands in Malaysia are poorly managed
because there is a lack of understanding of peat in itself. The lack of understanding
on peatlands is exemplified by the lack of an approved definition for, and
classification of, peatlands, due largely to a poor understanding of peatland
ecosystems, functions, issues and management options. Such knowledge is
important for policy makers to write policy, land use decision makers to base
decisions, management to write guidelines and local communities to make decisions
on how to make a sustainable living from peatlands. Furthermore, there are also
difficulties in accessing whatever existing information from government ministries,
departments and agencies. Consequently stakeholders often disregard the
complexity of peatlands, resulting in outcomes such as peatland utilisation heavily
focused on meeting short-term objectives rather than long-term sustainability.
A lack of understanding of peatlands leads to another problem, which is the
lack of knowledge on how to safely prepare land on peat for development. The
selected site must be assessed thoroughly (including its topography, types, depth
and hydrology) to ensure the correct implementation of various operations during
land clearing and preparation. However, this is rarely conducted because it is a very
laborious and time consuming process. The drainage process also must be done
very carefully. From a hydrological perspective, peat swamp forest and adjacent
peatlands must be managed and monitored as a single hydrological unit in order to
maintain the integrity of a healthy peat swamp forest (Zakaria 1997, Pahang Forestry
Department 2005), and this is difficult to do without proper knoweldge. Thus,
drainage in developed areas often influence adjacent non-drained peat areas,
exacerbating the drying process. As a whole, peatland utilisation without proper
management is subject to inherent degradation which continuously lowers the land’s
economic value. Over time, these landscapes may achieve low productivity or lack
productivity, leading to a large-scale abandonment. These abandoned areas are at
an even higher risk of fires because of a lack of active management.
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Another challenge in land preparation is the land clearing work. When a peat
swamp forest is initially cleared for development, the surface is full of un-
decomposed woody materials. The presence of these materials prevents the land
from being used for cultivation. It is difficult and expensive to use heavy machinery to
clear these woody ‘waste’ as the peat soil is soft. Thus, smallholders and developers
often resort to using fire as a cheaper alternative to clear these materials. Working
Group 3 specifically focuses on this challenge, namely on how to incentivise
smallholders and developers not to burn these waste materials.
All the above are especially out of reach for local communities living around
peatlands and relying on these lands for their livelihoods. Most people living in and
around peatlands are relatively poor and possess only primary levels of education.
They may inadvertently degrade peatlands through the way they manage the land,
which will result in gradual losses of their livelihoods. And of course, they may also
resort to burning for their own agricultural needs simply because they cannot afford
to do it any other way. There is a lack of material designed to engage society and
make the scientifically complex and technical ideas related to sustainable peatland
use understandable to local communities. Cross- or inter-sectoral coordination and
communication between the government agencies, scientists and other stakeholders
with local communities are essentially weak. This has further led to the emergence of
conflicts over peatland utilisation, and as mentioned above, sometimes communities
resort to burning to resolve these conflicts.
Conclusion
The report produced by Working Group 2 has highlighted several important things.
Most importantly, it has clearly sown the importance of, firstly the conservation of
pristine peatlands, and secondly, the sustainable management of peatlands that
have already been developed. Both of these things are vitally important in terms of
the maintenance of biodiversity, the provision of ecosystem services (water
management and climate regulation), economic livelihoods of surrounding
communities, and most importantly, the avoidance and reduction of fire incidences
which lead to haze episodes. However, it has become clear that the sustainable
management of peatlands face many challenges. Communities living adjacent to
peat areas often are not made aware of their impact on the peatlands. Commercial
developers are also no different, suffering from a combination of ignorance and also
the impetus to be most economically efficient in their business. The policy and
administrative frameworks presently in place in Malaysia and at the regional level are
still inadequate and ineffectively implemented, made obvious by the fact that
peatlands in the region continue to be degraded and catch fire at an alarming rate. A
serious underlying cause for all this is the unique nature of tropical peat, which
requires highly specialized knowledge to manage and conserve effectively. There is
much room for improvement, especially in communicating the uniqueness and
importance of these peatlands to all stakeholders involved.
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Way Forward
The above exercise to determine peatland-related issues and challenges in the
Action Area section allow strategies to be developed that are focused directly at the
source of the problem. Working Group 2 has harnessed its group members’
extensive expertise in various aspects of peatland-related knowledge to come up
with an extensive plan moving forward. Working Group 2’s strategy is divided into
two clear approaches, one being solutions that can be implemented in the short-
term, and the other for the long-term outlook. As a whole, these recommendations
aim to first of all reduce and eventually eliminate haze-causing fires on peatlands
(especially in Malaysia), and secondly, to ensure best management practices on
developed peatlands in general. This strategy is clearly depicted in the table below.
Table 7. Summary Table
Solutions Details
Short Term Strategies to prevent, reduce risk of, and ameliorate results of fire through Integrated Fire Management (IFM).
Long Term Effective Policies and Regulations
Social and Economic Issues
Introducing sustainable income-generating activities to local communities.
Effective Communication
Current knowledge, understanding and technology need to be circulated transparently through the peat knowledge chain.
Society need to be educated on the importance of continued protection and rehabilitation of damaged peatland forests
Effective Peatland Management
Accurate and up-to-date information
Good land preparation
Best water management practices
Prevention of fire on abandoned peat swamp forest.
Dam construction and canal blocking strategies
Research and Development
In the short term, Working Group 2 prescribes strategies to prevent, reduce
the risk of, and ameliorate results of fire through the Integrated Fire Management
(IFM) method. The IFM method aims to address the problems and issues posed by
unwanted fires holistically within the context of the natural environment and socio-
economic systems. It combines the components of fire management, namely
Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Recovery, to provide a holistic and
scalable framework. It also provides all stakeholders with guidance on how to
implement actions at the appropriate time and scale to prepare for, and manage any
fire situation. The 80:20 rule is key to this approach: 80% of the effort/resources
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need to be put into fire prevention as compared to 20% toward fire suppression. A
failure to emphasise the prevention and preparedness aspects of fire management
(even if there are only limited resources to begin with) will cause the continued cycle
of unwanted fire spreading across the wider peatland landscapes. IFm should be
coupled with Community Based Fire Management (CBFiM) planning, which enables
the landscape to be drafted out according to local knowledge and planning for
peatland ecosystem management and protection from fire. Detailed step-by-step
guidelines of the recommended IFM method is outlined in the following diagram.
Figure 7. The components of Integrated Fire Management
In the long term, Working Group 2 has proposed 6 areas to improve upon
moving forward: policies and regulations, management of issues related to socio-
economic conditions, communications, peatland management, prevention of fire on
abandoned peatland, and research and development.
In the effort to improve policies and regulations, the group proposes the ‘multi-
door approach’ that seeks to establish coherence between the inquiry, investigation
and prosecution of forestry crimes. This approach encourages the consideration of
environmental crimes as equivalent to crimes such as corruption, money laundering
and tax evasion, and prioritizes crimes committed by corporations or corporate
actors. Under this approach, several changes should be done to the present system
of policy implementation in Malaysia:
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(1) Investigators should collect data on landowners at the beginning of
planting season to ensure accountability. This can be done with the
assistance of satellite technology
(2) Licenses and permits for activities in peatland areas to concessionaires
who cause fires should be immediately revoked
(3) Dedicated personnel must ensure that the land now under government
control is well managed and there is no effort from other entities to
convert the land into plantations or sell the cleared land to individual
investors
(4) All this must be coupled with strong public campaigns to sensitize the
public and targeted stakeholders to the dangers of fires and peat
degradation
In terms of improving the management of issues related to socio-economic
conditions of the communities living adjacent to peatlands, there should be efforts to
introduce sustainable income-generating activities to them. This will provide the
locals with more livelihood options and could potentially contribute to solving other
more complex social problems related to peatland management.
Communication is definitely key in resolving an issue as complex as peatland
and fire management. According to recent research by Lakoff (2010), reframing
complex problems for public engagement is fundamental to break through
communication barriers and generate new ways of thinking by stakeholders. At the
technical level, current knowledge, understanding and technology need to be
circulated transparently through the peat knowledge chain. This will help ensure a
continued sense of ownership and empowerment at all levels of society and
stakeholders to protect the remaining peat landscape. At the policy-making level, the
importance of communicating scientific findings to support policy development is
especially important, as was demonstrated during a recent survey (Padfield et al.
2014) when respondents gave the highest priority (38%) to the question: “How can
current scientific knowledge be synthesized and translated into policy-relevant
information to aid policy and decision-making, management and to suggest further
research?” A better communication policy could be realized by better coordination of
research conducted by research institutions, better use of social media to promote
and create public dialogue on critical issues, multi-stakeholder activities such as field
visits and active public engagement with governmental agencies to positively
influence the policy process. Working Group 3’s report contains a detailed case
study on the Tropical Peat Research laboratory (TPRL) and its efforts to engage in
effective scientific communication with local communities in Sarawak for sustainable
peatland management, which could potentially be applied to other parts of the
country.
To improve the effectiveness of peatland management in the long term, three
things are needed: accurate and up-to-date information, good knowledge of land
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preparation, and best water management practices. In terms of information
management, the locations, areas, and status of peatlands are a basic need, and
this would require investment and adoption of the latest Geographic Information
System (GIS) technologies.
Good planning and the correct sequence of land preparation steps are
important prerequisites prior to peatland conversion in order to achieve high yields,
lower susceptibility of these lands to fire, and overall sustainable peatland
development. There has to be concerted efforts to educate and assist stakeholders
on proper site selection (including its topography, types, depth and hydrology), drain
development (based topograpical surveys that can indicate the best location of
outlets), and compaction or re-compaction (to increase water retention capacity).
Detailed explanations of each of these methods are available in the full Working
Group 2 report in the Annex.
A good water management plan is an essential part of a good management
plan for any plantation on peat, not least to reduce the fire risk. A good water
management system for oil palm on peat is one that can effectively maintain a water
level of 50-70 cm below the bank in collection drains or a 40-60 cm groundwater
piezometer reading. The moist peat surface at this water level should also help to
minimize the risk of accidental peat fires. Water management on peat is site specific
and needs to consider the wider implications on surrounding areas, stormwater
detention periods, as well as to avoid un-drainable situations, especially in areas
where the mineral subsoil is below Mean Water Levels. Stakeholders and
developers must also be educated and assisted in the elements of a good water
management system on peatlands. This would include an initial hydrological survey
of the area, an integrated flood water management and water level management
system, good utilization of water management maps, and continuous drainage
system improvement and maintenance. In addition, oil palm plantations should also
have the in–house proficiency to develop and implement good water management
plans that take into account impacts on the surroundings. Details into each of these
steps are also available in the full Working Group 2 Report.
Abandoned peatswamps pose high risk of fires, not to mention also having
deleterious impacts on the global climate. These abandoned areas thus must be
managed ‘back to life’. New knowledge is needed on the current status of
abandoned agricultural peatland, the cause of abandonment, the impacts of
abandonment, and restoration approaches. Re-creation of moist conditions (usually
through dam construction and canal blocking) are believed to prevent fire outbreaks
and help initiate the re-establishment of forest vegetation. However, recent research
by Baekman (2006) indicate that there may be problems with the use of dams in
peat areas in the long term, so this area requires further investigation.
Finally, there is a lot more that we still do not know about tropical peatlands.
Research findings are the drivers for informed policy developments and effective
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peatland management to prevent peat fires and other adverse environmental
impacts. The goal of zero haze in the region requires science that bridges institutions
and comes from various fields: natural disaster (fire science), soil, ecosystem,
hydrology, policy, politics and industry. Urgent areas of study include the invention
and deployment of technologies to preserve intact peatlands, build dams and canals
on peatlands developed for plantations and hybrid engineering systems to monitor
and manage water tables in peatlands to prevent over-draining that could lead to
peat fires. Researchers from multidisciplinary research areas need to communicate
with each other to close the knowledge gaps especially for tropical peat, and more
importantly to speak to the debate over utilizing versus conserving peat.
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Waste to Resources: Energy or Materials
As the previous two sections have elaborated, finding long term solutions to alleviate
the regional haze problem is a complex challenge. The earlier working groups have
proposed multi-pronged strategies ranging from a direct approach of causal
elimination with the banning of open burning through legislation and enforcement, to
a more indirect socio-political approach of dealing with the root cause which many
believe to be associated to land grabbing. Other initiatives such as plans to build
drainage/canal systems in peatland areas as a means of underground soil wetting
have also been considered.
Working Group 3 focuses on another possible solution: an economic one.
This working group focuses on the fact that a substantial amount of biomass
residues are generated at various stages of the planting and harvesting process on
(small-, medium-, and large-scale) plantations. Especially in the preparation stage, a
lot of residue is produced in the process of clearing undergrowth and vegetation.
Often times due to, among others, the time-consuming mulching process and also as
a form of pest control, these plantations resort to burning the biomass residues on
site, as a quick and easy way to get rid of them. As detailed in the previous working
groups, such burning activity is a significant contributor to smoke in the atmosphere
during the haze season. Such a situation is especially dire when the burning is done
on fire-prone peatlands.
Hence, Working Group 3 explores a potential economic solution to the above
scenario; the possibility of utilizing the biomass produced on plantations to become a
higher value bio-product. The rationale is that the creation of value for the hitherto
burnt biomass should provide the incentive for plantations and farmers to view the
biomass as a source of ‘wealth’, not ‘waste’. Should this sustainable practice of
economic harvesting (‘earn, not ‘burn’!) prove to be economically sound, there
should be less plantations and farmers resorting to fire as a way to clear the biomass
residues. When fires are no longer used, there should be much less incidences of
haze resulting from manmade fires that have spread out of control. This would then
be a positive step towards substantially reducing the severity of haze episodes in the
region.
Various technologies exist to convert biomass resources into heat and power,
such as gasification and direct firing combustion. However, technologies for
converting bioenergy are still new and only several have been successfully
commercialised. Many of these technologies are still being piloted or are in the R&D
stage. This report explores technologies related to the conversion of biomass into
heat and power as well as bioethanol, considering the suitability of each method as a
promising strategy to help mitigate transboundary pollution experienced in the
region. Case studies are also presented for possible extension into detailed studies
at a later stage.
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Biomass Residues
Biomass refers to any organic, decomposable matter derived from plants or animals
available on a renewable basis. Its availability is distinguished between those
generated on the site of growth (forests, plantations) and those generated at the
point of processing. Biomass residues generated in the forests, fields or plantations
are the major contributor to haze episodes in Southeast Asia due to on-site fires
occurring during the dry, field preparation season. Additionally, parts of Malaysia and
Indonesia are made up of large areas of peat forest which is also highly combustible
during dry season. As explained in the previous working group report, peat forest fire
becomes very difficult to control, due to its abundance of underground biomass.
For example, the island of Sumatera, Indonesia, consists of 9,680,020ha of
dipterocarp forest, 7,447,358ha of peat forest, and 12,209,475ha of oil palm
plantations, as shown in the map and table below. In the year 2015, it was estimated
that approximately 5,385,815,232Mg of biomass could be obtained from Sumatera,
with 1,675,655,508Mg of biomass from peat forests and 1,080,538,533Mg of
biomass from oil palm plantations.
Figure 8. Land use distribution in Sumatera, Indonesia
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Table 8. Land use in Sumatera in year 2015/2016
Type of Land use Area (Ha) Biomass (Mg/ha)
Biomass (Mg)
Dipt Forest 9,680,020 149 1,439,419,021
Peat Forest 7,447,358 225 1,675,655,508
Mangrove Forest 4,675,206 250 1,168,801,419
Oil Palm 12,209,475 89 1,080,538,533
Rubber 2,922,534 2 6,517,252
Paddy 741,089 2 1,482,178
Other Agriculture 6,700,660 2 13,401,320
Non vegetated 3,000,000 - -
TOTAL 47,376,343 5,385,815,232
For the purpose of this report, only lignocellulosic biomass residues
originating from primary or secondary forest, agricultural plantations and peat forests
shall be considered. The typical composition of lignocellulosic biomass is 5-30%
lignin, 19-27% hemicellulose and 30-50% cellulose (Liu et al., 2014).
Open burning of forest biomass residues and oil palm plantation biomass
residues have been found to be the most likely sources of smoke haze. The
chemical composition of forest biomass and oil palm plantation biomass are shown
in the table below. The ultimate analysis measured the elemental contents for
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur (C, H, O, N, S) which are important
indicators for energy processes and gas emissions during combustion of the
resource materials. The forest biomass showed a higher value of C (48.10%) as
compared to that of the trunk (40.64%) and frond (44.50%) of oil palm. In terms of
the lignocellulosic content which is the important composition indicator for conversion
to biofuels and biochemical, Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB) have highest amount of
cellulose (57.80%), while each type of biomass have similar lignin and hemicellulose
contents. The higher heating value (HHV) of the biomass was also compared, where
EFB has the highest value of HHV with 20.54MJ/kg, while both the trunk and frond
has slightly lower HHV than the EFB, with 17.27MJ/kg and 17.28MJ/kg respectively.
Table 9. Properties of biomass
Forest biomass
a
Oil Palm Plantation Biomass Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) c, f Oil Palm Trunk
b, c Oil Palm Frond
d, e
Proximate analysis (wt% dry basis)
Moisture content - 8.34 16.00 4.68
Volatile matter - 79.82 83.50 76.85
Fixed carbon - 13.31 15.20 5.19
Ash 1.70 6.87 1.30 18.07
Ultimate analysis (wt% dry basis)
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C 48.10 40.64 44.58 46.36
H 5.99 5.09 4.53 6.44
O 45.72 53.12 48.80 38.91
N - 2.15 0.71 2.18
S - - 0.07 0.92
Lignocellulosic content (wt% dry basis)
Cellulose 45.80 45.90 50.33 57.80
Hemicellulose 24.40 25.30 23.18 21.20
Lignin 28.00 18.10 21.7 22.80
HHV (MJ/kg) - 17.27 17.28 20.54 (Source: a. Saidur et al., 2011; b. Nimit et al., 2012, c. Oil palm biomass (www.bfdic.com),
d. Guangul et al., 2012, e. Abnisa et. al., 2011, f. Abdullah and Sulaiman, 2013)
Conversion Pathways
Transforming biomass residues to value-products and energy or biofuels involve
thermochemical, biochemical, and physical conversion processes. The pathway is
best illustrated in Figure 1. Products that can be derived from biomass can be
categorised based on economic value, namely low, medium and high value
products, as shown in the table below. Low value products such as compost require
very low investment cost and simple conversion technologies, but the product value
is relatively low. Heat and power products from biomass are considered as medium
value products, while biofuel and biochemicals products require high investment cost
resulting in the highest product value among the three categories.
Table 10. Types of product derived from biomass
Type of product Product
Low value product Compost
Medium value product Heat and power
High value product Biofuel and bio-chemicals
Composting (low)
Aerobic composting is the most commonly used biological treatment for the
conversion of organic portions of waste. It is defined as the biological decomposition
and stabilisation of organic substrates under conditions that allows development of
thermophilic temperatures as a result of biologically produced heat and compost.
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Products Conversion Technology
Oil Palm Frond
Oil Palm Leaves
Oil Palm Trunks (OPT)
OPT Sap
Squeezed Sap
Residue (SSR)
Old Oil Palm
Plantation Site
Secondary Forest
Woody
Biomass
Peat Land
Peat/
Woody
Biomass
Biogas
Bio-
ethanol
Fuel
Pellet
Bio-coke
Biochemical
Conversion
Anaerobic
Digestion (AD)
Fermentation
Physical Processing
Drying and
Pelletisation
Compression
with Heating
Bio-
methane Biogas
Upgrading
Bio-solid Bio-liquid Biogas Bio-energy
Electricity
Steam
Char Bio-oil
Pyrolysis
Gas
Syngas
Torrified
Biomass
Thermochemical
Conversion
Incineration
Pyrolysis
Gasification
Torrefaction
Boiler
Steam
Turbine
Primary Secondary Bio-
chemical
Bio-
chemical
s
Composting Compost
Figure 9. Conversion of biomass to product
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Biofertilizer microorganisms are incorporated into the biomass compost to
produce bioorganic fertilizer or biofertilizer. Examples of biofertilizer microorganisms
are N2 fixing bacteria (Rhizobium spp.., Azospirillum spp. Azotobacter spp.),
phosphate solubilising microbes (Bacillus spp., Klebsiella spp.,Penicillium spp) and
plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria, (Azotobacter spp., Enterobacter spp.).
Several large plantation companies in Malaysia, e.g. FELDA, FELCRA and
Sime Darby are embarking on their own biofertilizer production, especially for oil
palm. Oil palm production has largely been dependent on chemical fertilizers. These
companies’ interest in biofertilizer is partly due to the increasing cost of chemical
fertilizers, particularly urea, and partly to awareness on green technology for crop
production. It is estimated that 60% of costs of production in oil palm are on
fertilizers. On top of that, Malaysia is facing infertile soil due to the loss of top soil
and years of planting on the same soil, in addition to increasing pest and diseases.
Power generation (medium)
Conversion of biomass resources to power and heat requires several steps including
biomass fuel preparation (pre-treatment, pre-drying, size reduction) and selection of
conversion technology. The fuel preparation (pelletising) process as shown in the
figure below improves the physical, chemical and combustion properties over those
of the raw biomass. It also improves the characteristics of the biomass in its
utilisation as direct fuel as shown in the table below.
Figure 10. Process of biomass pelletising
Table 11. Characteristics of shredded and pelletised EFB
Characteristics Shredded EFB Pelletised EFB
Calorific value, CV (kJ/kg)
8500 15051
Moisture content (%) 45 12
Amount of fuel required to produce 1 ton of
steam 350-400 kg 200 kg
Fuel cost (RM/ton) RM 15 – 70 RM 450 1Bulk Density (kg/m3) 150 689
1Combined Cycle Efficiency (%)
31.8 32.3
1Electricity generation cost ($/kWh)
0.063 0.072
Transportation cost RM 45/ton for distance of 80-100 km, extra cost will
be charged for additional distance
Biomass Drying Grinding Pelletising
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(1Source: Pirraglia et al., 2012)
Biomass to power conversion systems fall into two categories, i.e. the direct-
fired and gasification systems. The direct-fired category includes stoker boilers,
fluidised bed boilers, and co-firing. The gasification category on the other hand
includes fixed bed gasifiers and fluidised bed gasifiers. The technologies for
conversion of biomass for power generation are summarised in the table below.
Table 12. Summary of Biomass to Power Conversion Technologies
Biomass Conversion Technology
Common Fuel Types
Feed Size
(inches)
Moisture Content
(%)
Capacity Range (MW)
Direct Firing Stoker grate,
underfire stoker boilers
Sawdust, bark, chips, hog fuel, shavings, end
cuts, sander dust
0.25 - 2 10-50 4-300
Fluidized bed boiler
Wood residue, peat, wide variety
of fuels < 2 <60 300
Cofiring—pulverized coal boilers
Sawdust, bark, shavings, sander
dust <0.25 <25 1000
Cofiring—stoker,
fluidized bed boilers
Sawdust, bark, shavings, hog fuel
<2
10-50 300
Gasifiers Fixed bed
gasifier
Chipped wood or hog fuel, shells, sewage sludge
0.25-4 <20 50
Fluidized bed gasifier
Most wood and agriculture residues
0.25-2 15-30 25
(Source: Based on Wright, 2006)
The current application of biomass to power in Malaysia is focused on the
utilisation of EFB due to it high HHV content and abundant feedstock from palm oil
mills. To date, there is no implementation of forest biomass or oil palm plantation
biomass to power in Malaysia. Nevertheless, forest biomass and oil palm plantation
biomass has been shown to have similar HHV content as EFB (20 MJ/kg compared
to 17MJ/kg), hence making these materials a potential source for power generation.
Malaysia started utilising biomass in power generation in the year 2003,
where a 7.5MW integrated biomass co-generation plant was established in FELDA
Sahabat, Lahad Datu, Sabah by the FELDA Global Ventures Holdings Bhd (FGV).
The power plant uses EFB as feedstock generating heat and power for demands
within the company mill (kernel crushing), refinery and surrounding communities.
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The project was the first Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Project in Malaysia.
With the investment cost of 38 million ringgit, the biomass power plant successfully
reduced 377,902t of CO2 emission by the end of 2012 (CDM, 2006). The project is
marked as one of the key success of renewable energy development in Malaysia as
it is the first large scale co-generation plant in the world to solely utilise treated EFB
combustion fuel. Malaysia’s industries were encouraged by the government to invest
R&D efforts and to study the feasibility of applying this model throughout the
country's industrial sector.
Biomass to Biofuel/Biochemical (high)
Maximum valorisation (value) of biomass can be achieved by its conversion into
biofuels and biochemicals. The conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to biofuels and
biochemicals follow similar routes that consists of pretreatment, hydrolysis, microbial
conversion and purification, as illustrated below . While the process of conversion to
biofuels in the form of bioethanol has been commercially established, the processes
for conversion to other biofuels such as butanol and biochemicals are not
commercially available at the present time.
Figure 11. Process of conversion into biofuels and biochemicals
Pretreatment is required to disrupt the lignin outer layer and expose the
carbohydrates for hydrolysis to produce monomeric sugars compatible for
fermentation. This may encompass physical (i.e. crushing, pulverisation, etc.) and
thermo-chemical processes optionally coupled with biological pretreatment.
Hydrolysis refers to processes that convert the polysaccharides into
monomeric sugars prior to microbial conversion. There are two different types of
hydrolysis; acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis. While acid hydrolysis is able to
produce high yields of simple sugars, it suffers from the disadvantage of extensive
acid requirement, costly acid recycling and undesirable degradation of products
which renders it commercially less appealing. Enzymatic hydrolysis needs an
efficient pretreatment which increases the porosity of the lignocellulosic substrate,
making the cellulose more accessible to cellulases and improving the enzymatic
digestibility of the substrate. Cellulase enzymes from the fungus Trichoderma reesei
have a proven efficiency and productivity in this function. Advances in enzyme-based
technology for ethanol production have been substantial over the years, and as a
result, ethanol production costs have been reduced considerably.
The monosaccharides formed by the hydrolysis process are then fermented to
produce ethanol (conversion). Industrial yeasts such as S. cerevisiae have proven
track records with high yields in the brewery and wine industries. However, wild
Pretreatment Hydrolysis Conversion Purification
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S.cerevisae is capable of fermenting only C6 hexoses which makes it incompatible
for saccharification of a large proportion of hemicellulosic biomass mainly constituted
by pentose sugars such as D-xylose (Martin et al., 2002). In response to such
limitations, genetically engineered microorganisms have been extensively employed
and are capable of concurrently fermenting pentose and hexose sugars with little
amounts of toxic end-products, while having high tolerance to chemical inhibitors
derived from the pretreatment and hydrolysis processes. Process variations such as
a simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) process has been
developed to enable parallel hydrolysis and fermentation reactions in one single
reactor, but these processes tend to compromise on yields due to different operating
temperatures of the hydrolysis and fermentation processes.
In the final step, the ethanol is then recovered and purified through a
distillation process incorporating normal and azeotropic distillation.
Economic Potential
Economic conversions of biomass range from low investment and low returns
biofertilizer to high investment and high returns biochemicals. Biofertilizers are
economical only when the biomass residues are readily available for conversion
without additional transportation costs such as EFB from palm oil mills. Biopellets
can command a higher price, but only if exported to energy deficient countries. It is
not economical for local consumption due to the abundance of biomass available
locally and that extra costs involved in the pelletising process. Biochemicals on the
other hand are not fully commercialised yet. Most of the biochemicals produced are
still in piloting stage, hence the lack of data available for the purpose of this study.
Thus, this report focuses into the economic potential of biomass-to-power and
biomass-to-ethanol conversions.
Taking off from the FELDA case stated earlier, this report presents the
economic potential using 2,000t/d forest and oil palm plantation biomass (OPF and
OPT) as the feedstock for power generation with main focus on electricity
production. The proposed technology is a 27MW capacity direct combustion system
with a 76% efficiency comprising of a pre-treatment drying system, fluidised bed
boilers for conversion of biomass to heat and steam, and generation of electricity
through extraction-condensing turbine. The biomass feedstock with an assumed
calorific value of 15.82MJ/kg with 16% moisture content (dry basis) (Fiseha et al.,
2012). The direct combustion technology has a 30 years plant life with investment
cost of $ 900/kW and $1050/kW for boiler and turbine respectively.
Using the net present value (NPV) economic analysis, the correlation between
the minimum electricity production cost and the equity financing is presented in
Figure 12. Minimum electricity product cost ranged from $ 0.23/kWh to $ 0.19/kWh
with variations of equity financing share of 30% to 70%. The minimum product cost
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is consider high even with the equity financing adoption as compared to the current
feed-it-tariff (FiT) incentive of $ 0.10/kWh.
The case study is repeated with different capacities (2000t/d, 1000t/d, and
500t/d), and there are plotted in Figure 12. It can be seen that there is only a
marginal reduction in the minimum electricity price (ranged from $ 0.24/kWh to $
0.19/kWh) due to economy-of scale capacity increment. This is due to the high fixed
investment cost (approximately $3000/kW), while the current FiT scheme is relatively
low. The low FiT scheme renders the biomass-to-power to be less competitive at the
current power industry market.
Figure 12. Breakeven of electricity selling price for biomass-to-power in Malaysian
context
Electricity price for changes of equity financing for conversion of biomass to power
For the case of biomass to bioethanol, an economic evaluation was also performed
to determine the minimum selling price of ethanol and power in the current economic
conditions.
The case study for biomass to bioethanol presents the economic potential
using 2000t/d biomass as the feedstock. The proposed technology is enzymatic
hydrolysis followed by fermentation with the cellulosics content in biomass of 70%
and conversion yield of the cellulosics to C5 and C6 sugar of 95%. The fermentation
process is using high substrate tolerant recombinant yeast capable of converting
30% fermentable C5 and C6 sugars to 15% ethanol. The technology has a 30 years
plant life with the total capacity cost of $ 1,094,065,600.00. The major variable cost
is assumed to be the enzyme cost of about 0.6$/gal of ethanol.
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Figure 13. Breakeven of ethanol selling price for biomass-to-ethanol in Malaysian
context
Figure 14. The price of ethanol with different capacity and capacity cost
Using the net present value (NPV) economic analysis, the correlation between
the ethanol production cost and equity financing is presented in Figure 13. For a
production capacity of 2000t/d, the production cost ranged from $ 0.64/l to $ 0.62/l
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with the movement of equity financing share from 30% to 70% which is higher than
the current market ethanol price of $ 0.58/l. Figure 13 also shows the variation of
ethanol production cost at different capacities and with variation in enzyme costs.
The plot demonstrates that economic viability from lower ethanol production cost can
be achieved at favourable equity financing ratios, higher capacities (due to economy
of scale) and lower enzyme costs.
Figure 14 shows the price of ethanol for different capacities and capacity
costs. The analysis compared the local scenario as presented above and the U.S
scenario (NREL report). In U.S scenario, the production cost is $0.67/l while in the
local scenarios it is $0.58/l and $0.63/l for capacities of 1000t/d and 2000t/d,
respectively. It shown that with the localised condition, the value of ethanol cost can
be significantly reduced
Table 13. Ethanol production cost ($/l) reduction by improving the debt: equity ratio
or interest rate
Debt : Equity ratio Interest Rate
8% 5% 3%
95:5 0.77 0.61 0.52
70:30 0.73 0.60 0.53
60:40 0.71 (0.57a) 0.60 0.53
50:50 0.69 0.60 0.54
40:60 0.67 0.59 (0.52ᵇ) 0.54
Table 13 presents the potential of ethanol production cost reduction by
improving the debt: equity (D:E) Ratio or interest rate (iR). It is shown that at the iR
of 3%, the ethanol production cost could be reduced significantly and makes it
competitive to current market value.
The two case studies presented above reviewed the economic potential of
localised biomass-to-power and ethanol in current market. For biomass-to-power,
the current FiTscheme is relatively lower than the electricity production cost,
rendering the biomass-to-power option less attrative to investors. The rate of FiT
scheme in Malaysia was established in year 2011, and is considered not up-to-date
on current renewable resources market as various RE resources have been more
economically competitative in recent years. In order to promote the utilisation of
biomass to power, the current Fit should be reviewed and revised.
The case study of biomass to ethanol, on the other hand, demonstrated a
favourable scenario to investors demonstrating that with a financial interest rate of
3%, ethanol production is economically competitive in the current market.
Nevertheless, the current interest rate stands at the rate of 5%-8% and with high
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cost of enzyme in Malaysia, there needs to be some policy and technology
intervention to enable a sustainable bioethanol industry in Malaysia.
Challenges of Biomass Conversion in Malaysia
In additional to pricing constraints as discussed above, there are also other
challenges in the way of biomass conversion in Malaysia, including investment,
technology or technical, transportation and logistics, and also socio-cultural
awareness on the issue. The following discussion details each of these challenges in
turn.
Briefly, full-scale investment into biomass conversion technologies in
Malaysia is hindered by several factors, including limited access to biomass
feedstock, limited financing resources for biomass conversion technologies, and a
lack of support from domestic market.
The technological and technical challenges of biomass conversion into
Malaysia can be divided according to type of product. Composting (low value)
technology is mature and anaerobic composting process is commonly applied.
However, this technology would result in large carbon footprint, and would lead to
odour problems if there is no proper containment of biomass waste being
composted.
For biomass-based power generation (medium value), gasification and
pyrolysis are generally less mature than direct combustion, and are more vulnerable
to technical breakdowns, accidents, or explosions due to malfunctioning. In
particular, pyrolysis has low thermal stability, and has been associated with corrosion
problems, which may hinder further upgrading of the product into bio-oils (for more
market value) (McKendry, 2002a).
In terms of biochemical and biofuel production (high value), biorefinery
processes designed to synthesise biochemicals (i.e. lactic acid, bio-sugar, polylactic
acid, food additives, zeolite and catalysts, etc.) is still at its infancy in Malaysia. This
is manifested in the lack of pilot or demonstration plants, a deficit of market-focused
research and development (R&D), and a lack of local market support for these
technologies due to their high technical and financial risks. IPs for conversion
technologies for biochemical production are now highly prized and are in the domain
of large international private companies such as DuPont and DSM.
Moving on, costs associated with transportation and logistics vary for
different biomass residues and the sites of its availability. Biomass which are
generated post-processing such as EFBs, rice husks and wood chips are available
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at the processing sites so transport costs are minimised. However, for non-
processed biomass such as oil palm tree trunks, rice straws, and non-processed
forest products, the transportation costs are a function of its distance to the
transportation network. Cost estimates range from RM0.20 to RM 10 per kilometre
per tonne based on road transport (trucks), but may differ upon the availability of
other modes of transport such as trains or barges, however in these cases transport
interfaces need to be factored in. For long distance haulage, compression and
pelletisation of biomass resource into compact forms (i.e. pellets or briquettes) would
be required (BioEnergy Consult, 2016).
Low socio-cultural awareness among stakeholders on the importance and
benefit of achieving sustainability via maximum harnessing (reuse) of biomass could
be another challenge in Malaysia. Locally, the concept of carbon footprinting is not
widely adopted or understood, and sustainability is not a major concern in business
decision-making. Moreover, in Malaysia, the concept of environmental sustainability
is not ingrained among the population. Among the three pillars of sustainability (i.e.
economic, social and environmental), practical engineering considerations only
emphasise the first two aspects. Without the enforcement of regulations, application
of biomass resources for the sake of environmental protection is not imperative for
existing businesses.
Science and Policy Interface
The Malaysian government has declared biomass as a potentially important source
of energy for Malaysia. In order to promote and enhance the development of
biomass energy, several energy policies have been developed, including:
a) Fifth Fuel Policy (2000)
b) National Bio-fuel Policy (2006)
c) National Green Technology Policy (2009)
d) National Renewable Energy Policy (2010)
These policies have been developed based on three principals, which focus
on supply, utilisation and the environment. The Government of Malaysia has also
launched several programmes to explore and promote the use of renewable energy
as an alternative fuel source. The on-going incentives and programs include Feed-in
Tariff (FiT), EU-Malaysia Biomass Sustainable Production Initiative (Biomass-SP),
East Coast Economic Region (ECER), Palm Oil Industrial Cluster (POIC) and the
National Biomass Strategy (NBS) 2020. The applicability, or lack thereof, of these
existing policies into the proposed strategies will be discussed further in the ‘way
forward’ section further below.
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Conclusion
As haze episodes may evolve into potentially complex emergencies, the
development of an effective technology for biomass utilisation is critical. Hitherto,
burning has been the preferred method for clearing biomass residue as it is the most
economical form of land clearance. Hence, it can be said that one of the main causal
factors of the transboundary haze is in fact economic motivation. In the same way,
this working group proposes an alternative economic motivation, to disincentivise
burning and incentivise ‘earning’ instead. The group argues that if an economically
sound method can be presented to plantations and farmers, this will be a great
motivator for them to move away from fire-based methods of land clearing which do
not yield any economic benefits.
The above discussion has detailed how biomass residue can potentially be
turned into value-added products such as compost, fuel, power, and biochemicals.
This will potentially create economic benefits for the stakeholders involved, and
ultimately reduce open burning practices and contribute to haze mitigation. However,
the preliminary findings of this working group show that at current local economic
conditions, products from biomass would be more expensive than the currently
available energy and fuel. In addition to this economic challenge, other issues like
investment, transportation, and awareness may create further resistance to this
solution.
However, such a situation is not all that stark. There have been many
instances where a potentially beneficial strategy is not immediately economically
viable and cannot break even, due to, among other, the lack of market demand. It is
then the role of the government or other interested parties to create various
incentives to close the economic gap, to enable these strategies to take hold in the
market, until demand is sufficient. Potential approaches in the effort to make
biomass residue conversion in Malaysia viable are expanded in the ‘way forward
section’ below.
Way Forward
As mentioned above, governments and other interested stakeholders should play an
important role in creating various incentives to create markets for certain beneficial
technologies and to make them more economically feasible. Especially in the case of
the transboundary haze, which amounts to billions of ringgit of economic losses
throughout the Malaysian economy on an almost yearly basis, the government of
Malaysia should be even more interested to invest in a solution that could have a
positive trade-off towards a haze free Malaysia.
While the utilization of biomass for lower value products such as fertilizers and
fuel in direct combustion is now well established in the Malaysian commercial
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domain, there are still challenges in moving up the value chain to biochemical
conversion (which include the biofuels ethanol or butanol). Through the years, the
government of Malaysia has formulated policies and programmes related to the
utilisation of biomass for economic gains (as detailed above), however these policies
lack specificity and still have room for improvement. In particular, to complement
existing policies, further policies should be developed for
(1) securing biomass resources
(2) supporting biotechnologies, and
(3) creating a platform for biomass product marketing
One hurdle related to this is the Malaysian government’s lack of mandate on
biodiesel B5 and bioethanol E10 which hinders full uptake on any bioethanol
investment. Without a firm biofuel policy mandate, the case for bioethanol is hard to
defend due to its high investment cost. This is further compounded when
investments are undertaken through the acquisition of bank loans, hence increasing
operational costs due to interest repayments. Working Group 3 proposes that the
government provides significant funding involvement (that can be converted into
equity) to minimise the interest charges from massive loans. In other words, from a
purely financial standpoint, the equity-loan ratio needs to be optimised to maximise
margins on the sale of ethanol. This will help enable ethanol to competing against
traditional fuels at a similar price point.
The economic case for bioethanol or any biochemical is not helped by the
imperfect development of the local biomass market. As it stands, the local biomass
market is quite fragmented and unorganised, and is far from a full-fledged
commodity market. In order to ensure proper management and trading of biomass,
this working group proposes the establishment of a ‘Centre for Sustainable
Mobilisation of Biomass Resources’, which would include within its remit biomass
logistics and trade centres. The Centre and complementary regional branches
should help to optimise logistics and trading organization, where different biomass
fuels such as firewood, chips, pellets and energy crops can be marketed at
guaranteed quality and prices. Both of the above suggestions will also go a long way
in helping to create the market demand among public which is so needed for a
sustainable commodity.
Admittedly also, current research and development on potential biomass
utilisation directly related to the mitigation of the haze problem is still at its infancy.
There is a need for more research funding in the area, as well as the development of
databases and support systems for researchers. More specifically related to this
report, the choice of technology or combination of technologies to be selected for
possible demonstration or even commercialisation requires a more detailed study.
This is to determine with greater accuracy on the investments needed and the
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possible economic returns to complement the social and environmental benefits of
potential solutions to the haze problem.
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THE WAY FORWARD
1. Recognizing that “slash, not to burn, to earn additional income,” as a fresh
approach to solving haze problem, it is recommended that:
i. The concerned Government should consider investing through its privately
linked companies in the development of biomass conversion to material or
energies facilities through private-public equity partnership; and
ii. The concerned government should provide conducive investment
environment, including low interest rates and concession areas7, in order
to promote investment in the proposed facilities.
2. Noting that the proposed conversion of biomass to energy would be viable, it is
recommended that:
i. The private sector ought to be encouraged to take the lead in the
proposed investments with the participation of government investment
arms or linked companies, as well as with local communities made up of
farmers, settlers, smallholders, and adjacent plantation companies; and
ii. Interested parties should conduct the necessary techno-economic
environmental feasibility studies prior to investment, namely, conversion of
biomass to ethanol or biomass to electricity, or if not, hydrogen fuel by
mobile8 gasification and hydrogen generation (by electrolysis) unit.
3. Recognizing that water management is critical in peat areas, it is recommended
that:
i. Those who develop peat areas for plantation or any other agro-forestry
land development should carry out the following measures: (a) suitable
site selection, (b) maintenance of natural drainage 9 or sound drain
development, (c) land clearing and stacking, (d) compaction, and (e) re-
compaction to reduce the fire risk,
ii. Those who have developed plantations in the peat areas have to maintain
high water table by containing stream flows throughout the plantation
irrigation systems; and
iii. Disturbed, abandoned, or underdeveloped peat areas should be identified
and promoted for investments and rehabilitation by undertaking the above
measures (3 (i) and (ii)) in order for such lands to be no longer a fire
hazard.
7 “Concession area” refers to the size of a land area that could support a sustainable supply of biomass to a
designated biomass-to-energy conversion facility. 8 This is an alternative to overcoming the high cost of logistics to centralised facilities.
9 There is evidence showing the forest areas adjacent to the drains constructed along the periphery of
plantation areas have caught fire, and those without such construction have not.
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iv. If not, such disturbed peat areas should receive excess flood water by
allowing back its natural flow10.
4. Recognizing that not at all times transboundary haze could be effectively
controlled, it is recommended that:
i. The enforcement agencies must step up measures such that no open
burning be allowed, particularly during the southwest monsoon period
from months of June to early October; and
ii. A local contingency plan be developed and put into operations during any
severe haze episode11 in order to reduce local sources of pollution by
source apportionment method.
5. Noting that El Niño does significantly influence the severity of haze, and that it is
now possible to predict any El Niño event six months ahead of time since well-
established forecasting systems are already in place, it is recommended that;
i. The relevant authority should disseminate the forecast and alert all
concerned; and
ii. Every relevant authority and other concerned stakeholders take
precautionary measures, well in advance before any El Niño event set in.
6. Noting that there are still gaps in knowledge, it is recommended that;
i. Systems studies, including socio-economic and legal implications of the
proposed local contingency plans to respond in the event of severe haze
episode, be undertaken in order to formulate the detailed measures to
control local sources of pollution; and
ii. R&D, including radioisotope tracing and modelling studies, on the high
percentage of unidentified sources of pollution be carried out.
iii. To better understand the impact of haze towards health, social life and
economy, studies need to be conducted especially in the areas that most
affected by haze episode in Malaysia. Study on health should focus on the
toxicological properties of haze particles and to systematically assess the
health and social burden of diseases due to haze episode. Among others
are:
a. Epidemiological study on the burden of diseases of air pollutants;
b. Toxicity assessment of particulates from forest fires; and
c. Evaluation of the indoor school environment during haze episode.
iv. Since that current research and development on potential biomass
utilisation directly related to the mitigation of the haze problem is still at its
infancy stage, there is a need for more research funding in the area, as
well as the development of databases and support systems for
10
There is evidence that where by not allowing its natural flow, disturbed peat areas have caught fire. 11
It is generally understood when API reaches 500 and beyond
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researchers. More specifically, related to this report, the choice of
technology or combination of technologies to be selected for possible
demonstration or even commercialisation requires a more detailed study.
This is to determine with greater accuracy on the investments needed and
the possible economic returns to complement the social and
environmental benefits of potential solutions to the haze problem.
7. “How can current scientific knowledge be synthesized and translated into policy-
relevant information to aid policy and decision-making, management and to
suggest further research?” This question addresses the all-important science-
policy interface that is the core of ASM’s work. At the policy-making level, the
importance of communicating scientific findings to support policy development is
especially important. A better communication policy could be realized by better
coordination of research conducted by research institutions, better use of social
media to promote and create public dialogue on critical issues, multi-stakeholder
activities such as field visits and active public engagement with governmental
agencies to positively influence the policy process.
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ANNEXES
A. Air Quality & Haze Episodes
B. Peat Area & Water Management
C. Waste to Resources: Energy or Materials
Bibliography, Indexes & Acknowledgement
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INDEX BY AUTHOR
A Abas 88, 99, 103 Abdullah 10, 27, 64, 88, 89, 91, 116 Abnisa 64 Acreman 46 Afroz 29, 91, 102, 116, 117, 128 Ainuddin 11, 49, 88 Aldrian 118 Allen 101 Amil 24, 41, 88, 99, 101, 104, 105, 106 Andreae 102, 104 Ansari 113 Applegate 27, 112 Awalludin 28, 113, 114 Awang 92, 129 Azimi 116 Azman 91 Azmi 88, 99
B Badgery-Parker 148 Balasubramanian 101, 107 Barber 27, 111 Behera 88 Bergauff 103 Blake 115 Brauer 127, 129 Brunekreef 128 Busch 114
C Chai 7, 45, 48 Chameides 131 Chan 19, 82 Chang 118 Cheang 50 Claeys 103 CNN 129 Cohen 127 Cotton 112
D Dauverge 28, 111 De Groot 145 DOE 94, 95, 133, 134, 135 Du 29 Elias 103
Emmanuel 88 Engling 103
F FAO 113 Fatimah 48 Field 30, 111, 122 Field 30 Florano 138 Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia 45 Forsyth 40, 88, 132, 143 Fraser 103 Fujisaka 113
G Gaveau 28, 112, 115 GBD 127 Gelencsér 104 Glover 31, 128, 130 Goh 8, 49, 88 Goldammer 122, 128 Gonçalves 101 Goodman 129 Graber 104 Graham 102, 104 Grishin 115 Guangul 64 Guldmann 29
H H Han 116 Harrison 115 Havers 104 Hawkins 102 Hecht 113 HEI 127 Heil 98, 122, 128 Henry 104 Henson 32, 43, 131 Hertwig 125 Hoffer 104 Holmes 103 Hooijer 115 Hopke 116 Hsu 101, 103
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I Indraneil 48 Inness 30, 123
J Jaenicke 115 Jauhiainen 114 Jessup 31 Johnston 31, 128 Jones 102, 111, 112 JPM 47 Juneng 10, 30, 89 Jung 129
K Kalkstein 106 Kaskaoutis 104 Kawamura 103 Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan 98 KeTTHA 116 Keywood 26 Khan 88, 99, 104, 128 Khillare 128 Kim 29, 116 Koh 34, 35 137, 144 Kselik 44 Kumagai 103 Kunii 31, 127, 128
L Larsen III 103 Latif 9, 30, 89, 107, 117, 121 Lee 104 Lemieux 117 Letchumanan 137 Liong 44 Liu 63, 101 Lo 11, 49, 89 Lopez 116
M Mahmud 99 Maltby 46, 47 Mayer 88 Mayol-Bracero 103, 104 McKendry 75 Medeiros 103 Meena 131
Meijaard 19, 82 Melling 9, 10, 43, 89 Miettinen 49, 115 Mohd Shahwahid 128, 130 Mosarof 113, 114 Mosarof 14, 28 Murdiyarso 28, 29, 42, 112, 113, 114 Murray 31
N NASA 108, 110 Nasi 131, 132 NEA 96, 97 Nganje 112, 113 Nguitragool 35, 144 Nichol 131 Nimit 64 NOAA 107, 122
O Omar 8, 26, 89, 102, 129 Othman 9, 13, 31, 32, 89, 128, 130
P Paatero 104 Page 42, 47, 50, 112, 115 Parish 11, 49, 88 Pathak 131 Pinto 24, 99, 100, 101, 102 Pirraglia 68 Posa 46 Puxbaum 103
Q Qadri 27, 111 Quah 35, 144
R Radojevic 121 Ram 108 Reid 30, 101, 120, 123 Rein 115 Reisen 102 Rieley 42 Robinson 34 Rose 104 Ryder 27
S
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Saarnio 103 Sahani 128 Saidur 64 Salma 104 Sani 26 Sansuddin 99 Sastry 128, 147 Schkolnik 103 Schmidl 103 Schrier-Uijl 39, 114, 132, 147 See 101, 102, 115 Seigert 49 Ser 136 Seth-Jones 28 Shafizadeh 102, 103 Sham 107, 143 Shen 26, 102 Simoneit 102, 103 Spessa 115, 122, 124 Sulaiman 10, 28, 64, 89, 113 Sundarambal 107 Suyanto 27, 112
T Tacconi 28, 111 Tan 144, 147 Tangang 8, 9, 30, 88, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124 Tay 35, 36, 142, 144 The Jakarta Post 144 Thurston 104
U UNDP 44, 45, 46 Usup 115
V Varkkey 9, 28, 35, 88, 144 Varma 112, 113 Vasconcellos 102 Vayda 112 Vincent 147 Vogl 27, 113
W Wahid 13, 47, 49 Wan Mahiyuddin 127 Wan 10, 34, 35, 87, 90,127, 137, 138, 139 Wang 29, 103, 116, 119 Watson 104 WHO 99, 127, 129 Wooster 124 Wosten 27, 112 WSJ 146 WWF 131, 132
X Xian 30, 124
Y Yamasoe 101, 104 Yang 102 Yu 117
Z Zaccone 115 Zakaria 8, 53, 89, 90 Zappoli 104 Zheng 104 Zulhaidi 129
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INDEX BY SUBJECT
A adjacent peatland 53 aerosol 101, 102, 106, 107, 108, 116, 117, 145 agricultural 90, 112, 114, 117 agriculture 6, 15, 23, 30, 31, 46, 48, 51, 68 Air Pollution Index 23 air pollution 88, 94, 96, 116, 127, 128, 134, 137, 146, 147 Air Quality Index 23, 87, 145 air quality 86, 87, 89, 90, 92, 94, 95, 96, 98, 117, 125, 134, 136, 145, 147, 149 anthropogenic 15, 29, 106, 116, 121, 122, 124, 145, 150 API 13, 14, 17, 23, 24, 25, 33, 41, 80 apportionment 86, 94, 104, 105, 145, 149, 150 ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution 34 ASEAN Cooperation Plan on Transboundary Pollution 34 ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy 52 ASEAN Peatmand Management Strategy 34 ASEAN Secretariat 135, 140 atmospheric aerosols 101, 102, 104, 107, 129, 131, 145, 150
B biochemical 63, 64, 75, 77, 78 biodiversity 87, 88, 113, 131, 132, 141, 150 bioethanol 60, 69, 72, 74, 77, 78 biofertilizer 67 biofuel 64, 75, 77 biomass burning 87, 88, 93, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 116, 145, 149, 150 biomass 6, 13, 14, 15, 16, 26, 29, 38, 49, 60, 61, 63, 64, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79
C calorific value 71 capacity cost 14, 72, 73 carbon monoxide 24, 49 carbon monoxide 94, 96 carbon 19, 24, 32, 43, 46, 49, 50, 63, 75 Clean Air Action Plan 33 combustion 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 115, 116, 117
compost 64, 65, 67, 76 concentration 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 98, 99, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 116, 117, 123, 129 conversion 6, 14, 16, 48, 49, 50, 58, 60, 63, 64, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 77, 79
D density 23, 43, 49 DOE 94, 95, 133, 134, 135 dust fall 107
E economic 86, 113, 114, 130, 131, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150 El Niño 15, 17, 29, 30, 36, 38, 80 emission 88, 91, 103, 105, 106, 107, 115, 116, 123, 125, 131, 134, 149 energy 6, 16, 19, 63, 64, 69, 76, 77, 78, 79 Environmentally Sensitive Areas 51 equity ratio 13, 73
F FAO 113 feedstock 69, 70, 72, 74 fermentation 69, 70, 72 Fire Danger Rating System 33 Fire Prevention Action Plan 33 forecast 121, 124, 125 forest 6, 16, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 40, 42, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 59, 61, 63, 69, 70, 75, 79
G gasification 16, 60, 68, 75, 79 gasifier 68 GBD 127 greenhouse gas 88, 116 ground level ozone 24, 94
H haze episodes 6, 15, 19, 24, 25, 26, 31, 41, 54, 60, 61, 76 haze episodes 87, 90, 121, 123, 129, 138, 143, 150 haze history 89
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haze 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 49, 52, 54, 55, 59, 60, 61, 63, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82 haze 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 115, 116, 117, 121, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150 health 87, 88, 89, 91, 94, 96, 97, 98, 106, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 140, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150 heat 60, 65, 67, 69, 70 HEI 127 hemicellulose 63 high value 48, 64, 75 higher heating value 63 hotspots 90, 107, 108, 110, 140, 143 humic 104 hydrology 53, 58, 59 hydrolysis 69, 70, 72 HYSPLIT 26
I interest rate 13, 16, 73, 74, 79 inversion 126, 143
K KeTTHA 116
L La Niña 29 land use 87, 111, 115, 136, 137 levoglucosan 102, 103, 106 lignin 63, 69 lignocellulosic 63, 69, 70 low value 75 lowland 48
M medium value 64, 75 meteorological 23, 26, 30, 38 meteorological 86, 87, 94, 106, 110, 116, 121, 123, 125, 143, 145, 149 meteorology 94, 145 moisture content 71 moisture 23, 29, 48, 49, 71
monitoring 86, 92, 93, 94, 95, 121, 126, 133, 136, 138, 139, 141, 145, 146
N NASA 108, 110 National Haze Action Plan 33, 34 National Haze Committee 33 NEA 96, 97 net present value 71, 73 nitrogen dioxide 24, 94, 96 NOAA 107, 122
O oil palm 14, 28, 32, 33, 35, 47, 48, 58, 61, 63, 67, 69, 70, 75, 111, 113, 114, 131, 135, 137, 142, 144 open burning 6, 17, 33, 60, 76, 80, 89, 117, 133, 134, 139, 146, 149, 150 organic 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 115, 135, 145, 149 oxalate 27, 107
P particulate 88, 91, 94, 96, 98, 116, 117, 127, 148, 149, 150 peat swamp forest 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53, 55 peat water 44 peat 6, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 27, 29, 33, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 63, 68, 79, 80 peatland 13, 14, 15, 28, 42, 44, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60 peatswamp 29, 42 pelletising 14, 67 Permanent Forest Estate 45, 50 Permanent Reserved Forest 45 permeability 43, 46 plant life 71, 72 PM10 23, 25, 26, 30 PM2.5 24, 26, 29 Policy 6, 18, 19, 21, 33, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 50, 51, 52,
54, 57, 59, 74, 77 pollutants 87, 88, 94, 96, 98, 104, 106, 107, 108, 116, 127, 128, 143, 145, 149, 150 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon102, 129, 147 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon 26 porosity 43, 70 potassium 101 potassium 27
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power generation 68, 69, 70, 75 power14, 19, 27, 60, 64, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76 pretreatment 69, 70 Protected Areas 51 pyrolysis 75
R rainfall 105, 106, 113, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 125, 145 receptor models 104, 149 Regional Haze Action Plan 34 reservoir 45
S satellite imagery 87 slash 6, 16, 27, 36, 79 slash-and-burn 87, 112 smouldering fires 115, 135 sulfur dioxide 24
T The Jakarta Post 144 timber 15, 27, 47, 48
transboundary atmospheric pollution 23, 88 transboundary 4, 15, 16, 17, 18, 23, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36, 38, 40, 60, 76, 77, 80 transboundary 86, 87, 88, 90, 108, 111, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150 tropical peat 14, 19, 42, 43, 45, 54, 59 tropical peatland 14, 42, 45, 59
U UNDP 44, 45, 46 unmanaged peatland 49
V visibility 88, 91, 111, 129, 130, 131
W WHO 99, 127, 129
Z zero burning 33, 36, 135, 136, 138, 139, 143
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
ASM Transboundary Haze Study would not have been possible without the contributions and inputs
from numerous individuals and organisations. In particular, ASM would like to thank various
ministries, agencies and departments under the Malaysian Government, private sector, NGOs and
individuals who are involved either directly or indirectly in this study.
Collaborating Organisations:
Association of Environmental Consultants and Companies of Malaysia (AECCOM)
Centre for Tropical Climate Change System (IKLIM)
CERAH Group
Department of Standards Malaysia
Energy Commission Malaysia
Environmental Management and Research Association of Malaysia (ENSEARCH)
Felda Global Ventures Holdings Bhd (FGVH)
France CIRAD
G&P Water and Maritime Sdn Bhd
Global Environment Centre (GEC)
Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), UKM
Malaysia Agro-Biotechnology Institute (ABI)
Malaysia CIRAD
Malaysia Department of Environment, NRE
Malaysia Institute for Medical Research
Malaysia Institute of Health Management
Malaysia Institute of Strategic & International Studies (ISIS)
Malaysia Japan International Institute of Technology (MJIIT)
Malaysia Medical Association
Malaysia NAHRIM Research Centre for River Management
Malaysia National Solid Waste Management Department
Malaysia Sarawak Tropical Peat Research Laboratory (TPRL)
Malaysia Solid Waste Management and Public Cleansing Corporation (SWCorp Malaysia)
Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development Institute
Malaysian Investment Development Authority (MIDA)
Malaysian Meteorological Department (MetMalaysia)
Malaysian Ministry of Domestic Trade, Co-operatives and Consumerism (KPDNKK)
Malaysian Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water (KeTTHA)
Malaysian Ministry of Natural Resources & Environment (NRE)
Malaysian Paediatric Association
Malaysian Remote Sensing Agency
Malaysian Timber Council
Messrs Wan Azlian & Co
MYBiomass
NexjenIP
Occupational Health and Environmental Sector, Ministry of Health Malaysia
Process Systems Engineering Centre (PROSPECT)
Questel
Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)
SIRIM Industrial Biotechnology Research Centre
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)
Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)
Universiti Selangor (UNISEL)
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Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM)
University of Malaya (UM)
University of Nottingham
University Teknologi MARA (UiTM)
UPM Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Product (INTROP)
Wetlands International
World Wide Fund for Nature Malaysia (WWF-Malaysia)
Fellows Academy of Sciences Malaysia (ASM), Members of ASM Haze Task Force and Working
Groups and other Contributing Individuals
A Bakar Jaafar FASc, Professor Dato’ Ir Dr
Aainaa Kamilah Roslee
Abd Malik Tussin
Abdul Rahim Nik FASc, Datuk Dr
Abu Hanipah Jalil
Ahmad Ainuddin Nuruddin, Prof Dr
Ahmad Hazri Abd Rashid, PhD
Ahmad Ibrahim FASc, Datuk Paduka Dr
Ahmad Makmom Abdullah, Assoc. Prof Dr
Ahmad Tasir Lope Pihie FASc, Datuk Dr
Ain Fatiha Aidil Fitri
Aini Hairida Mohamad Abas
Alia Husna Abdullah
Alias Mohd Sood, PhD
Aminah Ismail
Anis Salwa Kamarudin, Dr
Azizah Ariffin
Brenna Chen Jia Tian
Candice Ong Chu Lee
Chong Sun Fatt, Ir
Chuah Hean Teik FASc, Academician Professor Dato’ Ir Dr
David Yap
Eric Deleglise
Esther Wong
Ezahtulsyahreen Abd Rahman
Fadilah Baharin, Datuk
Faizal Ahya
Faizal Parish
Fateh Chand FASc, Academician Datuk
Fatin Athirah Amani Mohd Nasir
Fazrina Mohd Masrom
Francis Ng S.P. FASc, PhD
Fredolin Tangang FASc, Professor Dr
G Lalchand, Ir
Goh Swee Hock FASc, PhD
Hanashriah Hassan
Haslenda Hashim, Assoc Prof Dr
Hazami Habib
Helena Muhamad Varkkey, PhD
ASM LOCAL & TRANSBOUNDARY HAZE STUDY
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Heong Kong Luen FASc, Professor Dr
Ho Wai Shin, Dr
Intan Nurul Azlina
Intan Sazrina Saimy
Jayakumar Gurusamy, Prof Dr
Jean-Marc Roda, Professor Dr
Jegalakshimi Jewaratnam, PhD
Julia Lo Fui San
Kamaliah Kasmaruddin
Khalid Yusoff FASc, Senior Professor Dato’ Dr
Laili Nordin, PhD
Latifah Nor Ahmad Sidek
Lee Soo Ying FASc, Professor Dr
Liew Juneng, PhD
Liew Yuk San
Lim Jeng Shiun, PhD
Low Pak Sum FASc, Professor Dr
Lulie Melling, PhD
Mashitah Darus
Mavath Chandran
Matthew Ashfold, PhD
Mazlan Madon FASc, PhD
Maznorizan Mohamad
Mazrura Sahani, Dr (PhD)
Md Firoz Khan, PhD
Mohamad Iqbal Mazeli, Dr
Mohamad Yusof
Mohd Azuwan Abdullah
Mohd Erwan Misran
Mohd Fairuz Md Suptian
Mohd Jamil Maah FASc, Professor Dato’ Dr
Mohd Shafee'a Leman FASc, Professor Dr
Mohd Talib Latif, Professor Dr
Muhamad Zakaria, Professor Dr
Muhammad Amir Kamaluddin, PhD
Muhammad Awang FASc, Professor Dr
Muhammad Syazwan Alauddin
Murnira Othman
Nasehir Khan EM Yahya, Professor Ir Dr
Nasrin Agha Mohammadi, PhD
Nik Meriam Nik Sulaiman, Professor Dr
Nitia Samuel
Nur Azima Busman
Nur Hashimah Hanafi
Nurfatehah Idris
Nurul Aina Abdul Aziz
Omar Abdul Rahman FASc, Academician Tan Sri
Ong Li Ling
P Lal Chand Gulabrai FASc, Ir
Puvaneswari Ramasamy
Rahimatsah Amat FASc, Dr Hj
Bibliography, Indexes & Acknowledgement
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DRAFT PLEASE DO NOT CITE 325
Raymond Ooi Chong Heng FASc, Professor Dr
Salahudin Yaacob
Salleh Mohd Nor FASc, Academician Tan Sri Dr
Salmah Zakaria FASc, PhD
Selliah Paramananthan FASc, PhD
Selva Kumar Sivapunniam, Dr
Siti Atikah Mohamed Hashim
Subramaniam Karuppanan
Tan Sie Ting, PhD
Tan Soon Guan, FASc, Professor Dr
Tan Swee Lian FASc, PhD
Tan Yew Chong, Dato’ Dr
Tengku Nazihah, Datuk
Veliana Ruslan
Wai Shin Ho, PhD
Wan Azlian Ahmad
Wan Portia Hamzah
Wen Hui Ting FASc, Ir Dr
Wickneswari Ratnam FASc, Professor Dr
Yong Huai Mei
Zaharin Yusoff FASc, Professor Dr
Zaharin Zulkifli
Zakri Abdul Hamid FASc, Academician Professor Emeritus Dato' Sri Dr
Zamzul Rizal Zulkifli
Zara Phang
Zubaidi Johar, Tuan Haji
Zuriati Zakaria FASc, Prof Datin Dr