buku ajar bi.docx

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1. READ ALL ARTICLES!2. LEARN HOW TO PRONOUNCE IT WELL!3. FIND EACH MEANING OF THE WORDS!4. GET THE MAIN UNDERSTANDING OF OVERALL!5. DISCUSS THE ARTICLES IN ENGLISH CLASS!

UNIT 1 BIG BANG

I. BIG BANG THEORYThe universe contains everything that exists: earth, the sun, the stars, galaxies, and

everything else in space. People have wondered how the universe got started for

thousands of years. Most scientists now think they have the answer. They think they

have the answer. They think the universe began about 14 billion years ago with a kind

of big explosion. They call the explosion the big bang.

In the early 1900s, physicist Albert Einstein came up with equations that

predicted an expanding universe. Other scientists used these equations to develop the

theory of the big bang.

No one knows what caused the big bang, but scientists think they know what

happened all the way back to the first seconds after the big bang.

The brand new universe was very hot and very small. It blew outwards very fast.

In the first three minutes, matter started to form. Hundreds of years later, the universe

looked like a big ball of fire. You can picture the universe as something like a black

balloon with white dots painted on it. The black represents space and the white dots


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are galaxies. Blowing air into the balloon makes it bigger. The spaces between each

dot get farther apart as the balloon expands.

As it got bigger, the universe got cooler. Hydrogen gas formed. The gas broke

into clumps. The clumps came together to make galaxies and stars. Other kinds of

matter formed in the stars. Finally, planets like earth formed around some stars.

II. PROOF OF A BIG BANGThe expansion of the universe is evidence for the big bang. American scientist Edwin

Hubble studied light coming from galaxies far out in the universe. In 1929, he found

that the galaxies were speeding away from earth and from each other in all directions.

Scientists tracked the paths of the galaxies must have started from the same place.

Packing all that matter into a small area would make a very dense, searing hot ball-the

big bang.

Black holes have such strong gravity that not even light can escape. They can also

twist space as they rotate, as the blue lines in the illustration show.

Scientists use math to describe how the universe behaves. In the early 1900s,

German American scientist came up with equations that predict an expanding

universe. These equations have correctly predicted the motions of stars, planets, and

light.

More proof came in the 1990s from a spacecraft called the Cosmic Background

Explorer (COBE). COBE saw rays coming from far off in the universe. They could

only have been created in a much smaller and hotter universe long ago.


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UNIT II SOLAR ENERGY

1. THE USE OF SOLAR ENERGYImagine a source of energy more powerful than a million electric power plants.

And imagine that this energy source will never run out. At least not for a few

billion years. This energy source is not imaginary. Its the sun. solar energy shines

down on us every day.

These solar energy panels convert energy from sunlight directly into

electricity. Solar power is a renewable source of energy. It will never run out.

Solar energy is produced inside the sun. it is the source of nearly all energy on

earth. This energy is stored in the ground, the oceans, and the wind. Even fossil

fuels, such as oil and natural gas, come from ancient plant life that once soaked up

sunlight. Today we use solar energy to heat buildings and produce electricity.

You may have seen solar collecting plates on top of buildings. They are

thin, flat boxes. The solar collectors capture the suns energy. Sunlight heats air or

water flowing through tubes in the boxes. The tubes carry the heat into the

building.

Most of the suns energy does not reach earths surface. It is scattered and

absorbed by the atmosphere, nespecially by clouds. Thats why usually you

usually find solar-heated houses in areas that get lots of sunlight. Even in sunny

places, it takes a lot of collecting plates to heat a house. Sometimes, not enough

solar energy can be stored for use at night or on cloudy days. So the house needs

an ordinary water heater and furnace, too.


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There are different kinds of solar collectors. Concentrating collectors are

much more powerful than flat-plate collectors. Concentrating collectors use

curved mirrors to focus the suns energy. They follow the sun as it moves through

the sky. They can produce temperatures high enough to boil water. They can be

used to produce electricity.

2. PRODUCT FROM SOLAR ENERGYWe use small amounts of electricity from solar energy today. A

photovoltaic cell is a kind of battery. It produces an electric current from solar

energy. Tiny photovoltaic cells power watches and calculators. They provide

electricity to satellites in space. Many photovoltaic cells linked together can

produce enough electricity for entire house.

Generating large amounts of solar power is more difficult. Power plants

that burn oil or coal can produce electricity more cheaply than a solar power plant

can. There are very few solar energy power plants operating today.

It will become cheaper to produce electricity from solar energy as

technology advances. Fossil fuels will become more expensive as they begin to

run out. Solar energy plants could become more common, once they can produce

energy more cheaply than other types of power plants.

Photovoltaic cells can be used to power cars. So far, such cars are only

experimental. But in 2003, a car was driven nearly 2,500 miles across Australia

using only solar power.

UNIT III

GLACIERS


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1. NOTION OF GLACIERSImagine a river of ice so powerful it could grind down mountains, carve out

valleys and lakebeds, and spit giant icebergs into the sea. The world is actually

full of them. They are called glaciers, and theyre found on every continent on

earth except Australia.

Glaciers may look like big, motionless blocks of ice and snow, but theyre

always on the move. Glaciers are responsible for making the world look the way

it does today.

Glacier is a large sheet of ice that moves slowly over the land. The worlds

largest glaciers form where it is very cold year round, such as the areas around the

north pole and south pole. But they can form anywhere it is cold enough for snow

and ice to remain all year without melting, such as tall mountains. Glaciers can

even be found in high mountain ranges near the equator, such as the northern

Andes of south America.

Glaciers form when new snow falls faster than the old snow can melt awy.

As more and more snow piles up, the newly fallen snow squashes the snow

beneath it. Under the weight of hundreds, sometimes thousands of feet of snow,

the lower layers of the glacier are amashed tightly together.

The crushing weight of all these layers of snow and ice turns the bottom

most layers of the glacier into dense ice. The ice eventually becomes so heavy

that the glacier moves downhill, like a gigantic slow moving river of ice.

2. MOVEMENT AND TYPES OF GLACIERS


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Most glaciers move very slowly, just few inches a day. But some glsciers can move as

much as 30 meters a day, about the distance from home plate to first base on a baseball

field. That may not seem very fast. Even a snail can move faster than a glacier. But the

movement of glaciers seems incredible when you consider that they can be the size of

mountains.

There are several types of glaciers. Mountain glaciers form in high mountains.

They fill mountain valleys and move slowly downhill. Icecap glaciers are larger. They

can cover entire islands or large inland areas in arctic areas. But the largets glaciers of all

are called ice sheets. They cover huge areas of land in the coldest arctic areas. In fact,

they can span entire continents and stretch into the sea, where pieces break off and

become icebergs. The ice sheet over the continent of Antarctica covers 13 million square

kilometers. Thats big enough to bury the entire United States or all ofEurope. Another

ice sheet covers almost all of the island of Greenland. The Greenland ice sheet is 1.8

million square kilometers wide and almost 2,700 meters thick.

3. GLACIERS CHANGEMost glaciers change in size over time. As you might expect, glaciers usually grow

bigger in the winter when theres a lot of snow. They get smaller in summer when

warmer weather melts some of the snow and ice away.

Glaciers also grow or shrink over very long periods of time. As earths climate

cools, glaciers expand. They shrink when the climate warms.

Ten thousand years ago, during a cold period in earths history called an ice age,

an enormous ice sheet blanketed more than half of north America. The movement of this

great ice sheet formed a lot of the landscape we see today.


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When glaciers move, they change the shape of the land under them. Glaciers

scour the surface and grind larger rocks down into small pieces. In the mountains,

glaciers can carve out large u-shape valleys.

Glsciers scoop up millions of tons of rock and drop it somewhere else. As a

glacier in the mountains move, it pushes huge piles of rock and dirt in front of itself and

off to the sides. Thismaterial foms uneven hills called moraines. Glaciers also have an

impact when they melt away.When a glacier melts, the ice turns into water that can form

new rivers and lakes. When a glacier retreats near the sea, it can leave a deep inlet called

a fjord.

UNIT IV

MICROSCOPIC LIFE

1. MICROSCOPIC LIFEThere is a world all around you that you cannot see. Billions of tiny creatures slither

and slide over tables and floors. They float and wiggle in drops of water. They stick

to your skin. Sometimes they get in your eyes, nose, and throat.

You can see most these tiny things only if you put them under a microscope.

These tiny life forms are called microscopic life or microorganisms. They are also

called microbes. Most microbes are made of just one cell. Your body by contrast has

billions of cells.

2. KINDS OF MICROBESThere are thousands of different kinds of microbes. Microbe scalled bacteria are the

smallest living things. Bacteria live almost everywhere: on land, in water, and even

inside you.


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Harmless bacteria in your body compete withy harmful germs. Harmless bacteria

compete for food and keep the harmful germs under control. Some bacteria in your

body help you digest your food.

UNIT V

ENDANGERED AND EXTINCT ANIMALS

1. EXTINCT ANIMALSYou have never watched a dodo bird scurry along the ground. You have never

been frightened by a saber toothed cat crouched in a tree. You have never seen the

huge tusks of a mastodon. These animals once lived on earth, but they all died

out. They went extinct.

One way to help save endangered animal is to set up protected areas for them to

live. National parks and game preserves, like this one in Africa, do not allow

hunting or other practices that threaten animals. You can see still blue whales,

giant pandas, and tigers. But these animals are in danger of becoming extinct.

There arentmany of them left. Blue whales, giant pandas, and tigers are some of

the endangered animals on earth. There are thousands of others.

Different kinds of animals have appeared and disappeared throughout earths

story. Some animals go extinct because the climate where they live changes. The

climate may become wetter or drier. It may become warmer or cooler. If the

animals can not change, or adapt to the new climate, they die.

Some animals go extinct because they can not compete with other animals for

food. Some animals go extinct because they are killed by enemies. New kinds of

animals are always evolving. Evolving means that the animals are changing


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slowly from generation to generation. Small differences between parents,

children, and grandchildren slowly add up over many, many generations.

Eventually, a different kind of animal evolves.

Sometimes many of the animals on earth go extinct at the same time. Scientist call

this a mass extinction. Scientists think there have been at least five mass

extinctions in earth history. The last mass extinction happened about 65 million

years ago. This mass extinction killed off the dinosaurs.

Scientists are not sure what caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. Many think an

asteroid or comet may have crashed into earth. The crash would have made a

huge dust cloud. The cloud could have blocked out the suns light for years.

Without light, plants, dinosaurs and other animals would die.

2. OUR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT EXTINCT ANIMALSScientist study fossils to learn about extinct animals. Fossils are the remains of

animals that have died. Fossils can be imprints of the animals left in rock. They

can be bones that have turned to stone. Scientists study fossils to learn what the

animals looked like. They study other rocks around the fossils to learn when the

animals lived. Some fossils are millions of years old.

Many animals are currently in danger of going extinct. Human beings are causing

thousands of kinds of animals to die off. Chemicals that pollute the environment

can endanger animals. Hunters kill some animals. Hunters kill rhinoceros for their

horns. They kill tigers for their skins. They kill elephants for their ivory tusks.

Most endangered animals today are in trouble because people are destroying their

habitats. A habitat is a place where an animal normally lives. Forests, deserts, and


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wetlands are kinds of habitats. Many endangered animals live in tropical rain

forests. People cut down rain forests to build farms, roads, and towns. They drain

water from wetlands. Gorillas and koala bears are endangered because of

destruction of the forests in which they live.

3. PREHISTORIC ANIMALSThe world is full of all sorts of animals. Dogs, birds, snakes, frogs, whales, and

ants are just a few kinds of animals alive today. But the animals we have today

did not always exist. They developed from other animals that lived long ago.

Those early animals included dinosaurs, tiny ancestors of horses, and gigantic

flightless birds.

Those animals and many others became extinct, or died out. They are called

prehistoric animals because they lived in prehistoric times. Prehistoric times are

all of time until about 5,500 years ago. That is when people began to invent

writing and record history. But most extinct animals lived much longer ago than

that.

Not all animals that lived in prehistoric times are extinct. Cockroaches, for

example, have existed almost unchanged for 320 million years. Crocodiles and

sharks are also much the same as their ancestors. Such animals are often called

living fossil.

After the dinosaurs disappeared, a group of animals called mammals spread all

over the planet. Mammals feed their young with mothers milk. Cats, dogs, cows,

horses, people, and many other animals alive today are mammals.


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The first mammals were small animals just a few centimeters long. As long as the

dinosaurs were stomping around, mammals stayed small and came out mainly at

night. When the dinosaurs were finally gone, mammals started evolving into

bigger animals. Some mammals returned to the sea. Those animals evolved into

dolphins and whales.

UNIT VI

ANCIENT GREECE

1. GREEK CIVILIZATIONWithout the Greeks, who would have given us science, technology,

democracy, politics, drama, and history? All of these words, as well as the

ideas they represent, originated in Ancient Greece.

Athens was one of the most powerful city states of Ancient Greece. The

greatest symbol of its power was the Parthenon, a temple dedicated to the

Greek goddess Athena. The temple was built in the 400s BC.

Greece is a mountainous peninsula that juts into the Mediterranian sea. It

includes hundreds of rocky islands off the coast. But the people of ancient

Greece settled over a much wider area, from southern France to Asia Minor.

Everywhere they went, they brought their language and traditions with them.

The first Greek Civilization developed on the Mediterranean island of Crete

around 2200 BC. This civilization was called Minoan after a legendary ruler

of Crete named

Minos. The Minoans lived by farming, fishing, and seafaring. Their rulers

built huge, brightly painted palaces. A magnificent palace at Knossos may


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have belonged to king minos. The Minoans invented a way of writing, but no

one today can read it.

Soon after 1500 BC, Minoan civilization collapsed. Mycenae, a city on

mainland Greece, rose to power. The myceneans built palaces fortified with

massive walls, and they rode in chariots. They must have been rich because

beautiful objects of gold were found in their graves. The myceneans were

warriors. They fought each other, and they went to war in distant places, such

as troy in asia minor.

2.

HOW GREECE REBUILT

Slowly Greece recovered. The Greek people organized themselves into self-

governing communities called city-states. Each city had homes, workshops,

temples devoted to the greek gods, markets, schools, sport arenas, and

meeting places.

A city state also controlled the surrounding countryside. In villages and on

farms, greek families grew olives, grapes, and grain for food. They raised

sheep and goats for hides and wool.

Along the coast, people lived by fishing or by trading with other

Mediterranean lands. They sold olive oil, wine, timber, and craft products.

The Greeks were especially known for their excellent metalwork and painted

pottery.

The Greeks liked debating, questioning, and exploring new ideas. They

admired logical arguments and scientific proof. They believed in justice and

human dignity. But they were not all equal. Some Greeks were born free.


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Others were slaves with no rights. Greek men had freedom to work, study and

travel. Women spent their lives at home. They wove cloth, bore children, and

cared for their families.

The Greeks also believed in gods who controlled human lives. They honored

the gods and made offerings to them. In return, they hoped for blessings. To

please the gods, city states held religious festivals with competitions in music,

dance, drama, poetry, and sports. The Olympic games began as a religious

festival of this kind, probably 776 BC.

3.

THE END OF GREEK POWER

In 338 BC, Greece was conquered by Macedonia, a kingdom to the north. City

states lost their political power, but greek civilization continued and spread to

many distant lands. Under Macedonian rule, greek philosophers,

mathematicians, and scientists made discoveries that are still useful today.

In 146 BC, roman armies invaded Greece. Roman leaders admired greek

achievements, and so greek ideas and artistic styles spread still further,

through the lands of the roman empire. In AD 395, Greece became part of the

Byzantine Empire. It was ruled from the city of Constantinople. Greek

language, knowledge, and technology remained important until the Byzantine

Empire fell to Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Today, greek civilization still shapes the way people think, speak, study,

govern, design buildings, and spend their leisure time. Many words in the

English language come from Greek roots. Questions raised by greek

philosophers are still debated. Greek plays are read and performed. The


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Olympic games are held every four years, just as in Ancient Greece. Many of

our buildings, especially those with tall round columns are modeled after

Greek buildings. The influence of ancient Greece is felt throughout Europe

and in all the lands that European nations once ruled.

UNIT VII

GOLD RUSH

1. THE CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSHIn 1849, one word sent thousands of people scrambling on a dangerous

journey to California. GOLD. A worker at John Sutters sawmill in

Californias Sacramento Valley discovered gold there in January 1848.

The word spread across the country like wildfire. The news flew to

faraway China and Europe. The gold rush was on.

Thousands of prospectors headed to California when gold was discovered

there in the late 1840s. one of the main ways to find gold back then was to

pan for it in rivers and streams.

The journey west to California wasnt easy in those days. Many forty

niners, as the gold seekers were called, travelled by boat. Some sailed

around the tip of South America and up to California. A large number of

ships sank on this dangerous voyage. Others sailed to Panama, travelled

on land to Panama City, and then hopped on another boat to San

Francisco.

But most people walked or rode on horseback several thousands miles to

the California gold fields. Gold seekers followed such routes as the


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Oregon trail and the mormon trail across the great plains. People faced

harsh conditions: burning heat, rain and snow, lack of water and steep

mountains to cross. Cholera and other diseases killed thousands of forty-

niners before they ever reached California.

People braved these hazards because they dreamed of striking it rich. The

promise of gold lured over 200,000 people to California in just few years.

2. THE WAY FORTY-NINERS FOUND GOLDMost forty niners were men. They crowded into muddy mining camps,

sleeping in flimsy shacks or tents.

Miners spent their days for digging gold. In the early days of the gold

rush, a man could pocket $300 0r $400 in gold before supper, a fortune at

the time. Miners also panned for gold in streams and rivers, gathering dirt

and rock in metal pans. Water washed away the dirt and left the heavier

gold in the pan.

Not everyone found gold. In fact, most peoples dreams of quick riches

never came true. In 1851, mining began shifting into a business run by

companies.

Gold fever brought a huge wave of people into the west. New western

settlements sprang up almost overnight. Some became abandoned ghost

towns after the gold rush, but others survived. These early settlers helped

California grow in its first years of statehood.


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The gold rush also pumped billions of dollars into the United states

economy. This money helped build railroads and factories, establishing

America as a nation industry.

3. THE KLONDIKE GOLD RUSHIn 1896, George Carmack and his Indian friends, Skookum Jim and

Tagish Charlie, found a gold nugget in Bonanza Creek. The creek flows

into the Klondike river. When word of the discovery got out thousands of

people flocked to the area in search of gold, the Klondike gold rush was

on.

Few klondikers were prepared for the regions rugged conditions. Many

died trying to get there, so a rule was made. Anyone coming to the area

had to bring along supplies for a whole year. The supplies included

hundreds of pounds of food, heavy woolen blankets, and sturdy boots.

Most gold seekers travelled the chilkoot trail from Alaska through British

Columbia. Those who could afford it hired dogsled teams, horseback

riders, rafts and paddle-wheel riverboats brought them over the rapids to

Dawson city.

UNIT VIII

ARCHITECTURE

1. THE MAKING OF ARCHITECTUREWe ask for a lot from our buildings. They have to keep out the rain,

wind, rats, and bugs, not to mention our enemies. They need to store


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our stuff, keep us warm when its cold, and keep us cool when its too

hot. We also like our buildings to be well constructed and beautiful.

Architecture is the important art and science of making buildings.

Architects are the bosses who design buildings and supervise their

construction.

Kings and nobles built castles to defend themselves against enemies.

They often had high walls and water filled moats surrounding them.

One such castle is bodiam castle, which was built in the 1300s in

England.

Buildings once were made of whatever materials were available.

Where forests grew, for example, people used wood. Where there were

no trees, people used the earth itself. They dried mud in the sun to

make bricks. In the far north, they used blocks of snow or ice.

These materials arent long lasting, however. Mud bricks wear away

wooden building catch fire and burn down.

Stone wont catch fire, and it can be expected to endure. Many kinds

of stone, including marble and limestone, are good materials to build

with. Steel is strong and lightweight. It lets architects build tall

buildings like skyscraper.

But deciding on what materials to use isnt usually the first thing an

architect thinks about. The architect needs to know the reason for the

building. How will the building be used.

2. REASONS FOR BUILDINGS


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Shelter is the most basic reason for building. Buildings shelter us at

home, at work, and at play. All buildings must shelter us from rain,

wind, sun, and cold.

Buildings also provide security. Some of the worlds most permanent

structures were built to defend against enemies. Castles had moats and

drawbridges to keep enemies out, and high walls from which to pour

down boiling oil on them.

Some of the most impressive buildings provide places for worship.

Temples, churches, and mosques must meet spiritual needs. The

soaring heights of a gothic cathedral, for example inspire amazement

and admiration.

Some buildings are just for showing off. Kings and emperors insisted

on grand palaces and castles. People with money have always

demanded that architecture display their wealth. Today, large

corporations, governments, and universities demonstrate their

importance by putting up impressive buildings.

Architects today design all kinds of buildings. Our way of life calls for

office buildings, large apartment complexes, shopping centre, schools,

hospitals, airports, and hotels.

3. CASTLESA castle was the fortress and home of a monarch or noblemen. It

offered excellent protection to the person who owned it. A castle


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helped its owner defend the land on which it stood. It also served as a

residence for the owners family and many servants.

Castles played an important role in a system called feudalism. That

system arose in Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. In

feudalism, a king granted land to nobles. In return, the nobles pledged

to serve the king and provide him with soldiers.

Nobles built castles on the lands given to them by the king. But some

nobles simply claimed land as their own and built a castle on it. That

was asking for trouble. There were many power struggles between

nobles and kings, and among the nobles themselves. Warfare was

frequent.

UNIT IX

FOOD AND NUTRITION

1. OUR NEED FOR FOODWhat is your favourite food? Some people love pizza. Some

people love ice cream. Not many would say broccoli is their

favorite food. But you can not eat only pizza and ice cream all the

time. You also need fruits, vegetables, and other kinds of food.

Water is also very important for your body.

A diet that includes a large amount of fatty food, such as

hamburger and fries can contribute to many types of illnesses,

including heart disease and cancer.


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You need food for many reasons. You need food in order to live.

You need food to satisfy your hunger. Your stomach feels hungry

when you need to eat more food. Your body needs to make energy.

Every part of your body uses energy from food. Your brain uses

energy to think. Your heart uses energy to beat. Your muscles use

energy to move. Growing requires food. Your body also needs

energy from food to stay warm. Eating the right kinds of food can

help keep you healthy. Eating certain food can help prevent some

diseases.

The human body is 65 percent water. Water makes up most of your

blood and helps carry oxygen and food to the cells in your body.

Water helps your body get rid of wastes through urine and sweat.

Water does many other things inside your body. You could live

only eight to ten days without water. You could live for weeks

without food. You need eight to ten cups of water each day to

replace the water that your body uses up. But dont worry, drink

such as milk or juice contain mostly water. Many food, especially

juicy fruits, contain water as well.

2. THE BEST FOOD TO EATYou need all kinds of food to keep your body strong and healthy.

Nutritionists say you should eat grains, such as bread, pasta, and

cereal. You should eat eggs, milk, cheese, and other dairy

products. You should eat meat, fish, beans or tofu. They also say


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you need to eat plenty of fruits and vegetables every day. But you

should not eat too many food with a lot of fats and sugars.

You need to eat some of each of these different kinds of food to get

chemicals called nutrients. Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,

minerals, and water are nutrients.

Carbohydrates are your bodys main source of energy.

Carbohydrates come from starches and sugars. Starchy food are

bread, cereals, pasta, corn, beans, peas, and potatoes. Sugars are in

fruits, honey, maple sigar, and the sugar in your sugar bowl. Many

vegetables and milk products also have some sugars. Your body

breaks down the carbohydrates in sugars and starches to make a

very simple kind of sugar called glucose. Glucose goes into your

bloodstream. Your blood carries glucose to your brain and your

muscles for energy. Extra glucose Gets changed so it can be stored

in your liver and fat cells. You can use this stored energy later.

Proteins build and repair body tissues, from hair and fingernails to

muscles. Proteins also fight infection and carry oxygen from your

lungs to the rest of your body.

You get proteins from food that comes from minerals, such as

eggs, milk, meat, fish and poultry. You can also get proteins from

plants, such as vegetables, grains, beans, and rice. Some people

called vegetarians do not eat food from animals. Vegetarians can


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get all their proteins by eating grains, dried peas and beans, rice,

nuts, and tofu.

3. FATSfats pack more energy than any other kind of food. Fats play an

important role in protecting your cells. Fats help your body take up

certain vitamins. There are different kinds of fats. Animal fats

come from eggs, dairy products, and meats. These foods are high

in saturated fats and cholesterol. Nutritionists believe that eating

too much saturated fat and cholesterol is bad for your health.

Vegetable fats come from such foods as avocados, olives, nuts, and

vegetable oils. These foods contain different kinds of fat that are

healthier.

UNIT X

BASEBALL

1. NOTION OF BASEBALLBaseball is the game that most Americans know best. The

sound of baseball games is the sound of summer across the

United States. Baseball player Sammy Sosa is known for his

long, dramatic home runs. Sosa slugged more than 60 home

runs in 1998, 1999, and 2001. Most Americans have played

some form of baseball. The game has been called Americas


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national past time. Its also the most popular team sport in

Japan, Cuba, and other countries.

Baseball is a game between two teams. The team that scores

the most runs wins. Batters try to move around the bases and

score runs. Batters can get on base in a number of ways, most

often by a hit or a walk. Fielders try to put players on the

opposing team out. Fielders put players out by catching balls

hit in the air or by throwing the ball to a base before the runner

gets there. Pitchers try to put batters out by throwing pitches

the batters cannot hit.

A manager or coach directs a teams play. Umpires make sure

the game is played according to the rules. They decide if base

runners are safe or out. An umpire at home plate decides

whether a pitch is a strike or a ball.

2. THE MAJOR BASEBALL LEAGUESMost baseball players start playing in organized baseball

leagues at a young age. They dream of competing one day in

the major leagues. Major league baseball is the highest level of

baseball competition in the united states and Canada.

There are two professional baseball leagues in the major

leagues: the national leagues and the American league. The

teams in these leagues are in big cities in the united states and

Canada. Major league teams play from april to October.


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If you live in a small city or town, you have a chance to see

future major league star by going to minor league games

nearby. Players prepare for the major leagues by playing in the

minor leagues. Baseballs great players are honored at the

national baseball hall of fame and museum. Its in

cooperstown, new York.

The major league baseball season ends with the world series.

Thats when the two best teams in the majors play for the

championship. A series of playoffs between the best teams in

each league decides who goes to the world series. The new

York Yankees have won more world series titles than any other

team in baseball.

3. BASEBALL RECORDSRecords are an important part of baseball. Baseball fans watch

excitedly as past records are broken and new records are set.

Players compete to set records for hitting, pitching, and

fielding. There are also records that nobody wants, such as

number of errors by a fielder or strikeouts by a batter.

Excitement ran high in 1998 as two players dueled to set the

record for home runs in one season. Mark McGwire of the St.

Louis Cardinals ended the 1998 season with 70 home runs.

Sammy Sosa of the Chicago Cubs came in slightly behind with

66. Barry Bonds of the San Francisco Giants then set a new


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record of 73 home runs in 2001. The most famous holder of the

home run record was Babe Ruth. The Babe set a record of 60

home runs for the Yankees in 1927. His record held until 1961,

when Roger Maris of the Yankees hit 61.

For many years, Babe Ruth also held the record for all time

home runs-714. Hank Aaron of the Atlanta Braves broke the

record in 1974. Aaron went on to hit 755 home runs in all. No

player has come close to breaking a record set by Joe

Dimaggio of the Yankees in 1941. That year, Dimaggio got at

least one hit in 56 consecutive games.

Every pitches dreams of throwing a perfect game. A game in

which no batter gets on base. Very few pitchers succeed. Don

Larsen of the Yankees stunned the world when he pitched a

perfect game in the 1956 World Series.

Each year, the best pitcher in each leadue receives theCy

Young Award. The award is named after the pitcher who holds

the record for major league wins, with 511. Roger Clemens has

won six Cy Young Awards, more than any other pitcher.

UNIT XI

MYTHICAL CREATURES

1. KINDS OF MYTHICAL CREATURESPeople have always told stories about mythical creatures,

such as dragons, unicorns, and mermaids. Before the days


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of airplanes and cameras, nobody could be sure what wild

beasts might live in lands far away. Even now we are not

exactly sure what lives at the bottom of the sea or on top of

the highest mountains.

The legendary English hero St. George supposedly killed a

dragon to save a town. Travelers used to come home with

tales of extraordinary creatures. Some tales were true and

some were false. People laughed at the idea of a giraffe

before they had seen one. On the other hand, there was a

time when almost everyone thought that dragons were real.

2. MAN-EATING SPIDERS AND GIANT BIRDSJapan has several mythical spiders, including Tsuchi-

Gumo, a monster that could only be destroyed by fire.

Another story tells of spider woman, who lives in a lonely

castle and traps travelers in her sticky webs.

Not all legendary spiders are evil. Native American and

West African mythologies include spider gods. However,

many of us are still frightened of spiders, and horrifying

ones appear in several recent stories, including the lord of

the rings and the harry potter books.


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A spider would have to be huge to eat human being, but

would still not as big as the roc, a bird that supposedly

could carry off an elephant. In the Arabian night tales,

Sinbad the sailor travels through the sky clinging to the

rocs leg.

3. LEGENDS OF SEA AND LAKEMany real creatures that live underwater have inspired

legends. Whales and giant squid are remarkable animals.

People used to exaggerate their size and powers. There are

legends of whales swallowing men alive. Krakens, huge sea

creatures that look like giant squids, were said to pull

whole ships under the waves.

Tales are also told about mermaids, beautiful women with

fish tails instead of legs. Mermaids represented danger to

sailors. Sailors who heard them singing could become

entranced and steer their ships onto the rocks.

Hardly anyone believes in mermaids now. But plenty of

people think that a huge number monster lives in Loch

Ness, a lake in Scotland. There have been tales about a long

necked, hump backed animal in the lake since 6th century

AD. Nobody has proved that this sea serpent exists.

The abominable snowman is another legendary creature

that fascinates people. Explorers of the Himalaya


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mountains in Asia tell stories of this wild man of the

mountains. People have even take photographs and made

plaster casts of what they think are its enormous footprints.

A similar hairy creature known as bigfoot supposedly lives

in north America. Bigfoot is said to roam the mountains

and forests of the pacific northwest.

UNIT XII

WRITING AND ALPHABET

1.

NOTION OF WRITING

Where would be without writing? There would no books, magazines, or newspapers.

There would be no instructions for putting together a bike or a VCR. There would be no

birthday or anniversary cards. There would be no signs on the road to tell us where to go.

A thousand years ago, only a few people knew how to write, mostly monks and

other religious officials. These people carefully copied books by hand, as this painting

shows.

Writing is a method of communication. It uses marks that we see and understand.

The marks we use to write English are the letters of the alphabet. They stand for sounds.

At a very young age, we memorize the letters of our alphabet and their sounds.

Once we have done that, we can combine the marks into words and sentences. Other

people can understand them. We can understand what other people have written. We also

can write down our thoughts just for ourselves.

2. BIRTH OF THE ALPHABET


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After signs got linked to sounds, the next big step in writing was the development of an

alphabet. With an alphabet, people no longer had to guess what a picture meant. Without

an alphabet, how could they tell if a picture of a bee, for example, meant the insect bee,

the verb to be, or the first syllable in another word like believe?

The alphabet developed in the middle east. The first alphabet we know about was

developed by the Phoenicians who lived in what is now Lebanon. Their alphabet had 22

letters.

The Phoenician alphabet did not have letters for vowels. The Greeks added those letters.

Our word alphabet comes from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, alpha and beta.

An alphabet is a clever set of letters or other symbols. Each letter represents a different

sound of language. These letters can be combined to write all the words of a language.

There are about 50 different alphabets used in the world today. They are different in the

way they look and in the sounds their letters stand for. Most alphabets have between 20

and 30 letters. The English language uses the Roman alphabet. It has 26 letters.

Languages with fewer sounds require fewer letters. The sounds of the Hawaiian

language, for example, are written using only 12 letters of the Roman alphabet. This

alphabet has the fewest letters of any language. Other alphabets, such as Sinhalese, the

alphabet of Sri Lanka, have 50 letters or more.

3. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGEEnglish is one of the great thieves. It is constantly borrowing. It started out taking words

from Latin, Greek, French, and German. The English went on to borrow words from

more than 50 different languages. From Italian, it took cameo, stanza, and violin, for


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example. From Spanish and Portuguese, it borrowed the words alligator, canyon, and

sombrero. From native Americans, it got raccoon and wigwam. Peru contributed ilama

and quinie. The Caribbean islands gave English barbecue and cannibal. From Africa

came chimpanzee and zebra, from India came bandanna, curry, punch, and from

Australia came kangaroo and boomerang.

Science caused an explosion in words. Some words in Science combine parts of Greek

and Latin words. They include penicillin, stethoscope, and supersonic. Others were

borrowed from languages spoken today. Robots come from a Czech word.

UNIT XIII

1. CARTOONSThe word cartoon once meant something entirely different than it does today. It was used

to describe a sketch made by an artist to prepare for a painting or other work. In the

1840s, the English magazine Punch published cartoons that made fun of artwork planned

for public buildings in London. Since then, cartoon has generally meant a drawing

intended to be funny or to make a point.

Many newspapers and magazine have editorial cartoons, which express an opinion. Such

cartoons often use caricatures, or exaggerations of a persons features, to make fun of

figures like politicians. Gag cartoons tell a joke. Editorial and gag cartoons usually have a

single panel, a box with a border around it. They may include words, but sometimes they

show only a drawing.

Cartoons that are animated, or appear to move, have been around for centuries. The first

ones were called flipbooks. They were made of pages of drawings. Each drawing was


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slightly different from the last. People flipped the pages with their thumb. The characters

appeared to move.

Early animated movies were like flipbooks. They were costly and difficult to make. Each

picture had to be drawn separately by hand. A seven-minute cartoon used over 10,000

drawings. Eventually, new methods were invented that made cartoons easier and cheaper

to make. Today, animated cartoons are a big part of television.

2. COMICSComics are cartoons with several panels that tell a story. You can find comic strips in the

funny papers, a section of the daily newspapers. In some comics, each daily strip tells its

own story. In others, each strip is part of a continuing story. Popular comic strip

characters include Charlie Brown, his dog Snoopy, and their friends in Peanuts, and fussy

cat in Garfield.

The first comic books were just collections of newspaper comic strips. Comic books with

original material began to appear in the 1930s. they could tell longer and more detailed

stories than newspaper strips. Comic books became widely popular beginning in 1938

with the first appearance of the superhero character Superman.

New superheroes soon appeared in other comic books, including the Flash, Wonder

Woman, and Captain Marvel. Comic books in the 1960s introduceda whole new set of

superheroes, such as X-Men, Spiderman, and Fantastic Four. These newer superheroes

all had special powers, but they had problems in life like everyone else.

3. PUPPETS


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Puppets are figures made to look like people or animals. They are like dolls in some

ways. But unlike dolls, puppets perform before an audience. Sometimes, puppets act out

stories and teach lessons. Most of the time, puppets entertain us.

People control the movements of puppets. Some puppets are moved by the hand or

fingers. Other puppets are moved by strings, rods, or wires attached to them. The human

operator, or puppeteer, sometimes appears with the puppets. Many puppeteers stay

hidden.

Puppets come in many forms. Some puppets are small enough to fit over a finger or hand.

Other puppets are so big a person fits inside them. Big bird on Sesame Street is a human-

sized puppet.

Ventriloquists use puppets called dummies. Ventriloquists talk to their puppets. They

make it seem as if the puppets are talking back. But the ventriloquists are actually doing

the talking. They try to move their lips as little as possible.

Hand puppets fit over the hand, somewhat like a glove. People operate them by moving

their wrist and fingers. The forefinger usually operates the head. The thumb and the

second finger operate the two arms. Hand puppets are the easiest puppets to control.

When these puppets appear on a stage, the puppeteers usually work below the stage. They

lift the puppets up to the stage. The dummies of most ventriloquists are hand puppets.

They generally fit over the ventriloquists hand and arm.

String puppets are also called marionettes. They are made to move by strings attached to

their head, arms, and leg. During a performance, the puppeteers generally stand behind

the stage. They work the marionettes from above.

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