sociology of religions: an islamic perspective

AL-TAKAMUL AL-MA’RIFI │DECEMBER 2019 │VOL. 2 ISSUE 2

www.al-takamulal-marifi.my

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SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGIONS: AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE

Mohd Faizal, A. K. (Corresponding author)

Department of Usuluddin, Faculty of Islamic Studies, Universiti Sultan Azlan Shah,

Bukit Chandan, 33000 Kuala Kangsar, Perak, Malaysia

Tel: +6019-5790750 E-mail: [email protected]

Siti Nurleha, Saffie

Department of Usuluddin, Faculty of Islamic Studies, Universiti Sultan Azlan Shah,

Bukit Chandan, 33000 Kuala Kangsar, Perak, Malaysia

Khadijah Mohd Khambali @ Hambali

Department of Akidah and Islamic Thought, Academy of Islamic Studies,

University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Suraya Sintang

Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.

Abstract

The study of religions becomes one of the prominent interest among Western scholarship nowadays. They have pioneered in many scientific studies of religions which contain empirical, experiment and rational study of religions such as anthropology study of religion, psychology of religion and sociology of religion. However, there are some critics regarding their approach on the study of religions from Islamic perspective. Therefore, this paper aims to give some critical view on one of the scientific approaches namely the sociology of religion. Four aspects are to be scrutinized by analyzing religion as a human phenomenon, the stance of Islam towards the concept of religion, the conceptual framework of Islamic sociology with highlighting the Islamic civil society as its core model. Keywords: Sociology of Religion, human phenomenon, Islamic sociology, Islamic civil society.

Introduction

The tendency and interest to the study of religion had grown recently. Howard G.

Schineiderman (2015) concluded that in the past two decades, religion has become one of the

most popular areas in social sciences study. In the Islamic tradition, the study of other religions



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had been stimulated by Quran as the Quran had emphasized the followers of Muhammad s.a.w.

to engage with other communities and adherents of other religion. As affirmed by Ruslani

(2000), Quran has initiated debates and discussions about religions and ideologies with nearly

one third of the Quran discusses the issues (al-A‘zami, 2003).

Western scholarship had pioneered many methodologies and approaches in the study of

religions. These methodologies and approaches are diverse in its own nature. However, it can

be characterized as the scientific study of religions. It is Friedrich Max Müller (1832-1900)

(1869) who introduced the religionswissenschaft (science of religion), in the western

terminology as the basis of scientific study of religion. Two of his publications namely Chips

from a German Workshops (1867) and Introduction to the Science of Religion (1873) show his

genuine study in this area. Some would consider him “as the very originator of ―Comparative

Studies of Religions (―Vergleichende Religionswissenschaft‖) in the 19th century” (Reinhold

Bernhardt, 2012).

It develops along with the various methodologies which are introduced over time.

Consequently, the period of enlightenment in the eighteenth century witnessed a new view

of religion by intellectual groups with a great interest in natural religion as guided by reason

with its two branches; rationalism (speculative reason) and empiricism (empirical reason).

During this time, the modern study of religion began as a western intellectual phenomenan

(Wan Mohd Fazrul Azdi Wan Razali, 2009) which recognize the establishment of sociology of

religion. However, Islam has its point of view in interpreting certain thematic concept in the

sociology of religion which implies different meaning of understanding from what has been

applied in western perspective.

The previous study shows that the modern sociological attempts to explain social

stratification, marriage and the family, has been seen inadequately explaining non-Western

societies. There would be also gross differences in approaches among Western sociologists

which their assumptions and researches are foreign to social realities in non-Western

societies. This leads to the understanding that the non-Western societies are left with the



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awkward fact as compared to the Western society as it based on the Western sociological

approaches (Ilyas and Farid 1985). Therefore, the Islamic perspective offers an alternative

approach to describe some thematic concept of sociology of religion in different outlook. In

order to clarify the Islamic stance on the sociology of religion, four aspects are to be

scrutinized by analyzing religion as a human phenomenon as it denying the transcendent

factor, the stance of Islam towards the concept of religion, the conceptual framework of

Islamic sociology with highlighting the Islamic civil society as its core model.

Religion As A Human Phenomenon In The Sociology Of Religion

Generally, the perception of sociologists towards religion is shaped by various types of social

forces and religion is perceived by them as socially constructed (Carl Olson, 2003). In

connection with that, although the sociology of religion established 'sacred' as a major

element in religion, they perceived the 'sacred' from the human perspective which divert it

from the meaning of god as an existing reality. In line with the development of reason and

intellect, the sociology of religion rests on scientific and rational bases rather than that of

theology or divine-human encounter (al-Hidayah). For instance, a man who chooses to

convert to another religion, he will be perceived to be sociologically involved with some

sociological factors that push and pull him to embrace that new religion. From the western

perspective of sociology of religion, there is no divine-human encounter that captivate the

interest of that man to embrace the new religion who he believes to be more likely attracted

to the new one.

Durkheim’s interest in the origin of religion brought him to discover this origin in to totemism

and sacred symbols that represents an impersonal force supporting a tribe’s beliefs, rituals,

and way of life. The intended impersonal force is as a symbol of the god and clan which

represents the sanctity of one’s religion (Carl Olson, 2003). Durkheim further argues that the

origins of religion are concurrent with those of society whereby religion arises as a practical

expression of human sociality. Believing the indigenous cultures to be living laboratories of



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social and religious evolution, Durkheim argues that their simple structure and primitive

processes show most clearly the ways in which religion emerges as the symbolic and practical

representation of collective, societal dynamics (Dawson 2011). Therefore, religion, according

to Durkheim, reinforcing social cohesion rather than underwriting social division. Religion

does so by generating among its followers a shared range of dispositions (attachment,

obedience) in respect of a given set of beliefs and practices. Taking the word religion at its

most literal (from the Latin re-ligare, meaning ‘to bind’), Durkheim regards religion’s

fundamental function as that of binding individuals together through its mutual association,

common beliefs and shared practices. Importantly for Durkheim, the mutuality engendered

by religion reinforces social cohesion and is thereby conducive to wider societal harmony.

In conjunction with this idea, it is believed that the concept of religion is a human invention,

intently developed or unconsciously formed (Wan Mohd Fazrul Azdi Wan Razali, 2009). It

forms the common view that humans actually make up the value of its own, to mold for good

or ill the minds of its members (Hick, 1990). To understand more on how the concept of

religion is considered a human invention, there are some other scientific theories of religion

highlighted by western scholars. For the Functional theory, religion strives to express the social

role or function which religious belief and practice play within the broader societal context.

French sociologist of religion Hervieu-Leger (2000) hereby defines religion as a form of

symbolic understanding through and by which humanity makes sense of both its surrounding

and experience thereof. In effect, religion enables individuals and communities to function in

the world by way of rendering their existence meaningful. For Hervieu-Leger, religion does

this by drawing upon a range of theories, principles and practices which are inherited from

and authorized by past generations in the form of tradition (chain of belief).

Tylor (2003) confirms that religion is developed by human. He argues that primitive people

created their religion by constructing concepts to explain what they perceived through their

senses. It is here that he realized that all religions employ a belief based on spiritual beings

such as souls, gods, angels, spirits and ghosts. Tylor considers the practice as a form of animism

and sees it as the basis of religious development (Tylor 2003). According to him, the evolution



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of culture from lower forms to modern forms corresponds to the evolution of religion from

something other and lower than religion (Eric J. Sharpe 1975). He believes that animism is a

theory for the origin of religion that should not be discarded (Eric J. Sharpe 1975). He identifies

three fundamental stages of cultural evolution; first is the savage stage, second the barbaric

stage and third; the civilized stage (Carl Olson, 2003). It can be said that the more civilized the

society, the more religious they are as religion evolve according to the cultural evolution of

the society.

For Beckford (2003), religion is expressed by means of human ideas, symbols, feelings,

practices and organizations. These expressions are the products of social interactions,

structures and processes and, in turn, they influence social life and cultural meanings to

varying degrees. The social scientific study of religion, including social theory, aims to interpret

and explain these products and processes. In different view of religion, Maduro (1982) states

that no religion exists in a vacuum. Every religion, any religion, no matter what we may

understand by ‘religion’, is a situated reality – situated in a specific human context, a concrete

and determined geographical space, historical moment and social milieu notes.

Sociology thereby engages the ‘situated reality’ of religion by identifying, exploring and

seeking to explain its relationship with societal structures and process which both impact upon

and are influenced by it. For example, the sociology of religion may concern itself with the

interaction between religious institutions and prevailing political, economic and legal

structures. Religion exists in “a situated reality” also implies that religion develops according

to the context of human being in certain area and time of living. It can be argued that religion

will be changed when the social life and the cultural development of the people change. It

seems that the concept of religion as proposed by Maduro (1982) has no concrete principle

nor rituals to be determined as it will be depending on the knowledge and understanding of

those who are in the high rank position of certain religion. In other words, the concept of

religion and its contents are not extracted from the scriptures of God’s revelation. Rather, it

mainly depends on the rationality and the capability of human knowledge and interpretation.



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It is to say that the concept of religion as a human invention deny the intervention of God to

figure out the teachings of religion and rules to abide the conduct of the people.

To sum up the above discussion on how the concept of religion is perceived by the western

scholars as the concept built by the human intervention, some characteristics of religion are

highlighted. Religion arises as a practical expression of human sociality which employs a belief

based on spiritual beings. The religion is socially constructed by human invention enable man

to make up the value of its own without considering the God-centered determination on the

evaluation of the virtue of the values. Religion is expressed by means of human ideas, symbols,

feelings, practices and organizations. These expressions are the products of social

interactions, structures and processes. Religion significantly reinforces social cohesion among

its followers a shared range of dispositions (attachment, obedience) in respect of a given set

of beliefs and practices. Therefore, religion plays an important role to bind individuals

together through its mutual association, common beliefs and shared practices.

However, Islam defines religion in different way whereby religion is perceived as a human

phenomenon from the fact that believing in god as the essence of religion is embedded in

their self. It is the nature of human being created by god. Sulaiman (2000) argues that western

sociological theories are grossly handicapped in explaining the religious experiences of Muslim

societies. While these limitations are similar to the ones that determine sociological work on

other subjects, they are particularly more pronounced in their treatment of Islam. To start

with, Islam is not a social institution in the sense Emile Durkheim applies to all religions. It

certainly has its own set of beliefs, rituals, norms, practices, etc., but it goes beyond that.

Hence it gives a very subordinate and secondary position to all rituals. Taking salat (daily

prayer) as an example, it is enjoined every Muslim towards the direction of the Holy Ka’bah

while offering the prescribed prayer. However, fearing that the ritual be considered as part of

the essence of prayers, the Qur’an says there is no special virtue in this that you turn your face

to the East or the West.



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Islam is a holistic system with a unique but complex socio-cultural framework – articles of

faith, cardinal injunctions on economic, legal and political sub-systems, pattern of norm and

values. That is why it is reluctant to be termed “a religion”. Rather it is din, and in that

framework, it covers all the aspects of human life – private or institutional. The concept of din

as Naquib al-Attas (1985) has pointed out, entails the notion of society and culture. Din

according to him, is part of the nature (fitrah) of mankind and conveys the notion of rules and

principles of organization, that is culture and society.

The concept of religion in Islamic perspective in which Islam as a religion does not present its

principles dogmatically, for those who believe or wish to believe, exclusively. Al-Faruqi

(http://www.allaboutworldview.org/islamic-sociology.htm) argues that Islam does so

rationally, critically. It comes to us armed with logical and coherent arguments, and expects

our acquiescence on rational, and hence necessary, grounds. It is not legitimate for us to

disagree on the relativist basis of personal taste, or that of subjective experience. It is

therefore, Islam disagree with the western stance that consider the concept of religion as

human invention and developed based on the cultural evolution from human phenomenon of

their social context. In other words, the scientific study of religion in western sociology of

religion has perceived religion as the isolated aspect far from the God revelation. It

simultaneously means that the western sociology of religion undermining the divine aspect of

god’s nature and power to transcend both the universe and knowledge.

Undermining The Divine Aspect

Parallel with the general approach of scientific study of religion, many profound sociologist of

religion had undermined the divine aspect of religion. This can be proved from the way those

sociologist interpreted the existence of religions. Among the earliest renowned theories are

Edward Taylor's animism theory, Durkheim's functionalism theory, Weber's social change

theory and Marx's conflict theory. All these theories interpreted religion’s existence out of the

divine context. Each one of the sociologist had different intensity in the way they disassociate



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divinity from religion. Marx stand towards religion is clearly hostile as he himself declared

religion is opium of the people. While others are likely to be agnostic. On the other hand we

can trace devotement to religion in some of the discussion as we found in Andrew Lang's "the

Making of Religion" which he uphold the revelation theory in his explanation of the existence

of religion (Dadang Kamat, 2000).

Compared to other approaches, the sociology of religion is seen to give a fairly accurate

position of the divine aspect in their view of religion. Emile Durkheim (2003) a prominent

figure in the sociology of religion had established ‘sacred’ as the very essence element of a

religion and the most important component of its formation. Nonetheless, as explained by

Jacques Waardenburg (1999), the sociological study of religion perceives religion as “a society

in a projected and symbolized form.” Therefore, sociologists propose that religion should be

studied in response to social needs and reality. Undoubtedly, sociologist who had been

influenced by the atheism theory of creation had expelled the relation between divine and

religion or at least degrading the divine aspect of religion. Edward B. Tylor (2003) considers

the practice of believing in spiritual beings such as souls, gods, angels, spirits and ghosts are a

form of animism and sees it as the basis of religious development. By doing so, he ignores the

divine aspect in the existence of any religion.

From the Islamic perspective, studying religion by isolating the divine elements from the

essence of the religion is not an accurate method of study as divinity is the most vital aspect

in Islam. It is because Islam holds the belief of the one God in the universe which is built around

the concept of monotheism (Tawheed). It is a belief which maintains its purity and simplicity.

The idolaters of Makkah believed in a supreme god who “lived in the sky”. The people of the

book took the prophets as children of God. Others thought God could be reached only through

intermediaries like priests, thereby investing these people with a kind of divinity. Islam rejects

all such associations. Allah is the One, True God, the Creator and Sustainer of the universe;

above all limitations and free from all imperfections. The Quran and Hadis as the primary

source for Islam had constituted that believe in god is the first pillar of Islam. The Quran stated

in Surah al-Ikhlas 112 verse 1-3:



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“Say: He is Allah, the One and Only. Allah, the Independent, (the Eternal). He does not

beget nor was he begotten. And there is none like unto Him.”

In other surah, the Quran stated in Surah Sad verse 65:

Say: "Truly am I a warner: no god is there but the one Allah, Supreme and Irresistible.

It is not only Islam which viewed the divinity as a key aspect of its formation, but other religions

as well. As stated by H. A. Mukti Ali (1999), Muhammad Iqbal (1974) and Lord Herbet (1583-

1648) God is one of the essential pedestals of religion and it is the center pillar of divinity

(Adeng Muchtar Ghazali, 2000). Religion gives strong emphasis on the divine aspects, thus it

is a paramount factor not to be isolated in order to ensure that the study of religion is truly

focusing on the religion itself. In comparison to western perspective, the concept of religion is

built based on the understanding of atheism and secularism which emphasizes on dualism and

dichotomism between the sacred of worldly life and the profane of hereafter. This kind of

separation does not exist in Islam as Islam is the Din of the way of life.

Atheism And Secularism As The Basis Of The Sociology Of Religion

As appointed in the above discussion, some sociologist of religion constituted religion by

deviating it from the divinity aspect and furthermore regards religion as human invention. This

concept is identical and corresponding to the secularism and atheism. These tendencies have a

significant impact on the outcome of the studies as the divine sources had been ignored totally

or partially. Al-Attas (1993) elaborates the meaning of secularization: “the deliverance of man,

first from religious and then from metaphysical control over his reason and his language.”

Taylor clarifies that “the secular was, in the new sense, opposed to any claim made in the name

of something transcendent of this world and its interests.” (Daniel Boscaljon, 2013). As well as

secularism, atheism is certainly contrary to religion. As confirmed by Paul Cliteur (2009)



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sometimes atheism is presented as a coherent worldview, encompassing all the other traditions

supposed to be associated with secularist orientations.

In Islam, secularism and atheism is a repudiated concept. Atheism at the first place is

contradict to all religions. As George H. Smith puts the meaning of atheism as follows:

“Atheism, in its basic form, is not a belief: it is the absence of belief” (Paul Cliteur, 2009),

whereas religions are based upon belief.

Regarding the secularism, Islam as an inclusive religion upholds the concept of consolidation

of religious life and humanly life. Thus, there is no boundary between religious study and

science (Mohd Faizal A.K, 2015). The unitary perspective of Islam is rooted in the metaphysical

principle of tawhid in which all aspects of life are interconnected with the Almighty God

(Yasien Mohamed, 1998). Islam affirms the perfectness of the religion that includes all aspects

of human life (Mohd Faizal., 2015). It is stated in Surah al-Maidah: 3:

This Day have I perfected your religion for you, completed My favour upon you,

and have chosen for you Islam as your religion.

Therefore, Islam is contrary to the concept of secularism that separates human from religion.

As concluded by al-Faruqi (1986), methodologies which laid secularism as its core reference

are unable to study religions in its totality to encompass man’s entire religious experience

which includes the experience of ultimate reality. Therefore, Islam has its perspective in

clarifying the concept of sociology of religion as it discusses as follows.



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Sociology Of Religion: An Islamic Perspective

French philosopher Auguste Comte formulated the concept of sociology more than a hundred

years ago. The word “sociology” is a combination of Greek and Latin and simply means civic

studies (Furseth, 2006). The concept of society is the beating heart of sociological analysis.

The word society (from the Latin societas) was around long before it was co-opted by early

social theorists such as Auguste Comte (1798-1857) and used to designate ‘sociology’ as the

‘science of society’ (Seidman, 2004). Hamilton (1995) points out that the sociology of religion

can be defined as the study of the beliefs, practices and organizational forms of religion using

the tools and methods of the discipline of sociology. As understood from the definition,

sociology of religion is a broad method and approach to study religion. It may include those

who believe in certain religion and those who are subscribe to atheism. He concluded that

sociologists of religion today often have a personal commitment to one or other form of faith,

although others maintain an atheistic or agnostic position.

Turner argues (2013) that Islam as a civilization that raised important issues for sociological

theory, and in contemporary social sciences it invoked issues about inter-civilisational analysis,

orientalism, universalism and cosmopolitism which continue to have relevance to modern

problems of analysis and interpretation. In short Turner’s sociological work, has been

preoccupied by questions relating to historical and comparative research.

Turner (1974) argued that Islam was a challenge to Weber’s theory that inner-worldly

asceticism had provided the religious foundations for the rise of rational capitalism, that could

have contributed to the emergence of a rational system of economics and administration.

Weber’s treatment of the Prophet and the Qur’an appeared to suffer from the stereotypical

response to Islam that was prominent in western Orientalism at the time. Nevertheless,

Turner argued that his understanding of the state, religion and the history of patrimonialism

did offer a valuable insight into later Muslim political systems (Turner 2013: 12). The points

highlighted by Turner shows that Islam as a religion has able to offer some thematic approach



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on sociological concept in socioeconomics and political aspects of the people. It is notable that

Islam is not a religion of dogmatic principles, but Islam is a civilization which provides an

alternative interpretation for modern sociological issues.

The Islamic theory of society as developed by Ilyas and Farid (1985) states that such theory

has to be based on the following characteristics. First, Islamic theory note the material and

spiritual existence of man. Secondly, this theory focuses on the process of reasoning and

decision-making. Thirdly, from this initial micro-perspective, this theory should be able to

expand in order to encompass larger processes like consensus and cooperation and conflict

and competition on the other hand. Fourthly, this theory, by its nature, should have the ability

to explain change in individual behavior patterns as well as in the social order in terms both

of internal processes (evolution and revolution) and external factors (assimilation and

invasion). Finally, because this theory has to be used for achieving Islamic objectives, it must

have a focal emphasis on the situations of human motivation at individual, group, community,

national and international levels.

Ilyas and Farid (1985) further explains that the Islamic theory has to follow a median course in

order to encompass the extremes of human processes, it must avoid taking extreme positions.

This suggestion is quite consistent with the very spirit of Islam which leads toward the

development of a ‘middle nation’ (Qur’an 2: 143). Islam as an ideology implies that Islam is

not only the concept but also the way of life. The assumption basic to this approach is that

human being in his original make-up with a dual nature and free will needs a directive to avoid

conflict and self-destruction in his plural living. Without following God’s law, human beings

would head toward calamity. Islam is not merely a formula of rituals. It is the process of

obedience to the rule that Allah has laid down towards the relation of man with God and the

relationship among human beings, whether they be in terms of the family, polity, economy,

education, recreation, reproduction and all those matters which together sustain the full

societal and interactional life on this Earth.



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In short, Islam is a way of life in which the emphasis is on deliberation and not instincts. What

it means is that even if a Muslim society chose to follow a path in contradiction to Islam, it will

inevitably proceed towards destruction and decline. Even if a non-Muslim society manages to

follow this law or any aspect of it, it will prosper to the same degree. It is like the law of gravity.

If someone jumps from the top of a skyscraper, he will die – even if he is a Muslim. This

assumption puts man midway between total freedom and total restriction. Unlike other

objects in the universe, man has been given the ability to choose and yet this potential of his

is restricted and channeled through Islam in order to yield maximum benefits. An ideal Islamic

society falls midway between those that espouse and claim a high degree of freedom of action

and expression, and those that exercise an unduly high level of restriction on their members

(Ilyas and Farid, 1985).

It has to be clarified that there is a difference between the sociology of religion in Islamic

perspective and the sociology of Islam. The sociology of religion in Islamic perspective

describes the concept of religion according to the viewpoint of Islam and develop an Islamic

approach to the various social sciences (Ilyas and Farid 1985). In other words, the similar

terminology used is “Islamic Sociology” which describes the Islamic approach to sociology.

How Islamic sociology is distinct from other sociologies? The distinct is conceived as a conflict

between religious and secular concepts as value committed and value free concepts

respectively. To introduce Islamic sociology is to make a value commitment. In contrast to the

sociology of Islam, the study is more on to explore modern social, political and economic

transformations in Muslim societies through the lens of sociological analysis, social theory,

modernity, social movements, secularism and political economy.

Suleiman Khalid (2000) argues that the Islamic sociology is friendliness, neighborliness,

warmness, good natured civility with accessibility to establish the company to others. It deals

with ownself, with Creator, with parents, with Muslim brothers, with non-Muslims and

community inclusive in all state systems at national and international levels. It is a heaven

revealed living order and not a matter of theoretical discussion or scared words for reading



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purposes but to govern the life of the populace at large as said in Surah al-Maidah verses 15-

16 below:

“There a shining light and a clear book have come to you: who seek His happiness and

pleasure. He guides you to the way of wellbeing and peace and takes them out of

obscurity to the radiance, guides them to straight path”.

The pioneering concept of oneness of mankind as said in Surah al-Nisa verse no 1 and in Surah

Al-Hujurat verse no 13 that all human being are the children of one man and woman. There is

no superiority lies in color, creed or on race. The same model of sociology is practiced by the

last prophet of Islam and said by him at the plan of Aarafat that there are no barriers of class

and sections of any kind and there no preference of white on black or western on eastern or

Aryan and non-Aryan but the purity and piety of a person and his character in the eyes of the

creator.

Historically, the prophet of Muhammad is the first sociologist who founded a new society at

Makkah and established it at Madina by having a social contract with all other followers of the

religions, although historians cite the beginning of modern social living nineteen century. The

criterion of living commandment is not the consensus of a group of people or community for

the interest of some people but these living principles are for total interest and humanity for

all times. This living is for the sacredness of human life, dignity and the compassion for the

weaker, fairness in dealings, where a justice is to be enjoined.

According to Ilyas and Farid (1985) the theoretical Islamic sociology involve several basic

assumptions: Assumption I: The Nature of Nature: Allah is the creator of the whole universe

including man, and He has authority over everything that exists in it. This assumption rejects

the secular value of contemporary Western sociology. Consequently, Islamic sociology reject

assertions which replace Allah with what they call nature, for instance ‘according to the

dictates of nature…’, ‘nature makes it possible…’ It is because belief in Allah, the one God, is

central to anything Islamic, values of Islamic sociology cannot be secular. If one has to speak



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at all of nature, it must be understood that Allah is the creator and the law-giver and that it is

only in terms of His law that things in the universe operate naturally. Or, to put it differently,

nature itself is the creation of Allah.

Assumption II: The Nature of Man: Human nature may be outlined in terms of four

characteristics which are described in and may be derived directly from the Quran. First, man

is made up opposites. In his make-up, Allah mixed evil with good. After Allah formed his body,

he breathed into it from His Own Spirit and full man came into existence. Man has the impulse

to act with selfishness and contrary to the laws of Allah. On the other hand, he has the urge

to follow and promote Divine laws in society. This assumption is contrary to the Christian

doctrine which views of man as being essentially a sinner. Secondly, the above features of

man assume the existence in him of free-will, an ability to make decisions. It means that

predispositions in man are not predetermining. What determines human action in either of

two directions is human will itself. This very process of choosing also implies the power of

abstract reasoning. In other words, as a matter of self-conservation, man tries to know the

relationship of the elements in his environment so that he may utilize them or escape from

them.

Thirdly, man has been given the ability to learn and acquire knowledge. The verse, And Allah

taught Adam ‘all the names’ (Qur’an 2:31), is interpreted by most students of Islam as

indicative of this ability in man. There seems to be a general agreement that ‘the names’ in

this verse means essences of every created object and hence it refers to knowledge about the

entire creation. Since this verse seems to imply that there is human ability not only to acquire

existing knowledge, but also to produce knowledge and thus further increase intellectual

capital. Finally, having bestowed these unique qualities on man, Allah made him the best of

all creations, even superior to the angels. Despite his being made of dust or mud, man was

proclaimed by Allah to be His vicegerent (Qur’an, 2:30) and Allah asked His angels to prostrate

before Adam (Qur’an 11: 34), the one who refused to do so being condemned for ever (Ilyas

and Farid 1985).



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Assumption III: The Nature of Social Order. Human society may be defined in terms of two

constituent elements; a plurality of people and the laws that they share and are supposed to

follow. As the Qur’an puts it, human society did start with one man and one woman, Adam

and Hawwa. “O mankind, we created you from one male and one female” (Qur’an 49: 13).

This society of two human beings on earth followed the guidance from Allah so they could

make the best of their plight in these strange and demanding surroundings. Starting with this

single pair, the progeny of Adam and Hawwa grew in numbers and evolved into communities

and tribes (Qur’an 9:41) and lastly in what is known as ummah or nations. Whatever the

cultural development of society – communities, tribes, or nations – the very building block of

all these manifestations of existence is the family, beginning with one man and one woman

and their progeny. Human family is the minimum common denominator of human society.

That later the family itself took different forms in terms of becoming extended, nuclear,

polygynous or polyandrous, does not make much difference inasmuch as it remained the

cornerstone of the social order.

Ilyas and Farid (1985: 40) further argues that an ideal Islamic society falls midway between

those that claim a high degree of freedom of action and expression, and those that exercise

an unduly high level of restriction on their members. These twin institutions of the Islamic

order fall into three different ways. First, marriage in Islam is essentially a social contract

between the bride and the groom only. It is a contract that has to be solemnized with the full

exercise of free choice. All the practices which in some societies generally precede such a

choice such as premarital sex, dating or intimate contacts are all severely prohibited. Secondly,

Islam allows up to four wives – a practice which has been severely criticized by a number of

orientalists and others. However, the possibility of having even two wives is severely curtailed

by commanding total justice between them (Qur’an 4: 3). Because ordinarily a person may not

be able to do justice between or among his wives, he is supposed to have only one (Quran.

4:3). However, there are extraordinary circumstances too. Often personal and social

circumstances conspire against monogamy and may make polygamy look more desirable, and

Islam provides room for such occasions with a rather stringent condition. This, as is evident,



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does not mean that there is a free license for, or that one has to practice, polygamy. It means

that the ideal is justice in polygamy as well as in monogamy; and in the broadest terms justice

in this context means that it has the function of eradicating prostitution and other sexual

deviances, providing security compassion (Qur’an 30: 21).

Law can never be promulgated in society without the existence of an authority with a threat

of coercion. Thus, the existence of law assumes the existence of an authority with what is

known as political power. Interestingly enough, even the Divine law itself with all the authority

of Allah behind it had to be promulgated by human authority as man is the vicegerent of Allah.

Although the lure of power and group jealousies are some of the major sources of conflict

within human society, not the least reason for social legislation has been economic activity.

While work or the process of production could entail a cooperative effort, conflict is quite

often emergent in the process of distribution and consumption. While the laws transmitted

by Allah to the mankind through His prophets rejected all kinds of malpractices and injustice

in economic distribution, man-made laws often reflect the desires of the more powerful in

society, and tend to enhance this injustice or, when the attempts are made to avoid this

situation, tend to concentrate power in arbitrary, absolute and fewer hands. These four

activities – the family, the law, the polity and economic activity – together describe a universal

minimum of human social order.

Assumption IV: The Nature of human history. Not only is man caught in a dilemma within

himself, the whole of human history describes a dialectical progression and alternation

between just and unjust social orders in human society. When a number of prophets set out

to establish a just order, they always faced the threat of challenge and even annihilation. Even

after a prophet was able to establish such an order, his descendants soon forgot the true

message and so contaminated it. Hence the need for another prophet who would again try to

pick the pieces and establish a new order congruent with the cultural development of society.

Finally, at a certain juncture in the cultural development of man came the last and the most

comprehensive formula for human social life – Islam – through the prophet Muhammad

(peace be on him). This may remind us of Karl Marx who saw conflict as the basis of the



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historical dialectics. However, Qur’anic history, in its own special dialectical view, emphasizes

conflict as much as it does consensus and cooperation. Social order changes but the dust

settles only to be stirred up again by the forces of good or those of evil (Ilyas and Farid 1985).

Not that these dialectics came to a happy ending with the advent of Islam. On the contrary,

Islam predicates the final solution as dependent upon the ability of a people to change

themselves (Qur’an 13:12). Thus, from the point of view of Muslim history, although the final

message came, humanity has still to proceed through the process of the conflict between good

and evil. Not only does conflict continue between Muslim and non-Muslims, Muslims

themselves, after having a short glimpse of unity, became internally discordant.

It is therefore, the main concept of sociology in Islam is the unity of mankind which

human being is believed to be no difference from the other and responsible to be the servant

of God (Khurshid Ahmad, 1999). A core principle of Islamic sociology is that Islam provides a

perfect harmony between the individual and society, holding both in concert with each other.

“Another unique feature of Islam is that it establishes a balance between individualism and

collectivism. It believes in the individual personality of man and holds everyone personally

accountable to God. It does not subscribe to the view that man must lose his individuality in

society or in the state. On the other hand, it also awakens a sense of social responsibility in

man, organizes human beings in a society and a state and enjoins the individual to subscribe

to the social good.” (Khurshid Ahmad, 1999).

It can be sum up that the sociology of religion in Islamic perspective offers its own principle in

defining the terminology of religion, human being and society which are difference from the

sociological viewpoint of Western scholar. In conjunction to this point, it can be clearly stated

that Islam is a religion; and similarly Islam is also a government. Islam does not distinguish

between social institutions and the state. Rather, Islam is a comprehensive reality—the state

is to be as much Islamic as the local mosque. In other words, there is no dichotomy in Islam

which separated the worldly life presented by social relation among human beings and the



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hereafter presented the responsible of human being with Allah as the Almighty God.

Therefore, Islam highlighted its own core principle of sociology to form the civil society

distinguishes from the modern western civil society.

Islamic Civil Society as The Core of Islamic Sociology

The concept of civil society is considered a core of Islamic sociology as it is the main

characteristic that distinguishes the Islamic perspective from the Western viewpoint. Civil

society in the West is associated with the Enlightment and modernization characterized by

‘individualism’ and the emergence of democratic institutions. These have been discussed

extensively from Locke and Hobbs to Gellner and Eisenstadt (Kamali 1998). Among the

scholars dealing with civil society, some, for instance Gellner (1994), deny the possibility of

the existence of an “Islamic civil society”.

Analyzing civil society in Muslim countries requires that we recognize Islam not only as a

religion, but also as a political theory and the major source of legitimization of political power.

Islamic beliefs and traditions have been a major source of legitimization of political power and

the position of the state in Muslim countries during a long history. The decisive role of religion

in legitimizing political power has provided religious groups, in particular the ulama (the

learned religious leaders), with a highly influential position in society. In regard to the civil

society as the main characteristic in understanding the sociology of religion in the Muslim

countries, Kamali (2001) argues that neither individualism nor democratic institutions have

been or are necessary for a civil society to exist. Kamali points out a “sociological model of

Islamic civil societies” in which the basis of a civil society is the existence of influential civil

groups and their institutions that can, through established mechanisms, counterbalance state

power.



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Throughout Islamic history, civil society organizations have principally come to the aid of the

less fortunate, to relieve their suffering, and to give charity to the needy. Working

independently of the state, these institutions thrived not only because they were religiously

inspired, but also because the larger society was able to serve as a strong support system for

their growth (Mohamad Abu Bakar, 2001). Turner (2013) concludes that the new religion of

Islam under the leadership of Muhammad, proposed a new basis for solidarity. The universal

Islamic concept of ummah which refers to the Muslim community irrespective of family, status

or tribal belonging was the basis of the new solidarity. Belonging to ummah which refers to

the Muslim community irrespective of family, status or tribal belonging was the basis of the

new solidarity. Belonging to ummah based on faith rather than blood, cut right across the

particularism the tribal system and empowered all Muslims with the right to protection and

economic compensation.

In many Islamic countries, civil society is not directly conditioned by the existence of

‘sovereign’ and ‘free’ individuals, but by groups or communities and their institutions enjoying

a significant degree of autonomy from the state. The autonomy of these civic society groups

is based on social authority and legitimacy as well as socioeconomic institutions. The ulama

enjoyed a particular religious and legitimate basis from which to challenge the state. The

ulama’s economic independence from the state, which rested on such economic institutions

as the waqf (religious endowments), religious taxes and the bazaar’s economic support,

underpinned the ulama’s autonomy from the state (Kamali, 2001). Autonomous access to the

state, as a second condition for civil society, means that civil groups can institutionally gain

access to and influence the state. The ulama have, as representatives of civil society,

historically exercised influence over state authority. They possessed a basis of authority

independent of the state. They also enjoyed a certain autonomous jurisprudence, and, in

many cases, had access to their own executive means.

The third condition of civil society is a relatively independent public sphere. Socio-political

institutions in which public debate takes place and influences political decision-making

constitute the public sphere of civil society. This sphere should be relatively independent of



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the state, the family and tribal bonds. Such a relatively independent public spheres existed

over many centuries in the Muslim countries (Kamali, 1998). The fourth condition is the legal

and normative protection of the institutional relationships that make up civil society. The

ulama’s monopoly over Islamic jurisprudence, shari’a, provided them with the opportunity to

protect traditional civil society and legitimize and defend it against the state’s intervention.

Social solidarity as the basis of a society is the fifth condition for a civil society to exist. This

solidarity is based on a sense of justice. Individuals and groups must have a sense of belonging

to a society that provides them with the means of a fair existence. Although social solidarity

is based on social justice, it has a very strong moral connotation. The appearance of Islam not

only as a religion, but also as a sociopolitical doctrine.

According to Ilyas and Farid (1985) what Muslim societies need and have to present to the

world is the Islamic model of development. This model of development, by its very design, has

to avoid extremes by striking a balance between material and spiritual development. This

model of development does not have any room for the Western preoccupation with

materialism. Neither can it tolerate the extreme form of spiritualism as practiced by others.

The Islamic model of development is aimed at developing an ideal Islamic society based on an

all-pervasive socio-economic and political environment which nourishes the material as well

as spiritual needs of men. The most fundamental ingredients of the Islamic model of

development are institutions – family, economic and politics. The task of sociologist, then, is

to make plans for the development of these institutions and the maintenance of those

processes and other practices which are necessary to preserve these institutions. In other

words, the ultimate responsibility of the Muslim sociologists is to find ways and means of

minimizing the deviance of society from the Islamic ideal. As the society goes on growing and

expanding, it should be seen that it does not transgress the Islamic limits.



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Conclusion

In conclusion, there are many approaches that had been practiced by the sociologist to study

religion from sociological point of view. Some of these approaches are contravene to the basic

Islamic teaching, forth are repudiated totally from the Islamic perspective. In relation to the

sociology of religion, Islam accept the underlying principal of sociology of religion which is the

study of the beliefs, practices and organizational forms of religion using the tools and methods

of the discipline of sociology. Islam disagrees with the western stance that consider the

concept of religion as human invention and developed based on the cultural evolution from

human phenomenon of their social context. The scientific study of religion in western

sociology of religion has perceived religion as the isolated aspect far from the God revelation.

It simultaneously means that the western sociology of religion undermining the divine aspect

of god’s nature and power to transcend both the universe and religion. Hence, the sociology

of religion in Islamic perspective believe that the thematic concept of religion, human being

and civil society should stand based on the divine principles of God revelation and not fully

rely on the reasoning and empirical knowledge of human beings.

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