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Luluhawa batuan mendak
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Learning objectives
luluhawa
1 Apa itu
2 Bagaimana
terjadi
3 Jenis2 luluhawa4 Faktor2 yg mempengaruhi
luluhawa
5 Impak/kesan
6 hasil
7 kepentingan
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Luluhawa suatu proses yang
berlaku di permukaan bumi untukmemecah dan menguraikan
batuan (break and decompose
rocks)Enviromen: terhad kepada sejauh
mana air tanah (groundwater)boleh menusuk masuk (penetrate)
ke dalam permukaan bumi
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luluhawa
Boleh dilihat sebagai destructive forces
- yang memecah, mengurai, mengubah
bentuk dan keadaan fizikal dan kimia batuan Boleh dilihat sebagai constructive forces
yang menghasilkan sedimen, membentuk
batuan mendak, mineral, mendapanmineral, landform baru
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Jenis2 luluhawa
1. Luluhawa fizikal
2. Luluhawa kimia
3. Luluhawa biologi
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1. Luluhawa fizikal
Memecahkan batuan yang bersaiz besar kepadabahagian yang lebih kecil
contoh: wedging (pembajian), exfoliation(pengelupasan), thermal expansion (kembanghaba), lelasan (abrasion), (wetting and drying (espin shales), pressure release by erosion ofoverburden
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Luluhawa fizikal
1 Frost wedging (pembajian ibun) water
expands when it freezes, breaking rocks
into angular fragments; lazim berlaku
dalam iklim temperat (ada ais)
Nota: apabila air menjadi ais, isipadu
meningkat sebanyak 10% => mebungkah
(pries) batuan
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talus terdapat di kaki bukit
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Luluhawa fizikal
2 Exfoliation (pengelupasan) bedrocks
(batuan hampar) breaks into flat sheets
along joints (kekar) which parallel the
ground surface. This phenomenon is
caused by expansion of rock when the
pressure of overlying rock is removed by
erosion => sometimes called unloading
Apa itu kekar?
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Exfoliation Stone Mt
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exfoliation
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exfoliation
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Active exfoliation Stone Mt
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goblin
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Mt Kinabalu
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Mt Kinabalu
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Mt Kinabalu
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4 Lelasan (abrasion)
Batuan menjadi lebih kecil hasi drpd
pergeseran dan pelanggaran semasa
terangkut, contohnya di dasar sungai
Glasial, ombak dan angin juga boleh
menjadi agen lelasan
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Kelebihan kimia fizikal
Luluhawa fizikal memecahkan batuan ke
saiz yg lebih kecil => menyediakan lebih
banyak luas permukaan batuan bersaiz
kecil untuk tindakbalas kimia berlaku
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2. Luluhawa kimia
Memecahkan batuan secara kimia dgn
menambah atau menanggalkan (removing)
unsur2 kimia, mengubah unsur2 tersebut
menjadi bahan2 baru
contoh: dissolution (pelarutan), hydrolysis
(hidrolisis), oxidation (pengoksidaan)
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Luluhawa kimia
1 Dissollution (pelarutan) alters rocks by
removing soluble minerals => soluble ions
and insoluble ions => precipitate and
crystallize (dalam tasik atau laut)
Ex: pembentukan garam, batu kapur,
travertine
Batuan => ion larut/ tak larut => pemendakan
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Luluhawa fizikal
3 Thermal expansion (kembang haba) heat
causes action; cooling causes contraction
=> expand and contract at different rate
causes stresses along mineral boundaries.
Repeated heating and cooling => batuan
pecah
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Luluhawa kimia
2 Hydrolisis proses di mana feldspar are
weathered to form clay
Note: clay make up half of sedimentaryrocks on Earth
(Berapa jenis feldspar kita ada? Apakahkomposisinya?)
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Weathering of feldspar
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Beberapa contoh t/b kimia
A. Solution of carbon dioxide in water to form
acid
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H
+
+ HCO3-
B. Solution of calcite
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca2+ + 2HCO3
-
C. CaCO3 + H+ HCO3
- Ca2+ + 2HCO3-
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D. Chemical weathering of feldspar to form
clay mineral
2KAlSi3O8 + 2H
+
+ 2HCO3-
+ H2OK feldspar
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2K+ + 2HCO3
- + 4SiO2
clay mineral Silica in solutionor as fine solid
particles
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2KAlSi3O8
Al2Si
2O
5(OH)
4
K2O
Al2O36SiO2
Al2O3
2SiO22H2O
Cara jurutera bahan mengungkap formula
untuk memudahkan kefahaman
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Luluhawa kimia
3 oxidation the process by which iron-
bearing minerals (pyroxene, amphibole,
biotite) weather to produce iron oxides
Di kawasan tropik iron bearing
aluminosilicate => lateritic soils, red clayey
soils
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Oxidation reaction
4FeSiO3 + O2 +10H2O 4FeO.OH +
4H4SiO4
2Fe2SiO4 + 2O2 + 4H2O 4FeO.OH +
2H4
SiO4
Fe pyroxene
Fe olivine
Goetite
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3. Luluhawa biologi
Pemecahan batuan disebabkan oleh
tindakan organisma hidup spt tumbuh2an,
haiwan dalam tanah dan lichen (kulat? yang
hidup di atas batuan dan kayu)
Pengaruh => minimum
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Hasil luluhawa
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Weathering products
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Average daily temperatures range from aminimum of 25o C to a maximum of 33o C.
has an average annual rainfall of morethan 2500 mm
Malaysia
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Hujan dan suhu
driest
wettest
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Mineral stability in the weathering
environment
Mineral didapati tak stabil dalam enviromentertentu
Minerals which formed at high temperatureand pressures are least stable in theweathering environment and weather mostquickly
Minerals which formed at lower temperaturesand pressures are most stable underweathering conditions
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Rates of weathering
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Soil profile
D horizon
Fresh rocks
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Soil profile
Eluviation
illuviation
leaching
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Leaching/larutlesap: proses kimia yangmenghasilkan unsur larut dan tak larut.
Yang larut akan lesap ke bawah dalamprofil tanah sementara yang tak larut akanterkumpul di bahagian atas profil tanah =>warna membezakan lapisan tanah
Eluviation: removal of materials dissolvedor suspended in water
Illuviation: horizon of maximum
accumulation of suspended material orclay
Chelation: pembentukan kompleks kimia
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Laterite profile
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Acid run-off at gold mine
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bryce
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Oxidation effect
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Oxidation effects
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Staglatite-staglamite
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sinkholes
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Sinkholes (tanah benam)
Bagaimana terjadi?
Enviromental problem?
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Jenis2 tanah
Residual soil - laterit, iklim tropik
Transported soil till, loess, iklim temperat
Tanih - pelbagai jenis tanah
contoh: laterit, pedalfer, latosol,
paleosol
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Wentworth scale - grain size scale Particle name Particle diameter Gravel
Boulders > 256 mm
Cobbles 64 - 256 mm
Pebbles 2 - 64 mm
Granules 2 - 4 mm
Sand
Very coarse sand 1 - 2 mm Coarse sand 0.5 - 1 mm
Medium sand 0.25 - 0.5 mm
Fine sand 0.125 - 0.25 mm
Very fine sand 0.0625 - 0.125 mm Silt 1/256 - 1/16 mm
(or 0.004 - 0.0625 mm)
Clay < 1/256 mm(or < 0.004 mm) sesetengah
buku guna takrif
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Kitar batuan (Rock cycle)
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Hakisan (erosion)
The movement of weathered material from
the site of weathering. Primary agent is
gravity, but gravity acts in concert with
running water
pergerakan bahan terluluhawa dari tempat
luluhawa berlaku ke tempat ia ditemui
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Sedimentary cycle
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Malaysia bagaimana?
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Faktor yang mempengaruhi
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Faktor yang mempengaruhi
pembentukan tanah
1. Iklim (climate)
2. Batuan induk (parent material)
3. Relief (keadaan permukaan bumi)
4. Vegetation (tumbuhan)
5. Masa (time)
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Sambung => batuan mendak
(lihat beberapa transparensimengenai luluhawa)
Apa kesudahannya?
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Batuanmendak
apa
Bagaimanaterjadi
Perubahan sebelum, semasa dan
selepas pembentukan
jenis2
kepentingan
Apa kesudahannya?
Ciri2 utama Di mana
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Sediment = loose particulate material (clay,
sand, silt, gravel, etc.)
Sediment becomes sedimentary rock
through lithification, which involves:
Compaction
Cementation
Recrystallization (of carbonate sediment)
Hasil drpd luluhawa ialah sedimen
W t th l i i l
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Wentworth scale - grain size scale Particle name Particle diameter Gravel
Boulders > 256 mm Cobbles 64 - 256 mm
Pebbles 2 - 64 mm
Granules 2 - 4 mm
Sand
Very coarse sand 1 - 2 mm Coarse sand 0.5 - 1 mm
Medium sand 0.25 - 0.5 mm
Fine sand 0.125 - 0.25 mm
Very fine sand 0.0625 - 0.125 mm Silt 1/256 - 1/16 mm
(or 0.004 - 0.0625 mm)
Clay < 1/256 mm(or < 0.004 mm) sesetengah
buku guna takrif
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Ternary diagram Sand-Silt-Clay
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Kitar batuan (Rock cycle)
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Classification of sedimentary rocks
Hjulstrom Curve
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Hjulstrom Curve
Menghubungkait vel-size dgn proses (1939)
A Terrigenous (also called detrital or clastic)
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A. Terrigenous (also called detrital or clastic)
Terrigenous sedimentary rocks are derived fromthe weathering of pre-existing rocks, which havebeen transported to the depositional basin. Theyhave a clastic (broken or fragmental) textureconsisting of:
1.Clasts (larger pieces, such as sand or gravel)
2.Matrix (mud or fine-grained sedimentsurrounding the clasts)
3.Cement (the glue that holds it all together), suchas:
1.calcite2.iron oxide
3.silica
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Clasts and
matr ix
(labelled),and i ron oxide
cement
(redd ish brownco lor)
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Sand: Grain size 1/16 to 2 mm
Sandstone
If dominated by quartz grains = quartz
sandstone (also called quartz arenite)
If dominated by feldspar grains = arkose
If dominated by sand-sized rock fragmentgrains = lithic sandstone (also called
litharenite orgraywacke)
l t
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conglomerate
b i
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breccia
Q t d t
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Quartz sandstone
Arkose (mengandungi banyak feldspar)
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Arkose (mengandungi banyak feldspar)
Greywacke (sand-sized rock
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Greywacke (sand sized rock
fragments)
S G / / ( )
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Silt: Grain size 1/256 to 1/16 mm (gritty)
Siltstone
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Clay: Grain size less than 1/256 mm
(smooth) (< 2 micron)
Shale (if fissile)
Claystone (if massive)
Note: Mud is technically a mixture of silt and
clay. It forms a rock called mudstone (or
mudshale if fissile).
h l
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shale
k li
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kaolin
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B. Chemical/biochemical Sedimentary
Rocks
This group includes the evaporites, the
carbonates (limestones and dolostone),and the siliceous rocks. These rocks form
within the depositional basin from chemical
components dissolved in the seawater
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Evaporites - The evaporites form from theevaporation of water (usually seawater).
Rock salt - composed of halite (NaCl).
Rock gypsum - composed of gypsum
(CaSO4.2H20) Travertine - composed of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), and therefore, also
technically a carbonate rock; travertineforms in caves and around hot springs.
Bonneville Salt Flats of the Great Salt Lake, Utah. The lake
bed is covered with rock salt which gives it the white color
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bed is covered with rock salt which gives it the white color.
The salt is mined by the Morton Salt Company.
gypsum
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gypsum
Gypsum crystals, Marion lake,
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yp y , ,
Australia
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Carbonate rock names:
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Micrite (microcrystalline limestone) - very fine-grained; may be light gray or tan to nearly black in
color. Made of lime mud, which is also calledcalcilutite.
Oolitic limestone (look for the sand-sized oolites)
Fossiliferous limestone (look for various types offossils in a limestone matrix)
Coquina (fossil hash cemented together; mayresemble granola)
Chalk (made of microscopic planktonic organismssuch as coccolithophores; fizzes readily in acid)
Crystalline limestone
Travertine (see evaporites)
Others - intraclastic limestone, pelleted limestone
Stromatolitic limestone
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Stromatolitic limestone
Batuan karbonat di Mexico
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Batuan karbonat di Mexico
Siliceous rocks - The siliceous rocks are thosewhich are dominated by silica (SiO2) They
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which are dominated by silica (SiO2). Theycommonly form from silica-secreting organisms
such as diatoms, radiolarians, or some types ofsponges. Chert is formed through chemicalreactions of silica in solution replacinglimestones.
Diatomite - looks like chalk, but does not fizz inacid. Made of microscopic planktonic organismscalled diatoms. May also resemble kaolinite, butis much lower in density and more porous).
Also referred to as Diatomaceous Earth. Chert - Massive and hard, microcrystalline
quartz. May be dark or light in color. Oftenreplaces limestone. Does not fizz in acid.
. Organic Sedimentary Rocks (Coals)
This group consists of rocks composed of organic
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This group consists of rocks composed of organicmatter (mainlyplant fragments). Because of this, theylack minerals (which must be inorganic, be definition).
These are the coals. In order of increasing depth ofburial (temperature and pressure):
Peat (porous mass of brownish plant fragmentsresembling peat moss)
Lignite (crumbly and black) Bituminous coal (dull to shiny and black; sooty;
layers may be visible)
Anthracite coal (extremely shiny and black, may
have a slight golden shine; low density; not sooty;technically a metamorphic rock due to hightemperatures and pressures to which it has beensubjected)
others
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others
There are several other interesting
sedimentary rock types: Ironstones -Oolitic hematite, banded iron formations
Abundance of sedimentary rocks
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Abundance of sedimentary rocks
Soalan
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Soalan
Maklumat apakah yang boleh dicerap dari
pemerhatian batuan mendak?
Senaraikan
Sedimentary Structures
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Sedimentary structures form in the basin of
deposition, as a result of the action ofnatural processes such as waves, currents,drying events, etc.
Beds or strata
Cross-bedding Graded beds
Ripple marks
-Current ripple marks (asymmetrical ripples)Oscillation or wave ripple marks(symmetrical ripples)
Mud cracks
Sedimentary Structures
Structures formed during deposition
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1-4, after deposition 5,6
1 2 3
4 5 6
Ripple marks
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Ripple marks
Graded bedding, Jurassic of New
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Jersey
Graded bedding
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Graded bedding
kasar
halus
kasar
halus
mudcracks bagaimana terjadi?
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mudcracks bagaimana terjadi?
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rounding
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rounding
sorting
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sorting
High energy enviroment Low energy enviroment
varves
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varves
Cross stratification (berlaku semasa
t i i i l t)
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transgression-regression air laut)
Important note
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Important note
Descriptive properties => interpretiveproperties
Geology => engineering
Objective: to aid planning, design,
construction, mitigation, conservation,
preservation
Sedimentary Environments
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Sedimentary environments are places where
sediments accumulate and sedimentary rocksform. They can be grouped into:
Terrestrial environments (non-marine)
Rivers (fluvial environment)/sungai)
Alluvial fans (kipas lanar)
Lakes (lacustrine environment)/tasik
- Swamps/paya
- Deserts (aeolian environment)
- Glacial environments
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Transitional environments (at the
transition between the marine and non-marine environments)
Beach and barrier islands
Delta Lagoons
Estuaries
M i i t
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Marine environments
Continental shelf Continental slope and rise (deep sea fans)
Abyssal plain
Reefs (karang)
Alluvial fan
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Alluvial fan
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Enviroment of sedimentary rx
SEDIMENTARY ENVIROMENTS
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AGENTS &
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AGENTS &
ENERGYSOURCES
ALLUVIAL
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ALLUVIAL
WIND ACTION (Eolian)
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WIND ACTION (Eolian)
Continental enviroment: fluvial
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Continental enviroment: fluvial
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layering
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beach
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Marine environment
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Depositional environments
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Model for landform development
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Fossils
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Fossils are the remains or traces of
prehistoric life.
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Facies - the characteristics of a unit ofsediments, which can be used to interpret
the depositional environment.
Batuan mendak
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Batuan hos kepada petroleum dan gas asli
Mendapan mineral spt Cu, Pb, Zn, Tungsten
dll
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a bit about Si
14Si
www.webelements.com
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28.0855(3)The essentials
Name: silicon
Symbol: Si Atomic number: 14
Atomic weight: 28.0855 (3) r
CAS Registry ID: 7440-21-3
Group number: 14
Group name: (none) Period number: 3
Block: p-block
Description
Here is a briefdescription of silicon.
Standard state: solid at 298 K Colour: dark grey with a bluish tinge
Classification: Semi-metallic
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Important facts
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Hydrolysis and condensation of substitutedchlorosilanes can be used to produce a verygreat number of polymeric products, orsilicones. These range from liquids to hard,
glasslike solids with many useful properties. Elemental silicon transmits more than 95%
of all wavelengths of infrared and and hasbeen used in lasers to produce coherent
light at 456 nm.
Isolation
Here is a brief summary of the isolation of silicon.
There is normally no need to make silicon in the
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There is normally no need to make silicon in thelaboratory as it is readily available commercially. Silicon
is readily available through the treatment of silica, SiO2,with pure graphite (as coke) in an electric furnace.
SiO2 + 2C Si + 2CO
Under these conditions, silicon carbide, SiC, can form.However, provided the amount of SiO2 is kept high,
silicon carbide may be eliminated. 2SiC + SiO2 3Si + 2CO
Very pure silicon can be made by the reaction of SiCl4with hydrogen, followed by zone refining of the resultantsilicon.
SiCl4 + 2H2 Si + 4HCl
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Fakta penting mengenai Malaysia
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Most cities and large towns in the
Peninsula are located on a thin
surface alluvium over limestoneand granite.
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Malaysia is generally formed by highland,floodplain, and coastal zones (Figure 1.2 ).
In the Peninsula, the Banjaran Titiwangsa
from north to south divides the West Coastand East Coast states, while in Sarawak the
Banjaran Kapuas Hula and Banjaran Iran
border Indonesia. All of these ranges aregoverned by virgin forest
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Malaysia is warm and humid throughout theyear, as characterised by the equatorial
climate, and has an average annual rainfall
of more than 2500 mm with spatial variationshown in Figure 1 . 3 .
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In the Peninsula wettest area is Taiping in Perakwhilst the driest is Kuala Pilah in Negeri Sembilan
(Figure 1 . 5 ).
Average daily temperatures range from a
minimum of 25o C to a maximum of 33o C.
Relative humidity is high, sometimes exceeding
80%. Daytime cloudy hours are also high while
haze lately is a frequent occurrence that willcontribute to acid rains.
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Next lecture
on metamorphic rocks