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MOBILITY OF WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS IN THEEDUCATION SECTOR IN KEDAH
A thesis submitted to the Graduate School in partialof the requirements for the degree
Master of Science (Management)
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S e k o l a h S i s w a z a h
(G r a d u a t e S c h o o l )U n i v e r s i t i U t a r a M a l a y s i a
P E R A K U AN K E R J A T E S I S(Certification Of Thesis Work)
Kami, yang bertandatangan, memperakukan bahawa(We, the undersigned, certify that)
DEW1 ROSNAH BT. RADIN SUHADI
untuk ijazah(can did ate for the degree Master of Science (Management)
telah mengemukakan tesisnya yang bertajukpresented his/ her thesis of the following title)
MOBILITY OF WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS IN THE EDUCATION SECTOR
IN KEDAH.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Permission to UseAbstract Malaysia)
Abstract (English)AcknowledgementsList of TablesList of Figures
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 An Overview of Women Employment in Malaysia1.2 Context of the Problem
1.3 Research Objectives1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Research Hypotheses
1.6 Significance of the Study
1.7 Limitations and Scope of the Study
Page
ii i. . .1 1 1
i v
V
v i i
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1 01516181 92 0
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CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS
4. 14.2
4. 3
4.4
The RespondentsA Profile of the Secondary School Administrators in
A Comparison in Mobility between Female and MaleAdministratorsFactors that have Facilitated or Hindered the
Advancement of the Women Administrators to TopAdministrative Position
CHAPTER V: Y, CONCLUSION ANDRECOMMENDATIONS
5. 1 An Overview 8 3
5.2 Conclusion 8 95. 3 Recommendation 9 2
49
51
7 2
7 6
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX 2
APPENDIX 3
APPENDIX 4
APPENDIX 5
APPENDIX 6
APPENDIX 7
APPENDIX 8
APPENDIX 9
APPENDIX 10
APPENDIX 11
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PERMISSION TO USE
In presenting this thesis in partial of the requirements fora Post Graduate degree the Universiti Utara Malaysia, I agreethat the Library of this University may make it available forinspection. I agree that permission for copying of this thesis
in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may begranted by my supervisor(s) or in their absence, by the Dean of theGraduate School where I did my thesis. It is understood that anycopying or publication or use of this thesis or parts there of forfinancial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Itis also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and tothe Universiti Utara Malaysia in any scholarly use which may bemade of any material in my thesis.
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to draw a profile of the women administrators of the schools in Kedah. The emphasis was on their demographic characteristics
and mobility pattern. The second aim was to investigate whether the women. .
differ significantly in both aspects above from their male counterparts.
The population of this study were the Principals, Senior Assistants and Senior SubjectTeachers of the secondary schools in the whole state of Kedah. They were randomlychosen using the Statified Random Sampling Method. research instrument was a
item questionnaire mailed to the respondents. It was designed to collectthe following informations: (1) Personal characteristics, (2) Educational background, (3)
Home-related (4) Specific qualities and (5) Mobility pattern of theadministrators. The data collected were analyzed using the SAS programme.
The of this study show that women administratorsdo not significantly indemographic characteristics and mobility pattern as compared to their male counterparts.Generally, a typical woman administrator is married, in 40s and has a BachelorsDegree. 65.9% of them have served as ordinary teachers 10 to 19, years while61.0% have served as an administrator for less than 5 years. 49.6% of them have notattended any training programme concerning school administration before and after beingpromoted to their present position.
Looking at the mobility pattern, 40.99% of the female administrators remain as teachers
in their own districts of origin while 36 2 1% remain as administrators in the same areaTh l bil d d f b f d Wh f il
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Syukur alhamdulillah.. . for at last I have managed to complete this thesis in time.
I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to the following individuals who weredirectly involved with the development and completion of this study: To Dr. Che bin Mad, my
first supervisor, for his advice, guidance and valuable criticism throughout this work. He hasgenerously allocated and shared his limited time to enable me to complete this study an has been aninvaluable source of counsel and throughout my research effort. His patience and
has motivated me to complete this study in time. To my second supervisor, TuanAbdul Rahman bin for his personal assistance, cooperation and support in the progressand completion of this study. He has extended his insights and introduced me to certainpeople to help me in my statistical analysis. His tolerance in listening to my arguments and editingthe essay is very much appreciated.
I would also like to my appreciation to Prof. Dr. Milandre Nini Bulgarin Rusgal for herinvaluable ideas and continued interests, especially in the research methodology sessions and thepreparation of the research proposal.
I also owe a great deal to many people who have provided assistance during the process ofll ti th d t th ffi d t ff f th K d h St t Ed ti D t t i ll E
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Total and Percentage Number of Staff in the Goverment Sector,by Sex (1980 1991)
Table 1.2: Employment Distribution by Industry and Sex, 1990 and 1995
Table 1.3 : Employment Distribution by Sex and Industry, 1990 and 1995
Table 1.4: Employment Distribution by Sex and Industry, 1990 and 1995
Table 1.5: Number of Employees in the Civil Service (1995)
Table 1.6: Total Population of Employees in the Education Sector inKedah 1995
Table 1.7: Total Population in the Education Sector: Academic Staff(Administrative and Teaching) and Non Academic Staff (Rankand File)
Table 1.8: Distribution of Employees by Rank in the Secondary and
Primary Schools Kedah According to Gender
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Table 4.5: Length of Service of the Secondary School Administrators inKedah (As Ordinary Teachers)
Table 4.6: Length of Service of Secondary School Administrators inKedah
Table 4.7: Highest Educational Attainment of the Secondary School
Administrators in Kedah
Table 4.8: Year of Graduation of the Secondary School Administrators inKedah
Table 4.9: Training Programmes attended by the Secondary SchoolAdministrators in Kedah
Table 4.10: Organizers of Training Programmes Attended by theSecondary School Administrators in Kedah
Table 4.11: Number and Percentage of Male and Female AdministratorsRemaining in their District of Origin
Table 4.12: Family-Related Matters of the Secondary School
Administrators in Kedah
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Total Number of in The Goverment Sector By Sex (19801991)
Figure 1.2: Percentage of Staff in The Goverment Sector By Sex (19801991)
Figure 1.3 : Number and Percentage of Male and Female Teachers (1995)
Figure 3.1: Schematic Diagram showing the Correlates of the Mobility ofWomen Administrator in the Education Sector in Kedah.
Figure 4.1: Distribution of Respondents
Figure 4.2: Age of the Secondary School Administrators in Kedah
Figure 4.3: Marital Status of the Secondary School Administrators inKedah
Figure 4.4: Rank in Family of the Secondary School Administrators in
Kedah.
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 An Overview of Women Employment in Malaysia
Women in Malaysia have long been involved in employment. Previous studies by
Husna Sulaiman Rohany Nasir and (1989) showed that besides
being housewives, the Malay peasant society women have traditionally participated in
economic activities such as farming, handicrafts and sales of goods in local markets.
H th l d i h id l t h h ld
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This situation has slowly evolved especially independence. Women first started
joining systematically into the civil service, particularly in the education sector, when a
few of them were sent to Kirby, England to be trained as teachers in the 1950s. Since
then, there was a steady increase in the number of women in the government agencies.
Most of them were concentrated in the education service as teachers, in hospitals as
nurses or attendants and other feminine jobs such as clerks, typists, telephone operators
and social workers.
Reviewing Malaysian Womens Status coordinated by Professor Datin Dr. Jamilah
Ariffin (1994) has revealed several factors which helped to explain the increase in the
participation of women in the government service. The most important factor was
education. The other key factor was the gradual change in parents attitude towards
i i th i d ht l t iti ti ti d t t
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demands for women employees especially in the teaching, clerical and secretarial fields.
The activities were further enhanced through the establishment of The National Advisory
Council on the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID), the Womens
Affairs Division and several Non-Government Organizations which
work together as the national machinery for the advancement of womens status in
Malaysia. The NACIWID helps to increase womens participation in employment by
coordinating and acting as consultative and advisory body on womens affairs besides
promoting womens issues at the national level through its linkages with policy-makers.
The HAWA appointed liason officers at the state and district levels to monitor the
implementation and impact of projects for women. It also undertook gender analysis
training and sensitization for policy-makers and programme implementors in the public
sector and initiated similar programmes for the private sector.
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Table 1.1: TOTAL AND PERCENTAGE NUMBER OF STAFF IN THE GOVERMENT SECTOR BY SEX
SEX Number of Staff
Male
Total
1 9 8 0
3 5 6 7 7 5
7 3 . 0
1 3 1 9 5 4
2 7 . 0
4 8 8 7 2 9 6 7 7 1 4 8I
6 9 7 6 8 9I
7 0 9 1 8 4 7 1 7 1 2 4
1 0 0 . 0
1 9 8 1 1982 1983 1 9 8 4 1985 1 9 8 6
3 8 5 9 1 0 4 6 8 2 1 4 4 6 8 2 9 6 4 9 6 4 8 5 5 0 1 5 1 5 5 0 3 7 0 4
72.4 72.3 7 1 . 8I
7 1 . 2 70.7 70.2
1 4 6 8 8 4 179761 1 9 0 8 5 2 2 0 1 2 0 4 2 0 7 6 6 9 2 1 3 4 2 0
2 7 . 6 2 7 . 7 2 8 . 2 2 8 . 8 2 9 . 3 2 9 . 8
1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0
1 9 8 9 1 9 9 0 1 9 9 1
4 8 7 6 9 1 4 6 8 6 3 7 4 7 0 6 0 3
68.5 6 7 I I2 2 4 0 5 0 2 2 9 7 8 5 2 3 8 4 1 5
3 1 . 5 3 3 3 3 . 6
7 1 1 7 4 1 6 98 42 2 7 09 01 8
100.0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0
Source: Norma and Nik Rosnah (1993) IN (1993).
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increase every year. The increase reached 238,415 (33.6%) in 1991 (see also Figure 1.1
and Figure 1.2).
Women continued to make strides in various fields af national development between
1991 and 1995 as reported in the Seventh Malaysia Plan (1996). According to the
report, the number of women employed during that period increased 3 1.4 per cent
of total employed in 1990 to an estimated 33.7 per cent in 1995, as shown in Table 1.2.
An interesting trend observed during the period was the decline in the proportion of
women relative to men working in the primary and secondary sectors, and the
progressive increase in their participation in the tertiary sector, particularly the
distributive trade and financial sectors.
T bl 1 2 EMPLOYMENT DISTRIBUTION BY INDUSTRY AND SEX 1990 AND 1995
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Overall, the manufacturing sector continued to absorb the largest share of employed
women, accounting for about 30.1 per cent of all female workers in 1995 compared to
29.5 percent in 1990. This was followed by other services: wholesale and retail trade,
hotels and restaurants; and agricultural sectors as shown in Table 1.3. In terms of
occupational structure, the proportion of women in the professional, technical as well as
administrative and managerial occupational categories increased significantly from 9.4
per cent and 0.6 percent in 1990 to 13.5 per cent and 1.9 per cent in 1995, respectively
(see Table 1.4).
1.3: EMPLOYMENT DISTRIBUTION BY SEX AND INDUSTRY. 1990 AND 1995
Industry
Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock Fishing
Mining Quarrying
C i
1990 1995
Male Female Male Female
24.8 28.5 20.3 15.9
0.7 0.2 0.5 0.1
15.6 29.5 20.0 30.1
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1990Male Female Male Female
Professional, Technical Related Workers 6.4 9.4 8.4 I 13.5Administrative Managerial WorkersClerical Related WorkersSales Related Workersserives workersAgriculture Workers
Production Relates Workers
TOTAL
1.4: EMPLOYMENT DISTRIBUTION BY SEX AND INDUSTRY, 1990 AND 1995
2.87.0
11.49.9
29.4
3 3 . 1
100.0
0.6 4.4 1.914.1 7.3 17.611.4 10.9 11.314.1 9.9 13.428.1 20.9 15.822.3 38.2 26.5
100.0 100.0
A closer look at certain departments today shows that female have
outnumbered the males (see Table 1.5). Taking the education sector in particular, there
are 23,656 female teachers in 1995 compared to 18,269 male teachers ( see also Figure
1.3). The overall number of 53,757 female has outnumbered the overall 39,886
l (D l di h A d F d P li D )
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teachers. For instance, data compiled from the Kedah State Education Department as
shown in Table 1.6 indicates that out of 2 1,121 in 1995, there were 11,055 or
52.34 per cent females compared to 10,066 or 47.66 per cent males. Is it true that, in
our society, women face a lot of barriers and constraints to achieve job advancement?
Table 1.6: TOTAL POPULATION OF EMPLOYEES IN THE EDUCATION SECTOR INKEDAH 1995
ADMINISTRATIVELEVEL MALE % FEMALE % TOTAL*
1. State Education 110 0.52 92 0.44 202 (207)
2. District Education 70 0.33 1 5 0.07
3. Educational Resource 29 0.14 5 0.02 34 (38)
4. Secondary Schools 4193 19.85 3843 18.19 8036 (8048)
5. Primary and Pre-Schools 5664 26.82 7100 33.62 12,764 (12,772)
TOTAL 10,066 47.66 11,055 52.34 21,121
(21,155)
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secondary schools. There were no top level women administrators in the District
Education Offices or State Education Department (see Table 1.9) but there was one in
the State Educational Resource Centre who has retired in February 1995.
Table 1.7: TOTAL POPULATION IN TEE EDUCATION SECTOR : ACADEMIC STAFFAND TEACHING) AND NON ACADEMIC STAFF
LEVEL
1. State Education
2. District Education
Offices
3. Educational Resource
Centre
ACADEMIC STAFF
ADMINISTRATIVE
41
1 7 1
T o t a l
55
41
1 8
TEACHING
T o t a l
NON ACADEMIC
STAFF (Rank &File)
F
87
M
6 0
T o t a l
14 7
29 1 5 44
4 1 6
GRAND
TOTAL
85
34
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LEVEL/RANK FEMALE
Schools
a) Top level /Principals
(A Schools) 5 1 0.64 8 0.10 59
b) Top level/Principals
Schools) 52 0.65 1 4 0.13 6 6
c) Middle level/Senior
Assistant (A Schools Only)
d) Middle level/Senior
Assistant Schools Only)
1 1 3 1.41 41 0.51 154
155 1.92 6 0 0.74 21 5
e) Low level/Senior Subject
Teachers (A School Only)
Teachers
g) Non-Teachers (Rank and
File)
T O T A L
115 1.43 114 1.42 22 9
2768 34.40 3175 39.52 5943
939 11.68 431 5.38 1370
4193 52.13 3843 47.8 8036
L
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KEDAH DARULAMAN ACCORDING TO GENDER
LEVEL
1 State Education Department
a) Top level (Director
and Deputy Directors)
b) Middle level (chief
Assistant Directors)
c) Low level (Assistant
Directors, Supervisors
and Administrative
Officers
d)
TOTAL
3 1.46 3
10 4.95 10
37 18.32 5 2.47 42
60 29.72 87 43.07 147
TOTAL
2 District Education
a) Top level (District
Education Officer)
b) Middle level (Assistant
110 54.45 92 45.54 202
7 8.24 7
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Various pronouncements has been made by the government about the importance of
womens role regarding their leadership and managerial capabilities either in economy,
politics, education or entrepreneurship. The National Policy was aimed to
women in all economic sectors. The Seventh Malaysia Plan (1996) has emphasized on
strategies to incorporate women in the process of development. The ninth challenge of
Vision 2020 has highlighted womens participation in economy. Even the Prime Minister,
Datuk Seri Dr. Mahathir Mohamad said that women has a natural tendency for
management and the country will face an acute shortage of manpower if women were
relegated to doing only housework 6th April 1996).
Another important event is the appointment of Datin Seri Dr. Hasmah Mohd as
the Chairman of the Regional Steering Committee for Rural and Island Women of
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Previous studies on women in Malaysia were mainly focused on health, family planning,
and social aspects (Jamilah Ariffin, 1992). Later, a review of their status and a collection
ofReadings on Women Development in Malaysia (Jamilah Ariffin, 1994) has covered
certain aspects including womens involvement and participation in the government
sector, politics, medical as well as the impact of education on the development process.
Since there was no previous research particularly emphasizing on the mobility of women
administrators, it is hoped that this study will stimulate the generation of knowledge to
better understand this phenomenon in the Malaysian context.
1.3 Research Objective
The objective of this study was to investigate the characteristics of women
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l age
l length of service as a teacher
l length of service as an administrator
l year of graduation
number of promotion
l experience as a Principal, Senior Assistant or Senior Subject Teacher.
1.4 Research Questions
The number of women is very significant in the teaching profession which is considered
as a female dominated job. This is well understood as teaching is very closely related to
the feminine task of mothers to educate and look after the well-beings of the children. It
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1. What are the personal characteristics of women administrators in the
education sector in Kedah? Is there a pattern of personal characteristic
variables that discriminate between female administrators and their male
counterparts? The specific variables examined were age, marital status, rank
in the family and length of service as ordinary teachers and as administrators.
2. What is the educational background of the women administrators in the
education sector in Kedah? Is there any difference in educational background
between the female administrators compared to the male administrators as
measured by their highest academic qualification and administrative training
attended?
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4. Is the mobility of the women administrators in the education sector in Kedah
highly depended on their specific qualities and other significant factors?
they differ in specific qualities as compared to their male counterparts?. These
specific qualities include knowledge, skill, and attitude regarding their
administrative position, while other significant factors are the recruitment
and retention undergone by them before holding top positions.
5. Corollarily, is the mobility pattern of the female administrators differ
significantly their male counterparts along age, length of service, year of
graduation, number of promotion offered and experience?
1.5 Research Hypotheses
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Women administrators do not differ significantly in mobility pattern
compared to the male administrators.
1. 6 Significance of the Study
Firstly, it is hoped that this study would help to generate knowledge about the factors
related to the mobility of woman administrators in the secondary schools in Kedah. It is
anticipated that the results would be useful especially to the female teachers to create a
better understanding and positive attitude towards their career planning, opportunities
and advancement as school administrators. The profiles developed and the patterns
discovered would serve as a career development aid by which they may assess and aim
their ascent.
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formation of a new set of questionnaire or instrument which will be used to measure the
specific indicators in an attempt to look out for other factors, differences or similarities
between female and male administrators mobility.
1.8 Limitations and Scope of the Study
Initially, the researcher intended to conduct the study on senior women administrators in
all the ministries in Kedah. However due to time factors, it was later diverted to the
senior woman administrators in the education sector: the State Education Department,
the State Educational Resource Centre and the District Education Nevertheless ,
after scanning through the list of administrators, it was found that the number of woman
in top positions were rather negligible, thereby, limiting the potential respondents.
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Time Constraints
The maximum time available to the researcher to spend on data collection process
including running the pilot test was between 15th July and 28th October 1996 which is
about three and a half months only, while the analysis of data and write up was targeted
to be completed before 30th November 1996. Therefore, the researcher only used
mailed questionnaires instead of field interviews.
Generalizabilitv of Findings
Since the research study was the first one to be conducted, and carried out only in
Kedah, the findings might not reflect the whole current scenario in Malaysia.
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CHAPTER
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Traditionally, the image of females has been viewed primarily as housewives: caretaker of
the home, children and husband. However, the increased rights and opportunities
obtained by women to choose education and profession have resulted in the influx of
women in the workforce (Asplund, 1988). Today, women have been found participating
successfully in almost all walks of life including education, politics, science, international
aids organizations, business and even in the corporate world. However, the number of
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A search of the literature was done based on these questions and summarized according to
five headings. First, the researcher summarizes the key functions of a manager and relates
it to the role and characteristics of a school administrator. This is followed by some
relevant reviews on female-male leadership differences. Then, the researcher tries to
highlight some research findings on the absence of women from higher-education
administration and the barriers towards womens mobility to top positions. Lastly, a few
demographic characteristics on women administrators as observed by previous
researchers are displayed.
2.1 The Function of a Manager and its Relationship to the Role of a School
Administrator
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The major functions and roles of the school administrators are based on the guidelines
endorsed by the Ministry of Education, 1990 (Appendix 1). Basically, it is seen to be in
line with the management function of managers as described by and
Mintzberg.
Another way of considering the function of a manager (administrator) is to look at the
skills and competencies they need to successfully achieve their goals. As identified by Katz
and Kahn (1977) IN Miles a manager has to acquire three essential management
skills: technical (the ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise), human (the
ability to work with, understand and motivate other people, both individually and in
groups) and conceptual (the mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations).
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2.2 Female-male Leadership Differences.
Studies concerning the questions on whether women are really different men in
leadership behaviours have been explored by many researchers. The findings and
conclusions were however varied, mixed and contradictory.
In general, several studies concerning the sex-role identities on managers found that
good managers were perceived to have characteristics associated with masculine
role stereotypes: assertive, achieving, competitive, rational and independent (Miles, 1985).
Nevertheless, it has also been argued that the good female managers might differ in
leadership styles compared to good male managers. A research study by Brodsky
has discussed the arguments on the similarities and differences in female-male
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that these women have similar value profiles with the males. A further review by Brodsky
(1989) found that in contrast to the stereotypes of the female managers;
woman managers were be energetic (Sheppard,
analytical, rationally oriented and personally competitive (White, Crino
Women rated themselves as having high ability and
intelligence (Bunker Bender, 1980; . . . and saw
themselves as being more objective, decisive, logical, consistent, having
leadership ability, assertive and skilled . . .
It has thus become the interest of the researcher to investigate whether the characteristics
of the school administrators in Kedah differ according to gender. However, due to time
constraints, only the demographic characteristics of the administrators will be emphasized.
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numbers and positions held, profiles concerning career paths, barriers hindering women
to attain top administrative positions and leadership characteristics of woman
administrators.
A study on the status and profiles of woman administrators in education by Ozga
has revealed that women form the majority of the workforce in education but they are
underrepresented in the management. According to her, women are more visible in the
management of education offered to younger pupils. In higher education, especially in the
universities, woman managers are almost invisible.
Similar topic has also been discussed by White who found that sexism is a bar to
advancement in many fields. Even in the realm of academia which is considered as the
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cent of the total of 1,367 faculty members were constituted by females. However only 46
per cent of the total number of executives were of the same gender.
Relating this phenomena to the current Malaysian education sector, it is observed that the
same trend occurs. There has been no women Education Minister or Deputy Education
Minister. Only very recently, a woman was appointed as the Director of the Wilayah
Persekutuan Education Departments and another one as the District Education Officer of
Petaling. An example in Kedah is the Darulaman Teachers Training Institute
which is headed by a lady Principal who has been in that position for nearly 4 years.
Before that, she was appointed as the Deputy Director of the Kedah State Education
Department which lasted for only a few months.
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problems. Recently, more studies has been focused to their role in business, politics,
entrepreneurship and leadership. Rohany Nasir (1984) studied the sex-role attitudes and
some selected background characteristics of women in nontraditional careers, women in
traditional careers and the homemakers in Malaysia. Studies focusing on womens role in
education sector alone has not been given much attention except by Manjit Kaur (1994).
She reviewed the trends of women involvement in education in Malaysia and the pattern
of womens participation in the education system. In line with that, she highlighted its
relevance to the development of womens position and status, particularly with reference
to female force participation.
Another study on women managers in public and non-profit making organizations
undertaken by the University of Malaya (199 concluded that the factors contributing
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towards women mobility to top positions. Most of the researchers under this topic were
mainly concerned with the barriers themselves and the strategies to overcome these
obstacles.
The main barriers to womens advancement are classified as: internal barriers, which
include personal characteristics, motivation and behaviour; and external barriers, which
include societal and traditional structural obstacles such as sex-role stereotyping, lack of
network or mentoring relationships, and lack of role model or professional preparation
(Miles, 1986; White, 1992; and Davidson and Cooper, 1992).
reported that the scarcity of women managers are due to the type of
organization and how it works along power and decision-making, informations
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inadequacies and in capacities on education management and structural explanations which
emphasize on male as playing better management roles.
On the other hand, many researchers have proved that families and home-related factors
have a great influence on the woman administrators career. The most frequently reported
obstacles to administrative advancement for women were due to their responsibilities
towards their family 1994) as well as family strains due to household chores and
children (Seidmann, 1978). Another major block to accept promotion is due to problems
arising from family inmobility especially when the husband is not supportive or having
another career.
As summarized by Izraeli, Banai and Zeira women; either married or single, a
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Womens Day celebration 26th August) reported that the factors that have
hindered women from getting to the top are that many women are too comfortable with
their status quo to want to change. Many of them do not really want to be at the top; they
find that they work better in partnership with men as equal partners with opportunities
to participate and contribute to decision-making.
Secondly, the Malaysian society strongly expects the successful career women to also be a
superb parent and home-maker. Therefore, womens multiple responsibilities is a big
hindrance to mobility unless there is more equitable sharing of family duties, community
support services and changes in the work environment, employment or corporate
structure. Other factors include personal, societal, cultural and religious backgrounds
(such as the belief that women should not be in leadership over men).
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Several strategies have been suggested by previous researchers to overcome these
barriers. They include developing understanding and skills in management, establishing ties
and getting involved with administration, networking with other female contemporaries,
adapting alternative working styles, in-service training on administrative issues and
communication techniques and increasing aggressiveness in striving for administrative
positions such as pursuing further career opportunities at an early age (Gordon and Ball,
1977; Loomis and Wild, 1978; Davidson and Cooper, 1992; Ozga, 1992; and Tabb,
1994).
2.5 Demographic Characteristics of Women Administrators
A study by Tabb (1994) has managed to draw a profile of females who have been
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first born and only child, seven middle children, and five last born children. Seven were in
the position for one year or less, three for eleven years and one for twelve years. None
reported work interruptions during administrative career. Majority were not motivated by
higher income or prestige, More than 60 per cent said that they could do the job as well as
others. Another study by Rusher (1995) to examine the recruitment, retention and
promotion patterns of 154 African American women in higher education in the United
States found that they were mostly over 40 years old, married with children, felt good
about working at their institutions and have mentors.
2.6 Summary
Another similar study conducted by Sogra (1992) in Bangladesh showed that the female
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CHAPTER
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
This chapter discusses the procedures of this research. First, it gives the details on the
research paradigm. Then, it describes the method of collecting the data, followed by a
description of the pilot test. Lastly, the data analysis techniques used in analyzing the data
is highlighted.
3.1 Research Paradigm
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3.1: Schematic Diagram Showing the Correlates of Mobility of Women
Administrator in the in
* G e n d e r
* of as ordinary teachers* of service as administrators
1. Educational Qualification* Highest educational attainment* Year of acquisition* attended
2. Training
* courses attended
Home Related Factors
Mobility
of
Women
Administrators
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Secondary sources of data were obtained from the documents of the Education
Department, District Education Offices and school records.
3.2.1 Unit of Analysis
The subjects of this study comprised of the current (1996) working male and
female administrators of secondary schools in the state of Kedah. They were the
Principals, Senior Assistants and Senior Subject Teachers. The Principals represent
the top management level, the Senior Assistants represent the middle management
level while the Senior Subject Teachers represent the lower management level of
the schools. Initially, the researcher intended to focus the study on the Principals
only. However, due to the limited number of female Principals who were supposed
to be the most appropriate respondents the Senior Assistants and the Senior
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l Next, the population was divided into three segments; the Principals, the
Senior Assistants and the Senior Subject Teachers according to the seven
districts in Kedah.
l The third stage was to determine the sample size from the known population.
This was done by referring to the table for determining sample size from a
given population as suggested by Krejcie and Morgan (1970). The table is
shown in Appendix 3. It provides a generalized scientific guideline for sample
size decision whereby subjects were drawn in proportion to their original
numbers in the population. As a result, a total of 188 female administrators
were identified as sample or potential respondents. In a similar way, the
number of male administrators identified were 325, giving a total of 513
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32.3 Data Collection Techniques
According to Sekaran data can be collected in a variety of ways:
face interviews, telephone interviews, computer-assisted interviews;
questionnaires that are either personally administered, sent through the mail, or
electronically administered; observation of individuals and events with or without
video taping or audio recording; and a variety of other motivational techniques
such as projective tests.
She (Sekaran) further pointed out that among these methods, interviewing,
administering questionnaires and observing people or phenomena are the three
main data-collection methods. By right, many researchers prefer face-to-face
interviews because it has the advantage of flexibility in terms of adapting adopting
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constraints and the nature of the study, (where the samples are distributed in a
wide geographical area covering the whole state of Kedah), the researcher opted
to the mailed questionnaire method. Although it has the advantage of obtaining
data more efficiently in terms of time, energy and costs, it has however been
expected to have certain disadvantages: the return rate might not be as high as
might be desired and any doubts faced by the respondents cannot be clarified
instantly. Realizing these circumstances before-hand, the researcher thus have
taken certain steps to optimize the outcomes: limiting the questionnaire items as
short as possible, formatting the items in the most simple and attractive way,
translating the questionnaire items into the Malay language and enclosing a
addressed stamped envelope to every respondent.
Before distributing the sets of questionnaire items permission to conduct the
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of Kubang Pasu consisting of four males and six females, They were chosen based
on their personality, seniority and experience as school administrators. However,
their names, schools and positions are not enclosed to maintain their
confidentiality.
The interviews conducted was rather informal and unstructured. They were
planned to occur through conversations and discussions. As the researcher
explained the purpose and the scope of the study, the administrators usually
volunteered unsolicited informations and comments. aside from the data
and informations gathered based on the questionnaire items, these respondents
also provided additional insights, opinions, suggestions and comments concerning
the issue during the discussion sessions. Additional data and informations obtained
the interviews were used as a supplementary and complementary points to
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cover letter, explaining the purpose of the study, the researchers address as
well as home and handphone numbers were accompanied with the instruments.
To develop smooth flow of information, the questionnaire was divided into five
parts :
Part A: Personal characteristics
This part consists of 7 personal characteristic items: present position of the
respondent, age, gender, marital status, rank in family, length of service in the
education sector as a teacher and length of service as an administrator.
Part B: Educational background
This part consists of 4 items which is divided into 2 sections: academic
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intended to find out whether they still serve in the same area either as a teacher or
an administrator.
The second section was developed to uncover the facts whether the
administrators responsibilities towards their family have any impact in enhancing
or hindering their career advancement. The 7 specific variables include their own
evaluation of their role as a wife or husband, their role as a mother or father, moral
support obtained their spouse regarding their career and promotion and the
percentage of help available in carrying out their household chores.
Part D: aualities
Three specific qualities were highlighted in this survey. They are the knowledge in
school administration and management principles acquired by the administrators (2
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3.3 The Pilot Study
In order to test for the reliability and validity of the instrument, a pilot test was carried out
prior to the full scale study. Smith (1975) and Miles (1986) emphasized that reliability is
concerned with the keplicability of findings and consistency between independent
measures of the same phenomenon. They also stated that validity refers to the accuracy
of measurements or observations, which is more important as a criterion than reliability in
evaluating the worth of a study.
Taking the two quotations into consideration, the researcher thus conducted the pilot
study to assess the data collection technique and the suitability of the questionnaire. It was
also aimed at looking for other problems which might arise regarding the research model
or hypothesis construction, and help the researcher to redevelop, alleviate or elliminate
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The inter-item consistency and reliability of the independent and dependent variables
were obtained by using the Cronbachs Alpha reliability coefficient through the SAS
programme. It was computed in terms of the average inter correlations among the items
measuring the concept. Theories indicate that the closer the Cronbachs Alpha is to 1, the
higher the internal consistency reliability. According to Sekaran reliabilities less
than 0.60 are generally considered to be poor, between the range of 0.7 to 0.79 is
acceptable and those over 0.8 is good and highly reliable.
In general, the pilot study was very helpful especially in giving the experience of
collecting, inputing and understanding the data analysis. It was found that the Cronbachs
Alpha ranged from 0.42 to 0.86. It was also found that the lower value was due to the
nature of the items which were self-incriminating. As a result, a few changes were made
involving the rearrangement and rephrasing of the questionnaire items
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repondents. It is then repeated to see the characteristics of the male and female
administrators separately.
2. In order to determine whether the female and male administrators are different
each other, the t-test was used. This tool is useful to see if there are any
significant differences in the means for the two groups in the variables of
interest such as skill, knowledge and attitude of the administrators. The t-test
was also used to compare the mobility pattern between the female and the
male administrators along their age, length of service, year of graduation,
number of promotions offered and experience as an administrator.
3. The test was used to determine whether there is a relationship between
two nominal variables or whether they are independent of each other It also
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This also means that the variables are not significantly related. On the other
hand, the null hypothesis (Ho) will be rejected if the value of P 0.05.
The value oft = 2 was set (as the rule of thumb) to determine the significance
of the variable when the t-test procedure was used. If the value oft 2, then it
is generally not significant. The results thus indicate that the difference in the
means for the women and men is not significantly different. Thus, the null
hypothesis cannot be substantiated (accepted).
When the test was used in the analysis, the computed value obtained
from the survey was compared to the table which is shown in Appendix 14.
If the computed value is less than the table value, the null hypothesis was
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FINDINGS
This chapter consists of 4 parts: (1) the respondents; (2) a profile of the secondary
school administrators in Kedah: a comparison in the characteristics of the female and
male administrators along personal characteristics, educational background,
related factors and specific qualities; (3) a comparison in mobility pattern between the
female and male administrators; and (4) factors that have facilitated or hindered the
advancement of woman administrators to top administrative position.
4 1 Th R d t
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4.2 A Profile of the Secondary School Administrators in Kedah: a
Comparison in the Characteristics between Female and Male
Administrators along Personal Characteristics, Educational Background,
Home-related Factors and Specific Qualities.
A: Personal Characteristics
The respondents are generally over 40 years of age; the age clustering
in the 45-49 years group (30.2%) with slightly less among the 40-44
years group (29.8%). This implies that seniority and age are the two
important factors in promotion to higher administrative position. A
total of 31 (14.4%) of the administrators are over 50 and hence
retire able in a fe ears Onl 1 Senior Assistant is belo 30 ears
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1. 30 below
3.
5.
6. Above 50 years
N o .
1
5
1 8
2 1
2 4
2 3
9 2
Source:Raw 20).
1. 1
5 . 4
19.6
22.8
26.1
25.0
100
N o . %
4 3 . 2
2 7 22.0
4 3 35.0
4 1 33.3
8 6.5
123 100
T T o t a lN o .
9
4 5
6 4
6 5
3 1
0.5
4.2
20.9
29.8
30.2
14.4
100
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. .
Kedah
1.
T Ma l e F e ma l e T o t a lNo.
9 2
% I No. % No. %
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Table 4.4 shows that about 85% of the secondary school male and
female administrators in Kedah are either the first or the middle
child in the family. This finding is quite in line with some previous
studies conducted in the US and Europe whereby very often the
women administrators are the first or the only child and the middle
child 1994). The reason might be due to psychological
factors: the first child usually has inbome leadership
characteristics because he has to lead his younger brothers and
sisters. The only child of the family are usually independent while
the middle children are said to have built their character because
they have to survive among the elder and younger ones in order
to get the attentions. The youngest child in the family is usually
pampered and therefore does not develop significant leadership
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R a n k o f t h e
1. First child
2. Middlechild
3. Youngestch ild
4. Only child
T O T A L
3
9 2
3 .3
1 0 0.
10).
M a l e F e m a l e
N o . N o .
3 0 3 2 .6 2 4
4 8 5 2 .2 8 2
1 1 1 2 . 0 1 5
2 1 . 6
1 2 3 1 0 0
1 9 . 5
6 6 . 7
1 2 . 2
T o t a l
N o .
5 4 2 5 . 1
1 3 0 6 0 .5
2 6 12 .1
5 2 . 3
2 1 5 1 0 0
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Table 4.5 shows that 78.6% of the administrators have mostly
served in the education sector for more than 15 years. This has
been expected because promotion is closely related to the length
of service of the administrators. However, by comparison, the
female administrators are relatively found to be more junior in
length of service. The majority of them (48.0%) have served
between 5 to 19 years to become administrators as compared to
the men (5 1.1%) who have served for more than 20 years.
Table 4.5: of Service of the School
Administrators in Kedah Ordinarv Teachers1
of service M ale Fem ale
I
i h d i N % N %
Total
I
N %
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Number60
50
40
30
20
0
1 2 3 4
c lMa le F e m a l e
1) Below 10 2) years 3) 15-19 4) Above 20
Source : Table 4.5
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m en is in line with their younger age and
shown in Table 4.5.
of service as
1.
2.
N o .
5 6
2 1
1 5
9 2
No .
60 .9 7 5 61.0
22.8 3 8 30.9
16.3 1 0 8 . 1
1 0 0
Female
1 2 3 100
T o t a l
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B: Educational
Highest Educational Attainment
On the whole, all the secondary school administrators hold at least a
bachelors degree as their highest educational qualification. 74.9 percent
of them have the Bachelor of Arts (74.9%) while only 24.2 percent holds
the Bachelor of Science. Those who hold the Bachelor of Science are
mostly the Senior Subject Teachers. They are filling up the post of the
Senior Subject Teachers for the Science Department.
In terms of option, more female administrators hold a Bachelor of Arts
compared to their male counterparts. On the other hand, fewer of them
hold a Bachelor of Science compared to the male administrators.
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th e School
in
Ma le
1.
2. Bacheh ofscience
3. Masters
4.
No.
6 1
2 9
2
66.3
31.5
2 . 2
82
Raw (Appendix 10).
F e m a l e
No.
81.3%
2 3 18.7
123
T o t a l
No.
1 6 1 74.9
t
52 24.2
2 0 . 9
215 looI
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In relation to the education level of the administrators, their years of
graduation is also observed. It is found that most of them graduated
between 1975-1979. It is also found that generally, the male administrator
have graduated much earlier, that is between 1975-1979 while the women
administrator are clustered a bit later i.e. between 1980-1984. Most of the
Principals graduated before 1974. It is well understood because seniority
is highly considered in the promotion of the Principals beside the merits
and performance as measured by the New Remuneration System (SSB).
The results in Table 4.7 are consistent with our earlier results in Table
4.5.
TabZe4.8: Year of Graduation of the Secondary School
Administrators in Kedah
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2 3 4 5 6Year
c l Male F e m a l e
Source: Table 4.8
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4.9: Attended bv the
Female
No. No.
1. 1 2 13.0 11 8.9
2. After promotion 44 47.8 5 1 41.5
3. 36 39.1 6 1 49.6
92 123 1 0 0
Source: Raw 10).
Total
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(iv) Organizers of the Training Attended by the
of the Secondary Schools in
A further analysis of the training programmes attended by the
administrators indicated that most of them have attended courses
organized by the Kedah State Education Department and the
followed by the Ministry of Education (12.6%). The rest of the
training programmes were conducted by other institutions (8.9%). Table
4.10 below shows the organizers of the training programmes attended by
the administrators as revealed by the survey.
Table 4.10: of Proerammes Attended bv the
S h l Ad i i t t i K d h
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35
30
25
20
1 5
1 0
5
0
1 2 3
F e m a l e
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district of origin. This that women are less mobile and do not
a n d o f M a l e a n d F e m a l e
in Their District of
GenderTeacher
M a l e
F e m a l e
S II)
Th d t f th it i thi ti t i t d t i
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The second part of the items in this section tries to determine
whether the female administrators differ their male
counterparts in family matters. The relationship was analyzed by
comparing the means and standard deviation as well as the values
of P and The decision for substantiating the null hypothesis
was based on the criteria for analysis as discussed in Chapter III.
The null hypothesis which states that women do not differ from
men in terms of home-related matters was accepted. Table 4.12
shows that the women administrators do not differ significantly to
the male administrators (composite = -1.72, P = 0.10). The
differences in the means is not significant, even though it is noticed
th t th f l d i i t t littl l ll ff th l
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Administrators in Kedah
Indicators
1 . Ro l ea s a
2 . Role as a
mother/father
3 .
sp o u se
about career
4. Moral support
f rom spouse
ab o u t
promotion
1.71 0.56 1.89
1.79 0.72 1.94 0.76 -1 .42 0.16 2.816
1.65 0.62 1.85 5.229
1.69 0.64 1.87
0.88
0.97
-1.91
-1.55
0.06
0.12 3.204
Source: T-test Procedure and Chi-Square data (Appendices 12and 13).
To a question of how much helps available to the administrators to carry
out their household responsibilities, most of them responded that they
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Three specific qualities of the administrators inquired in this study were:
(1) their knowledge about school adminstration and management
principles; (2) managerial, communication and situational shills of the
administrators in carrying out their duties; and (3) their attitude towards
their job and positions. The results yielded are shown in Table 4.14. The
null hypothesis was again tested based on the values of and the
computed
Table Skill and Attitude of the Secondary
School Administrators in Kedah
Indica tors M AL E mean (SD) mean (SD)
3 . K n ow le d g e 1 73 0 39 1 82 0 39 -1 05 0 29 1 316
Both groups responded that their knowledge is better
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Both groups responded that their knowledge is better
or almost the same as others. Furthermore, the computed
square value of 1.3 16 is less than 5.991 from the table. Therefore,
the null hypothesis that knowledge is not significantly related to
gender is substantiated.
Skill
The skill of the administrators was measured using the Likert
scale with a range of 1 to 4. Table 4.13 shows that there is a
statistical evidence that the female administrators slightly differ
the male administrators in terms of skill (composite = 2.12,
The female administrators are better off from their male
i i i l kill b l k f i i kill
7 815 This indicates that skill is not significantly related to gender
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7.815. This indicates that skill is not significantly related to gender
was accepted.
Attitude
Table 4.13 also shows the outcome of the survey on attitude. It is
assumed that woman administrators differ from male
administrators in term of attitudes (composite = -2.05,
An anaylisis of the questionnaire shows that female administrators
differ from male administrators in certain attitudinal aspects:
perception about their job, job performance and commitment
towards organization.
The survey reveals that women administrators do not perceive
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In addition, the women also admit that they have to give less
priorities and moral supports to the school activities compared to
male administrators. The reasons are due to home-related factors
as elaborated in Section 4.4.
4.3: A Comparison in Mobility between Female and Male Administrators
Specific variables used to measure mobility are age of the administrators,
length of service as ordinary teachers, length of service as an
administrator, year of graduation, number of promotion, and experience
as a Principal, Senior Assistant, or Senior Subject Teacher.
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With regard to the age of the administrators, it is found that the
value oft = 1.6 and 0.11. Therefore, woman administrators
do not differ in age compared to the male administrators. The null
hypothesis is accepted. Both female and male administrators are
found to be homogenous in terms of age = 0.96, =
1.27). The difference in the means for the female and male
administrators is not significant. However, it is also found that age
is significantly related to gender since = 18.084 is greater than
11.070. The result is consistent with our earlier finding discussed
in Section 4.2.
T bl M St d d D i ti d l f M bilit
Length of Service as a Teacher.
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g f
(iii)
From table 4.14, it is found that the value of = 0.99 and P =
0.32. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted, which means that
women administrators do not in length of service as
compared to the male administrators in terms of service as a
teacher. However, the computed value is 14.717 which
is greater than 7.8 15 suggests that the length of service is
significantly related to gender in terms of being promoted as an
administrator. This further confirms our findings as discussed and
shown in Tables 4.5 and 4.6 earlier.
Length of Service as an
(iv) Year of
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( ) f
The value oft 1.22 and P= 0.22 suggests that the year of
graduation of the administrators do not differ according to gender.
It further suggests that there is no difference in the year of
graduation of the female administrators as compared to the male
administrators. It helps to conclude that women administrators are
not discriminated in promotion to administrative positions. The
computed value of 12.909 (greater than 11.070)
further suggests, as expected that the year of graduation of the
administrators is not significantly related to gender was rejected.
Promotion
Women administrators do not in accepting promotion
1.17 for the -1.04 for the Senior Assistants and -0.26
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for the Senior Subject Teachers, respectively. All the values of
are less than 2 and P 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis are
accepted which means that women administrators do not differ in
terms of experience compared to the male administrators. In
addition, the computed values are 6.856, 3.842 and
1.509 respectively which are less than 7.8 15 further suggest that
experience as an administrator is not significantly related to
gender.
To summarize the findings, it can be concluded that, on the whole,
women administrators do not differ in mobility pattern as
compared to male administrators
transfer due to family constraints and moral support from spouse (items
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35 to 37). The results of the survey are shown in Table 4.15.
In all cases, the 7 items were structured using a Likert scale ranging
1 to 4. The respondents were requested to indicate their agreement or
disagreement by circling the number which was best suited to them. As an
overall, it is found that, the women administrators did not show a strong
agreement about the factors that could facilitate the advancement of the
administrators The women administrators did not seem to
agree that recruitment and experience or exposure to school
administration before being promoted to the present position is important
whereas the male administrators seem to agree about it
To the men it helped them to on accepting the offer
Table Means and Standard Deviation for Factors that
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Facilitate or Hinder Career Advancement of the Male
F a c t o r s
and Female Administrators
1 .
recruitment2 . experience
3 .
4 . s t a t u s o f s p o u s e
5 . transfer
6 . transfer
7 .
3 . 0 8 0.90
3 .39 0 .7 9
3 .04 0 .76
2 .92 0 .91
1 . 3 0 1 . 0 1
2 .5 9 0 .9 8
3 .0 0 0 .9 6
FEM
2.71
3 .16
3 . 0 3
2.86
3 . 3 3
2.14
0.89
0.72
0 .74
0 .87
0.98
0.86
1 . 0 2
S o u r c e : K a w
About the factors that could have hindered the advancement of the
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administrators, both female and male administrators agreed that they
would have accepted the previous offer if it did not involve a transfer
from their permanent residence (M~3.33, To the next
question whether they would accept any further promotion if they have to
move away from their present residence, both of them did not agree
The last item in this section was intended to see the implication of moral
support from the spouse. The item was: I shall only accept the next
promotion if my husband (or wife) agrees. The responses were found to
be different between the female and male administrators. While the
female administrators agreed to the statement the male administrators did
Results From Interviews
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To enrich the study, the researcher did 10 follow-up personal interviews; with 4 male and
6 female administrators involved at random. The same set of questionnaire items were
used as a basis for discussion. However, greater emphasize was given on factors that have
facilitated or hindered the advancement of female teachers to top administrative position.
These responses are presented as a descriptive corollary to the results reported earlier.
Both male and female administrators interviewed reported analogous bases for factors that
have facilitated or hindered mobility advancement towards principalship. Both groups
agree that a strong leadership characteristic, a high knowledge about school
administration, good personality and strong interpersonal skill as well as experience and
attitude towards school administration are among the major factors for promotion. Both
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Another barrier reported and agreed by the female administrators is that women has less
opportunity to rise to principalship. They also agree that there is a lack of role model.
Even if there is any, they are often considered as a bionic women or an iron lady.
Their in limited numbers are also considered as tokenism (Steadt, 1985).
Furthermore, since the top positions in the Education Education Department, and
even at the ministry level are headed by men, a bias seems to occur in the sense that
males are more favoured for promotion. Even all the male administrator interviewed gave
a similar opinion that they would preferably suggest a male rather than a female teacher
for promotion. The reason is that males are usually not hooked to the family and children
as much as the females. Males are also perceived as easier to accept promotion with a
transfer, whereas a lady has to involve the husband who might have another career.
Ho e er this kind of bias is someho accepted openl b the omen administrators as
position and status are not important as long as there is less headache in the sense of
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managing the school. They prefer to have more time to spend with the family. They do
not really feel the pride of being a Principal because they realize the big challenge they
would encounter for being in that position. However, all of them agreed that the salary
and other benefits received by a Principal is interesting but that is not all for happiness.
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CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This final chapter consists of three sections. The initial part is an overview of the whole
study. It is then followed by the conclusion of findings. Lastly, a few recommendation
for future undertakings and investigation by other researchers are suggested.
5.1 An Overview of the Study
The purpose of this study was to draw a profile of the women administrators of
and its relationship to the role of a school administrator, (2) Several studies on
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female-male leadership differences, (3) A review of literature on the absence of
women from education management, (4) Barriers towards womens mobility to
top administrative position, and (5) Several results on previous studies dealing
with the demographic characteristics of women administrators.
The population of this study were the current (1996) secondary school
administrators in the whole state of Kedah. They consisted of the Principals who
represented the top administrative position, the Senior Assistants who represented
the middle administrative position and the Senior Subject Teachers who
represented the lower administrative level. They were randomly chosen using the
Statified Random Sampling Method.
First, the informations gathered had managed to help the researcher to draw a
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profile of the secondary school administrators as a whole, and then the female and
the male administrators separately. On the whole, this study has succeeded in
providing answers to the research questions on the characteristics of the women
administrators as compared to their male counterparts.
Secondly, a comparison of the responses did not show large differences in their
demographic characteristics. It was found that the female administrators differ
very slightly in term of skill and attitude. The female administrators were better
off in situational skill but less in communication skill. On the other hand,
the male administrators showed a more positive attitude towards promotion which
entails transfer, where as, the attitude of the female administrators was rather
negati e d e to famil constraints
female Principals compared to 103 male Principals in January no evidence
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indicating their differences was discovered from this study; either in personal
characteristics, educational background, home-related factors, specific qualities as
well as mobility advancements.
Several assumptions are perceived in summarizing this phenomenon. Firstly, as far
as the ratio of 22: 103 female versus male Principals (or approximately is
concerned, it is assumed that the women who have accepted the promotion to be
Principals are the ones who have most of the criteria of a good leader. They
possess high educational qualification, have attended several training programmes
on school related administration, have less home-related problems and have a
good support from the husband or helpers to carry out their household chores and
childcare duties It is also possible to assume that they have accepted the
The second assumption is that there seem to be a little bias or prejudice towards
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woman administrators capabilities, thus resulting to their low numbers being
promoted to be Principals. Even though this study has revealed that the female
administrators possess almost similar personal characteristics with their male
counterparts, yet their upward mobility is somehow limited as seen from their
negligible numbers. There is no strong reason or obvious explanation for this.
However, it is possible that in this aspect, there seem to be a range of cultural and
organizational barriers hindering women to move upward. As suggested by Shaw
and Perrons women are more often judged informally and subjectively on
the basis of their perceived suitability for a post or for promotion. Judgements
are often made in terms of assumptions and not the real confessions of the
women. Currently, most of the decision-makers and top administrative
involved in the promotion of the school administrators are men Their
pursuing higher level of education among the teachers and administrators. This
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trend is expected to be much dominant as the recent pronouncements made by the
Minister of Education, Datuk Seri Najib Tun Abdul to encourage teachers
to pursue or continue their studies in a bid to upgrade the teaching profession. In
line with that, the Aminuddin Baki Institute (IAB) has offered
with local universities to conduct courses in Masters of Science (Management) for
graduate teachers in Universiti Utara Malaysia Universiti Pertanian
Malaysia Universiti Malaya Universiti Sains Malaysia and
also with the University of Houston. Beside masters programmes, the IAB is
also conducting other in-service trainings. Several universities are also offering
courses at doctorate levels, both full-time and part-time. However, as gender is
concerned, it is currently observed that the number of females enrolled for these
d h f d t th l th f it i t d
5.2 Conclusion
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From the findings of this study, several conclusions can be drawn:
Profile of school administrators
It is observed from this study that the typical administrator in the
Secondary Schools in Kedah in 1996 is male, married, in the born
and served in the same districts, has a Bachelor of Arts, and has attended
administrative training programmes after being promoted to administrative
position. They are also found not to be hindered by family-related matters
and have a considerably good knowledge, skill and attitudes towards their
job and position.
(II) P fil f d i i t t
their male counterparts in terms of knowledge, performance and
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demographic characteristics as concluded below.
Personal Characteristic
From this survey it can thus be said that a typical woman administrator is
generally married, in the born and served in the same districts and
has a Bachelor of Arts.
As for service, 81 (65.9%) of them have been serving as ordinary teachers
for 10 19 years, and 75 (61 .O%) of them have served less than 5 years as
administrators.
(ii) Educational Background
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study show that women administrators do not differ significantly in
d hi h i i d h l d i i d
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5.3
demographic characteristics as compared to the male administrators, and
women administrators do not differ significantly in mobility pattern
compared to male administrators.
Recommendation
Recommendation to increase the number of woman administrators
1. Both female and male teachers should be exposed to school
administration before being promoted to administrative positions. They
should also be encouraged to prepare themselves for administration so
By taking these suggestion into consideration, it is hoped that there
ill b l l f l d d lifi d h f hi h
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2.
will be a larger pool of talented and qualified teachers from which to
draw for the top administrative positions.
The Ministry of Education, the State Education Department and the
District Education Offices should provide female teachers with greater
access and opportunities to administrative and top level positions.
They should be less prejudiced on whether they could or could not
handle their duties. Given the same educational qualification and
adequate training, women actually can perform as good as men in
administration. Therefore, giving equal opportunity to the women is
important and let them decide whether to accept the offer or not,
b th k th i j d t b d th i
Realizing the competencies and capabilities of women in the
kf l t ti h ld b d t d t
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workforce, new employment practices should be adopted to
the needs of women both with careers and family. Some
of the suggestions that have been proposed are the implementation of
a flextime, permanent part-time, job sharing, teleworking or
compressed working week. As for our country, the flextime and the
establishment of childcare centres at the work place is currently being
discussed. It is hoped that the government and non-government
organizations will continue lobbying to these needs in
order to enhance better opportunities and mobility of women
administrators and women managers.
Areas for further research
2 R lt f thi i iti l t d th f f ll d i
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2. Results of this initial study seem worthy of follow-up and expansion.
More data need to be gathered, especially from the female Principals
because members of this group is currently very small (only 22 in
1996).
3. Another extension of this study is to conduct a similar investigation
using subjects in other educational or professional settings. This should
include those in the Ministry of Education, State Education
Departments, State Educational Resource Centres, District Education
Offices and even the primary schools.
4 Additional leadership styles ought to be investigated As more
5 . More research into leadership and gender should be undertaken in
order to ascertain which factors have facilitated or hindered the
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order to ascertain which factors have facilitated or hindered the
progress of females in leadership positions in educational, industrial,
political, and business institutions. Specifically, this research should
consider religious, economic, social, and political factors which may
contribute to the discrepancy between genders in access to leadership
positions. This is particularly important as the current Malaysian
political climate is very supportive of females demands for equality
and upward mobility.
It is hoped that this study makes an important contribution to the sparse research
in this area.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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I. Books
G. (1988). Women Managers: Changing Organizational Cultures.Chichester: John Wiley Sons.
Brown G. and Brady, C. (1991). Women in Management Series: Getting to the Top.London: Kogan Page Limited.
Davidson, M. and Cooper, C.L. (1992). Shattering the Glass Ceiling: The WomenManager. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Enkelis, L. and Olsen, K. with Lewenstein, M. (1995). Potraits of Women BusinessLeaders. San Francisco: Berrett-Kochler Publishing.
Allen Walters. (198 1). Women in Top Jobs. London: Heinemann EducationalBooks.
Jamilah Ariffin. (1992). Women and Development in Malaysia. Petaling PelandukPublications.
Jamilah Ariffin. (1994). Reviewing Malaysian Womens Status. Kuala Lumpur:
Shaw, J. and Perrons, D. (1995). Making Gender Work: Managing Equal Opportunities.Buckingham: Open University Press.
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Sitterly, C. (1993). The Woman Manager: How to Develop Essential Skill for Success.London: Kogan Page Ltd.
Sitterly, C. and Duke, B. (1988). A Womans Place: Management. New Jersey: PrenticeHall.
Stead, B.A. (1985). Women New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.
Valentine J.L. and Mennis E.A. (1980). Quantitative Techniques for Financial Analysis(Revised edition). Ontario: Richard D. Irwin Inc.
Vinnicombe, S. and Colwil, N.L. (1991). The Essence of Women in Management.London: Prentice Hall.
White, J. (1992). A Few Good Women: Breaking the Barriers to Top Management. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
II. UMI Dissertation
Miles, (1985). A Inquiry info the Administrative Behavior of a
Level Woman Executive in a Two-Year College. Ph.D. University of Colorado at
Boulder.
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Boulder.
Rohany Nasir. (1984). Sex-role A and Some Selected Background C h a r a c t e r i s t i c sof Women in Nonfradifional Careers, Women in Tradifional Careers, and theHomemakers in Malaysia. Diploma of Education Thesis. Western MichiganUniversity.
Turk, G.R. (1985). The Manager Ph.D Thesis. University of Denver.
III. CDROM
Cartwright, C.A. (1994). of the Critical Skills, and ExperiencesCould Increase the Probability of Women Being Selected as School
Principal. University of La Verne.
K. A. (1993). Women Administrators in Community Colleges.Diploma of Education Thesis. University of Southern California.
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A P P E N D I X 1
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
R O L E A N D R E S P O N S I B I L I T I E S O F T H E S C H O O L P R I N C I P A L
Head of department (the school is considered as a department).
Secretary of the School Administrative Body.
in of School Objective and Policy Making based on and coordinated with the policyof the Ministry of Education and National Education Objectives.
Chief to dis educational rules and other government to fix and controlschools task
Planning an task
Making and distributing and regulations regarding or
to the
Chief planning and of and
Chief guidance to teachers and
and Distributor to all
ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SENIOR
h d i f h P i i l i hi b ( l i )
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out the duties of the Principal in his absence (on leave or outstation)
Teaching certain subjects as allocated by the Principal.
all activities of the Ministry of Education
4. Coordinator and External Examinations.
5. Member of the school and students Board
6. Supervisor of the school time table.
7. of the school accounts.
8. of the school stocks and for equipment and
9. Chief communicator of the teachers and
10. out duties as directed by the Principal.
ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF SENIOR
ASSISTANTS (STUDENTS AFFAIR)
ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SENIOR
ASSISTANTS I
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1. out the duties of the Principal (ii the absence of the Assistants).
2. Teaching certain subjects as allocated by the Principal.
3. Responsible for the Principal in:
. Physical Education
l
. Safety, health and studentl
School functions (Annual Sports, Speech Day etc.).
4. Carrying out other duties as directed by the Principal.
ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SENIOR
SUBJECT TEACHERS I
1. of the subjects panel and conducting and meetings at least once a term and other
hocmeetingswhennecessary.
2. Roles of the Senior Subject Teachers.
l
Providing up-to-date syllabus to the
APPENDIX 2
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In the context of this study, the following operational definitions were used:
Mobility:
refers to the upward movement in the career of the school
administrators measured by the promotion, recruitment and retention
from ordinary teachers to holding the top positions in the education
sector; specifically towards principalship in the schools.
Top Management Level (in secondary schools): refers to the position held by
the Principals in both grade A dan B schools.
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Middle Management Level (in secondary schools) : refers to the position held
by the Senior Assistants in both grade A dan B schools.
Lower Management Level (in secondary schools): refers to the position held by
the Senior Subject Teacher in Grade A schools only.
Promotion:
refers to the movement fiom one rank to another either in
positional title or added responsibility and/or decision-making.
APPENDIX 3
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Table for Determining Sample Size a Given
N
1 0
1 5
2 0
2 5
3 0
3 5
4 04 5
5 0
5 56 0
6 5
7 0
7 5
8 0
8 5
S
1 0
1 4
1 9
2 4
2 8
3 2
3 6
4 0
4 4
4 8
5 2
5 6
5 9
6 3
6 6
7 0
N
220
2 3 0
2 4 0
2 5 0
2 6 0
2 7 0
2 8 0
2 9 0
3 0 0
3 2 0
3 4 0
3 6 0
3 8 0
4 0 0
4 2 0
4 4 0
S N S
1 4 0 1 2 0 0 2 9 1
1 4 4 1 3 0 0 297
1 4 8 1 4 0 0 3 0 2
1 5 2 1 5 0 0 3 0 6
1 5 5 1 6 0 0 3 1 0
1 5 9 1 7 0 0 3 1 3
1 6 2 1 8 0 0 3 1 7
1 6 5 1 9 0 0 3 2 0
1 6 9 2000 3 2 21 7 5
2200 3 2 71 8 1 2400 3 3 11 8 6 2600 3 3 51 9 1 2800 3 3 81 9 6 3000 3 4 12 0 1 3500 3 4 6
2 0 5 4000 3 5 1
D AN
2. 3 DAN 5,
BANDAR DAMANSARA.
50604 KUALA LUMPUR
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50604 KUALA LUMPUR
K um i .
Pn.Oewi Rosnah bte Raden Suhadi,6 8 , T m n .
06000 J i t r a ,Kedah.
Puan.
Kebenaran Menjalankan Kajian Sekolah-Sekolah,Jabatan-Jabatan Institusi-Institusi Bawah
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia
Adalah diarah untuk memaklumkan bahawa permohonan puan untukmenjalankan ka j i a n m e nge na i
Mobili ty Of Women A d m i n i s t r a t o r s In The E duc a t ion Sectorin Kedah .
APPENDIX 5
JABATANKEDAH DARUL
BANGUNAN PERSEKUTUANJALAN SULTAN05604 SETAR
(Ked. Pendidikan 32)(Pin.
TELEFON:
Pengarah 732113Pejabal AS. 7331311
FM No: 7317242
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Ruj.Tuan :Ruj.Kami : (116)
Tarikh : 28 Ogos 1996
Pn. Rosnah bt. Raden Suhadi,68. 06000 Jitra,Kedah Darul
Tuan, ,
Kebenaran Henjalankan Kajian Sekolah-SekolahJabatan-Jabatan Dan Institusi-Institusi Di BawahKementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
Adalah saga diarah merujuk surat KP(BPPP) Jld.46 (413)bertarikh : 06 Ogos 1996 mengenai perkara di
APPENDIX 6
UNIVERSITI UTARA MALAYSIA
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06010
CO D E
The
All Secondary Schools,
Dear
The undersigned, a graduate student of Universiti Utara Malaysia, is currently
a research entitled Mobility of Women Administrators in the Education Sector in Kedah,in partial of the requirements for a masters degree Management). Themain of this study is to draw a profile of the secondary school administrators inKedah with an emphasis on the P to conduct this study has beenobtained from the of Education and the Kedah State Education Department.
UTARA MALAYSIA
Sintok, 04010 Ji