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BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAIC (BIPV) IMPLEMENTATION:
DEVELOPER PERSPECTIVE
AARON YAP BOON KIAN
A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of Master of Technology Management
Faculty of Technology Management and Business
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
SEPTEMBER 2015
v
ABSTRACT
Sustainable development is one of the main issues in the developing world today. In
order to achieve sustainable development, the construction and energy sector has
been identified by global community as the key area that need to be prioritized. Due
to the interdependency of these two sectors, the Malaysian government has done
extensive research and development on renewable energy (RE). One of the key
initiatives is the introduction of the Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV).
However, the implementation of BIPV is still relatively weak in the Malaysia context.
This because of the developers’ are sceptical on investing in BIPV and are concern to
short term profit based rather than long term investment. However, with the latest
economic investment into Iskandar Johor, BIPV have good prospect ahead. The
purpose of this research is to introduce developers as a catalyst or push factor in the
implementation of BIPV in Malaysia. The method used is Qualitative In-depth
Interview to get a wide perspective and a depth perspective. Data from seven
developers gathered from the interview addressed their concerns and also ways to
overcome the concerns plus also their strategy in the selection of BIPV. The results
are very promising and showed the determination of the developers in implementing
BIPV into the housing projects with the developers providing a very positive
feedback into the research. In conclusion, BIPV has promising potential to be
implemented in Malaysia and it is important in increasing the awareness of the
construction industry players in sustainable development. The outcome of this
research is beneficial the knowledge of the developers and increase awareness to the
house buyers.
vi
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan lestari adalah salah satu isu utama di dunia yang kian berkembang.
Untuk mencapai objektif tersebut, sektor pembinaan dan sektor tenaga telah
diutamakan oleh komuniti global. Oleh sebab kedua-dua sektor ini saling bergantung
antara satu sama lain, kerajaan Malaysia telah melaksanakan penyelidikan dan
pembangunan yang luas terhadap tenaga yang boleh diperbaharui. Salah satu inisiatif
utama adalah memperkenalkan Sistem Bangunan Bersepadu Photovoltaic (BIPV).
Namun, pelaksanaan BIPV di Malaysia masih berkurang walaupun kaedah ini sudah
lama diperkenal di Malaysia. Ini adalah kerana pemaju perumahan kurang yakin
terhadap pelaburan dalam BIPV. Dengan pelaburan ekonomi terkini di pembangunan
Iskandar Johor, BIPV mempunyai prospek yang baik. Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk
mengkaji penglibatan pemaju dalam konteks BIPV, terutamanya pemaju perumahan,
sebagai pemangkin atau menolak faktor dalam pelaksanaan BIPV di Malaysia.
Kaedah temubual secara terperinci digunakan untuk mendapatkan perspektif yang
lebih luas dan mendalam. Tujuh pemaju perumahan telah dipilih untuk kajian ini.
Kebanyakan mereka menyuarakan kebimbangan mereka dan juga cara-cara untuk
mengatasi kebimbangan tersebut. Selain dari itu, mereka juga menyatakan dalam
strategi pemilihan BIPV dalam perlaksanaan sesuatu projek. Hasil kajian
menunjukkan potensi dan kesungguhan pihak pemaju dalam melaksanakan BIPV di
dalam projek-projek perumahan sangat positif. Kesimpulannya, BIPV berpotensi
untuk dilaksanakan di Malaysia dan juga penting dalam meningkatkan kesedaran
pihak-pihak professional yang terlibat dalam pembangunan lestari. Hasil kajian akan
membantu pihak pemaju untuk mengetahui secara mendalam tentang BIPV dan
meningkatkan kesedaran pembeli rumah.
vii
CONTENT
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
CONTENT vii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS xiv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background of study 2
1.3 Problem Statement 3
1.4 Research Question 4
1.5 Objective of Research 4
1.6 Significance of Research 5
1.7 Scope of Research 5
1.8 Research Process 6
1.9 Thesis Organisation 8
CHAPTER 2 IMPLEMENTATION OF BIPV
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Sustainable Development 11
2.3 Renewable Energy Technologies 13
2.3.1 Hydro 14
2.3.2 Wind 14
viii
2.3.3 Biomass 15
2.3.4 Solar 15
2.4 Solar principle and types 17
2.4.1 Types of solar photovoltaic 18
2.4.2 Thin film and PV module 19
2.4.3 BIPV and BAPV 20
2.5 Government Policy and Subsidy 20
2.5.1 Other countries policy on BIPV 20
2.5.2 Malaysian Government policy on BIPV 22
2.6 Application of BIPV 27
2.6.1 Application by International developers 27
2.6.1 Application by Malaysia developers 28
2.7 Challenges in BIPV adoption 30
2.8 BIPV selection process criteria 31
2.9 Research gap 33
2.10 Summary 38
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Research Philosophy 40
3.3 Research method justification 41
3.4 Research Design 42
3.4.1 Stage 1 – Literature Review 43
3.4.2 Stage 2 – Data collection & Analysis 43
3.4.3 Stage 3 – Research Outcomes 47
3.5 Selection of respondents 47
3.6 Research analysis 48
3.6.1 Thematic Analysis 49
3.6.2 Thematic Analysis Process 51
3.7 Summary 52
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS & DISCUSSION: BIPV APPLICATION ISSUES
4.1 Introduction 53
4.2 Participant Background 54
ix
4.3 Company Background 55
4.4 Demography Analysis 58
4.5 Research Outcome 59
4.6 First and second section interview results and
discussion 61
4.6.1 Barriers 62
4.6.2 Drivers 70
4.7 Discussion of Objective 1 79
4.8 Summary 80
CHAPTER 5 RESULTS & DISCUSSION: BIPV SELECTION CRITERIA
5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Other green technology 82
5.3 Section three interview results and discussion 83
5.4 Discussion of Objective 2 93
5.5 Summary 95
CHAPTER 6 RESULTS & DISCUSSION: FACTORS AFFECTING BIPV
SELECTION
6.1 Introduction 96
6.2 External Factors 97
6.2.1 Profit 97
6.2.2 Maintenance 98
6.2.3 Licensing 100
6.2.2 Bank 100
6.3 Discussion of Objective 3 101
6.4 Relationship between the criteria 103
6.5 Summary 105
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION
7.1 Summary of research 106
7.2 Research objective 1 107
7.3 Research objective 2 108
7.4 Research objective 3 108
x
7.5 Research Contributions 109
7.5.1 Contribution to academic knowledge 109
7.5.2 Contribution to construction industry 110
7.5.3 Contribution to other stakeholders 111
7.6 Limitation to the research 111
7.7 Recommendation for future researches 112
7.8 Closure 114
REFERENCES 116
APPENDIX
Interview guide Appendix A
Sample respondent A transcript Appendix B
Published papers Appendix C
VITA
xi
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Summary of impacts by Malaysian Renewable Energy technologies 16
2.2 Summary of Malaysian Renewable Energy technologies in comparison 17
2.3 Types of solar panels (Silicon) 18
2.4 Types of solar panels (Non - Silicon) 19
2.5 List of urban scale residential BIPV project 27
2.6 Challenges in Adoption of Sustainable Material 30
3.1 Grounded Theory vs. Thematic Analysis 50
4.1 Participant background 54
4.2 Responding Company background 56
4.3 Analysis of participant background 58
4.4 Barriers and Drivers of BIPV Implementation in Malaysia 61
5.1 Other green technology used 82
5.2 Criteria for Process of Selection 83
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 PV module and Thin Film 19
2.2 Malaysia energy generation mix 26
2.3 Price of natural gas in Malaysia 26
2.4 Malaysia FiT Conceptual Framework 29
2.5 Green material adaptation 32
2.6 Existing Stakeholders Relationship 35
2.7 Proposed BIPV Implementation Theoretical Framework 37
3.1 Research Design Framework 42
3.2 Research interview structure 46
3.3 Qualitative research analysis range 49
3.4 Summary of Thematic Analysis Process 52
4.1 BIPV Implementation Theoretical Framework 58
4.2 BIPV Implementation Framework 79
5.1 BIPV criteria selection flowchart 93
6.1 BIPV selection process 101
6.2 BIPV framework relationship 103
xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BIPV − Building Integrated Photovoltaic
BAPV − Building Applied Photovoltaic
CAPEX – Capital Expenditure
CdTe − Cadmium Telluride
CO₂ − Carbon Dioxide
CIGS − Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide
DSS − Decision Support System
FiT − Feed-in-Tariff
GBI − Green Building Index
GHG − Greenhouse Gas
GEF – Global Environment Foundation
IRDA – Iskandar Regional Development Authority
IS – Inquiring System
kWh − kilowatt hour
kWp − kilowatt peak
MBIPV − Malaysian Building Integrated Photovoltaic Technology
Application Project
OPEX – Operational Expenditure
PV − Photovoltaic
RE − Renewable Energy
REPPA − Renewable Energy Power Purchase Agreement
SCORE − Special Committee on Renewable Energy
SEDA − Sustainable Energy Development Authority
SREP − Small Renewable Energy Program
ST – Suruhanjaya Tenaga or Energy Commission
TNB − Tenaga Nasional Berhad
USA − United States of America
UNDP − United Nations Development Program
xiv
LIST OF PUBLICATION
1) Aaron, Y.B.K., Goh, K.C., Seow, T.W., Goh, H.H. (2015) “Awareness and
Initiatives of Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) implementation in
Malaysian Housing Industry”, 2015 International Conference on Sustainable
Design, Engineering and Construction, Chicago, USA
2) Goh, K.C., Aaron, Y.B.K., Seow, T.W., Masrom,M.A.N Goh, H.H. (2014)
“Strategies in Dealing with Cost Overrun Issues: Perspective of Construction
Stakeholders”, 2014 International Civil and Infrastructure Engineering
Conference, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah
3) Aaron, Y.B.K., Goh, K.C., Seow, T.W., Goh, H.H. (2014) “Stakeholder
Roles in Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) Implementation”, 2014
International Civil and Infrastructure Engineering Conference, Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah
4) Aaron, Y.B.K., Goh, K.C., (2013) “Challenges Of BIPV Application In
Malaysian Construction Industry: A Case Study In Batu Pahat”, 1st FPTP
Seminar, UTHM Johor
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Preliminaries
Construction and energy sector has been recognized to be a sector that pollutes the
environment through its land clearing process to its harvesting of new material from
the environment to be used as building material and fuel. Construction of
conventional mega power plants is important to sustain the human businesses and
operations, whereas energy is needed to fuel, construction process, which both
adversely pollutes the environment. All the same, these cannot be halted totally due
to its interdependency and the inevitable requirement to satisfy the demands of the
human population. Nevertheless, the equilibrium between both sectors can be done
through creating a sustainable development through establishing renewable energy
initiatives. Sustainable development is the integration between economic viability,
social equity and environment conservation (Chua, et al., 2013). With the intention
of achieving sustainable development, the construction sector must play an active
role in procuring and implementing green technologies as voice of their enterprise.
One of the green technologies that can be used Building Integrated Photovoltaic
(BIPV) which can help attain sustainability in both the energy sector as well as the
construction sector. The aim of this research is to help introduce the developers as
implementers for BIPV in order to create this sustainable development for the future.
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1.2 Background of Study
In pursuit of sustainable development frontier, Malaysia has been backing the
development of BIPV indirectly through the governance of renewable energy by
through the Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA) of Malaysia. BIPV
still faces barriers in Malaysia despite being in the market for quite a number of years.
Though the 8th
, 9th
and 10th
Malaysian plan highlighted renewable energy in general,
however there is no policy that governs BIPV implementation exclusively and could
serve as the BIPV push factor (Solangi et al., 2011).
The construction industry plays an important role in putting BIPV together,
as it requires integration into the building. BIPV is one of the green technologies that
are available and mature enough to be deployed as part of the project. Malaysia is the
second largest solar photovoltaic module producer in the world and has a proven
expertise for large BIPV capacity installation in several government and private
building such as Centre of Environment, Technology and Development, the Green
Energy Office (GEO) of Pusat Tenaga Malaysia (PTM) and Monash University
(Sunway) along with a few residential building in Cheras, Semenyih, Bukit Sebukor
(Malacca), Setia Eco Park, Putrajaya and Bangsar (Kamaruzzaman et al., 2012).
The most recent push for BIPV was the proposal to start a community-based
solar power project in the Iskandar Region Economic Corridor in Johor instead of
leaving the rooftop bare by the Iskandar Regional Development Authority (IRDA).
This is following the property bloom in the Iskandar Region by the influx of foreign
investment especially from China (The Star, 2014b). This is an excellent opportunity
to maximize investment by developers in adopting BIPV with property project
especially residential. Johor is still a developing economic state with a relatively flat
terrain among the other state terrains in Malaysia, minimizing the concerns of
nature’s shading from surrounding mountains or hills. Johor has 706,089 stock
houses, second largest amount among the states to the total 4.7 million stock houses
in Malaysia out, representing approximately 15% of the total which gives ample of
rooftops for BIPV purposes (JPPH, 2013).
3
1.3 Problem statement
Aspects such as technical, political, economic, social and environmental must be
taken into careful consideration to exploit the maximum potential of the renewable
energy and its technology (Gomesh et al., 2013). However, there are no specific
guidelines to map out or to address neither the most suitable renewable energy nor
their technologies, which creates indecisiveness for choice among investors. This
leads to investors and the major stakeholders in the construction industry especially
the developers’ remaining sceptical about the actual potential for investment in BIPV.
These developers hold the capacity and liquidity in investing large scale into the
BIPV implementation that could lead to potential parallel blooming of the BIPV
market in wake of the recent the property bloom in Iskandar Johor via the influx of
foreign investment into the property market especially from China (The Star, 2014b).
However, they are more to business based investment and there are more concerns
on the returns from their investments rather than the actual potential of the green
BIPV technology (Goh, 2011).
Furthermore, there is also a capped quota 9.86MW in 2012 with additional of
2MW the same year and expected quota of 6MW the following year (The Star, 2012).
This capping of quota hampers any investment interest of these stakeholders into
BIPV thus slowing down the BIPV implementation. Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) rates given
by the SEDA does not encourage economy to scale investment and with relatively
cheap electricity provided through fossil fuel due to heavy government subsidies, this
position BIPV to be even less competitive in terms of pricing and longer payback
period in the investment (Cheng et al., 2013).
Therefore, there is a need for a particular stakeholder to undertake BIPV. The
proposed construction stakeholder that has the capacity to undertake BIPV via
adoption of it into the project is the developers (Kamaruzzaman et al., 2012).There
are issue that arise from availability of materials arising to code and policy regulation
from adoption of sustainable materials as Tey et. al (2013) puts it. Besides that, the
issues extends further from affordability to limited or lacking of readily available
accessible information according to Griffin et al. (2010). The lacking of information
especially on BIPV is a problem for developers as it adds more indecisiveness and is
a barrier for the developers. Besides that, the developers lack of clear requirements
that are needed in adopting and developing BIPV which can be detrimental in cost
4
overrun in a project. This shows that there is need for research to be done in wake of
the limited availability of past studies.
1.4 Research question
In order to further investigate on BIPV, there are three questions which address the
concerns of developers and their requirements for BIPV adoption into their projects.
These questions cover the perspective of what the developers are encountering in
their pursuit to implement BIPV. The questions are:-
1) What are the BIPV’s application issues in Malaysia among developers?
2) What are the developers’ perspectives on the BIPV process of selection?
3) What are the factor that affects the selection of BIPV and why?
1.5 Objective of research
The objective sets the purpose for the research; in this case the developers are the
focal point of this research. There are three objectives cover the implementation for
BIPV into housing projects. These objective accounts for the developers’ thoughts
and current practice in housing projects. The research objectives are as follows:-
1) To investigate the BIPV’s application issues in Malaysia among developers.
2) To investigate the developers’ perspective on the BIPV process of selection.
3) To investigate the factors that can affect the selection of BIPV by the
developers.
5
1.6 Significance of Research
The research must bring significance towards certain parties or stakeholders which
can solve particular issue or venture into new market. Therefore, the importance of
this research in respective perspective is as follows:
1) Developers
The research helps the developers to understand about BIPV and its viability
of application in Malaysia. Developers have a broader understanding of BIPV
and its significance especially in Iskandar that can help project the return on
investment for BIPV.
2) Academic
The research advances further BIPV into the application stage and facilitates
more researches on BIPV in future. Technical researches are good to enhance
the technology; however it has to go hand-in-hand with researches that
broadens the applications BIPV to justify the cost and effort put in.
3) Government
The research can help government update existing policies on BIPV with
most up-to-date information available and effective maximization of
generating renewable energy for the future. The government can also
understand the developers’ perspective and create joint efforts with the
developers’ in order to make BIPV a successful project in Malaysia.
1.7 Scope of research
The scope of research governs the limits for the research in this case, there are few
scopes that are looked into:-
1) The data is only limited to the geographical location of Johor Region,
particularly Iskandar Johor. Malaysia has an average sunlight per day,
however can differ in other places as to natural shading from clouds and also
locality from the Equator (Azahari et. al, 2008). The information used is
based on average output of solar PV system and are based on past weather
6
patterns data, the weather for the future is unpredictable and is based on
forecasts. Daily weather patterns might defer from day to day and only an
average data can be obtained and used.
2) For this research, the eight respondents are taken from the developers in the
Johor Region, particularly focused on the Iskandar Region as it is blooming
with economic investment and housing developments. This creates an
excellent opportunity for the developers think about housing projects with
BIPV to lure house buyers
3) The BIPV system available to be installed for building project that is
connected to fossil electric and the generated energy cost is made in
comparison to fossil electricity cost. The study is also mainly focused on
urban and suburban area attached to the fossil electricity grid. This is because
rural areas have a more competitive cost as there is the need to infrastructure
to supply fossil electricity to the rural areas with can cost more than the entire
lifecycle of the BIPV project.
4) The research method uses in-depth interview for this research. This is to help
probe further into BIPV implementation in Johor region as the available
information is still lacking. The limited wealth of information makes other
research method such as case study or Delphi difficult to be conducted in this
application field.
1.8 Research Process
Basic information is extracted from multiple sources such as journal papers and
books. The information is then consulted with the academia professionals in order to
determine the accuracy and impact of the information. From this information, the
research problem is singled out measurably. There are four main problems that are
identified in this research which are the business based monetary investment
expectation, unmatched subsidized convention electricity, not motivation and lack of
information flow which leads to the developers skepticism in implementing BIPV.
The measurable objective are being determined based on the research problems and
three research objective have been identified which are to investigate the BIPV
7
application issues in Malaysia among developers, the developers’ perspective on the
BIPV process of selection and the factors that can affect the selection of BIPV by the
developers. A methodological research approach is being devised into a research
framework by using survey interview. The in-depth survey interview segregated into
four sections to enable a deeper understanding into BIPV and to enable the
respondents to have a fresh mind but not forgetting on the subject matter. The
interview is conducted as below:-
1) Interview Section 1
The first section aims to obtain more information on the issues faced and
achieve objective one. The question revolves more to the current issues
the respondents is facing or they think the project face when BIPV in
implemented.
2) Interview Section 2
The second section probes further into the barriers the developers that the
developers have projected to encounter in order to fully utilise BIPV as
part of their project. In the future projection, the developers also give their
thoughts on how can the barriers be overcome as they see it.
3) Interview Section 3
Section 3 focuses on the selection of BIPV. This is important as the
respondents are equipped with experiences that defers as the developers
companies may defer in method and practices to achieve the same
selection of BIPV. Selection is a very meticulous process which accounts
for many affecting factors.
4) Interview Section 4
The fourth section aims to understand further BIPV in a deeper manner
that can indirect or underlying factors that can be contributing or
determinant of the implementation of BIPV in the housing projects. The
developers has voiced out considerable concerns that they may encounter
when they tries to adopt BIPV and take account for future implementation
of BIPV in their housing projects.
The interview is transcribed into written transcripts by the researcher. The data is
analysed by identifying whether there are any consistent patterns and also differences
of the respondent’s responds. Coding process is done by identifying and highlighting
the keywords and codes related to the topic are being categorised into potential
8
themes. A thematic map is created based on the theme and link up together to the
main topic. Based on the thematic map, the essence of each theme is being explained
through the researcher’s understanding on what the theme is portraying. The theme is
then broken into several sub-themes and being explained the essence of sub-themes.
These themes are also being cross checked with the literature review for patterns and
codes that may have been disregarded earlier on during reviewing the literature
works. A framework is then generated to compare with the propose framework to
determine the proximity of the result in real life to the proposed ideal results in the
initial literature review and interview results.
1.9 Thesis Organisation
This thesis is organised into six chapters to help arrange research information flow.
i) Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1 introduces the need of implementation BIPV for the research.
This chapter is the executive summary of the research and provide a
general guide for the entire research. This chapter also carves out the idea
the research and necessary concerns that can affect the research. The
objective and scope of research are mention in this chapter.
ii) Chapter 2: Implementation of BIPV
The implementation of BIPV is further discussed in Chapter 2 with the
accurate usage of the terminology to addressing of the issues. Other
research is taken into account in this chapter that help guide and create a
base reference for the research. The research is then justified and made to
stand out from other researches to ensure quality and originality of work.
iii) Chapter 3: Research Methodology
The research plan is constructed in Chapter 3 to guide the research. This
chapter provide detail explanation on who are the respondents and how
the research is to be carried out. This to enable the research objectives can
be achieved in the research.
9
iv) Chapter 4: Result and discussion: BIPV Application Issues
Chapter 4 presents the results for the first and second interview to achieve
objective one of the research. The barriers are established in this part of
the interview. The drivers are also mentioned too by the developers in this
chapter in order to overcome the barriers which are significant in
implementation of BIPV into their housing projects.
v) Chapter 5: Result and discussion: BIPV Selection Criteria
Chapter 5 shows the selection of the criteria that the developers employs.
The criteria gives more weightage to the social and economical side rather
that the environmental side BIPV. The criteria is based on the general
adaptation of green materials in the construction industry.
vi) Chapter 6: Result and discussion: Factors Affecting BIPV Selection
Chapter 6 discuss the findings from the data and gives reasonable
explanation on the factors affecting the selection of criteria for BIPV. The
data is then interpreted for research purposes to achieve the objective of
research. This chapter also determines the intangible side of the data that
will affect BIPV implementation into the housing project.
vii) Chapter 7: Conclusion
Other findings such as limitation of research are discussed in this chapter
before a summary of the research is made. Recommendations for future
researches are given as to help other researchers to grow their information
or as reference.
CHAPTER 2
RENEWABLE ENERGY AND BIPV REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Construction process is the wide means for the realization of human settlements and
the creation of infrastructure that supports development which encompass the raw
materials extraction, the construction materials manufacturing and components, the
entire construction project lifecycle from feasibility to deconstruction, and the
management and operation of the built environment (Vatalis et al, 2003). One of the
aspect in development that is recognised as a major contributor to global
environmental degradation is the built environment. Man-made surroundings that
provide the setting to facilitate human activity, however, this has an adverse
environmental impacts from the built environment which includes high energy
utilization, solid waste production, intensifying greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
other forms of pollution that is environmental damaging and resource depletion
spanning from the design, construction and operational phases of the project
(Masnavi, 2007; Melchert, 2005; Zimmermann et al., 2005). Multiple economic
reports validate that the construction industry is among the largest, most rapid
growing and vibrant sector that contributes to the economic growth of an
industrialising country, including Malaysia. Parallel to this growth is the energy
industry that is required to support the blooming construction industries’ operations
(Betts et al., 2011; Brandt and Yong, 2011; GBI-Research, 2010).
11
Hence, the interest in renewable energy (RE) is propelled by two factors
which are to prolong the fossil fuel depletion while minimizing or mitigating the
impact on environment which goes hand in hand to support the blooming
construction and its operations (Shahirinia et al., 2005). The projected amount of
CO₂ by 2030 released in Malaysia is 339 million tonnes with an increase of 3.3%
yearly. From this amount, 42% is accounted from the electricity generation sector.
Renewable energy (RE) is a long term energy security that could help mitigate this
42% CO₂ in the years to come (APERC, 2009). However, according to Ekins (2004),
there are “No optimal model that has emerged, and probably none will do so in the
contexts that is shaped by different histories and cultures.” Therefore, the selection
and execution of renewable energy (RE) and its policy is defined based on the
government, the public and the private sectors according to necessity and other
factors. Under these circumstances, Malaysia has started pursuing renewable energy
(RE) through the inclusion in the national planning and policy. There are four forms
of RE has been identified with much suitability to Malaysia strategic locality and
geographical terrain conditions. However, there is just a general policy to pursue RE
and no specific policy to target one form of RE. The governance of these policies are
position under the Energy Commission or “Suruhanjaya Tenaga (ST)” and the
Special Committee on Renewable Energy (SCORE) which later on was replace by
SEDA.
2.2 Sustainable Development
The “Sustainable Development” concept came about as the development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs according to Farah and Nur, 2012. Then, the International
Council of Building (CIB) help shape the “Sustainable Development” concept by
introducing “Sustainable Construction” with the aim to achieve sustainable
production, use, maintenance, demolition and reuse of buildings and constructions of
their components after Professor Charles Kibert first use it during the First
International Conference on Sustainable Construction in Tampa, 1994 (Du Plessis,
2002; Shafii, Ali and Othman, 2006; CIB, 1999). In other words, this means of any
12
development should meet the aspirations of people at the same time without harming
the future generation’s aspiration. Hence, this concept has been gradually amended to
specifically focus on the quality of life which takes into consideration the three
dimensions encompassing economic, social and environment aspects (Yakob et al.,
2012).
For over forty years, Sustainable Development has been in focus as the global
environmental dialogues with aim to guide the ecosystem protection (Walsh, 2004).
According to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the term
“Sustainability” is defined as “the preservation of the ecosystem for the future
generations that is to come” (Strand and Fossdal, 2003). The initiatives of Health
Building, Green Building Congress, Sustainable Building International Conference
and Sustainable City International Conference aims to drives Sustainable
Development to make it a global development goal, with special considerations
given on “healthiness” and “comfortability” in order to find and equilibrium between
"sustainability", "green" and "healthy" environment (Chiang, 2005). The European
Union indicated that sustainable housing in Europe now sole focus on three essential
perspectives, which are construction of the building, social and economic impacts,
and eco efficiency (Abu Hassan et al., 2010). Karrupannan and Sivam (2009)
describe this phenomenon as a vital contribution to local community development,
local social justice and equality, and local economic growth. The initiatives are
proven successful when sustainability is adapted into sustainable housing, in which
many are aware and concern about the physical design aspect in a building by
employing as much green technology integrated or retrofitted in the building, in other
words, “Green Building” (Yakob et al., 2012).
The term “Green Construction” is often associated with “Green Building”.
The green construction practice starts from the initial planning stage from site to
design, the construction stage, operation and maintenance stage, renovation and
demolition stage. This green practice takes a more comprehensive approach towards
the conventional building construction process, enhancing and improving the
economy, utility, durability, and comfort of the building in order to achieve
sustainable or high performance green building which are more environmentally
responsible and resource-efficient that balances the economic demands in creating a
sustainable future (Vatalis et al., 2013; Isnin et al., 2012). In United States of
America (USA), the organisation that oversees the green building and green
13
construction is the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) using
on their rating system, a voluntary, consensus-based national standard that support
and validate successful green building design, construction and operations. LEED is
a third party organisation that gives certification for green buildings qualification
based on the high-performance guidelines, giving professional training and
accreditation, which after a project is completed, it may qualify for LEED certified,
silver, gold or platinum level accordingly (Refocus, 2003).
However, in Malaysia, the Green Building Index (GBI) is the third party
organisation that overseas and defines green building. Their focus is more to
increasing the efficiency of resource usage such as energy, water and materials while
reducing building impacts on human health and the environment through greener
construction process. However, GBI has been focusing more towards ‘renewable
energy’ and ‘energy efficiency’ application into green buildings which has recently
has been addressed by many countries (Chua et al., 2013).
2.3 Renewable Energy Technologies
There are a few forms of renewable energy which are: Hydro, Geothermal, Solar,
Marine, Wind and Biomass (Chou and Ongkowijoyo, 2014). All these forms of
renewable energy have great implications towards the energy and construction sector
when being put into maximum capacity. It is not 100% suitable for every country due
the multiple factors, therefore a careful process of selection is needed to determine
not be most idea but the most suitable renewable energy or best practice is needed to
maximize the capacity of the renewable energy in the particular geographical
location. Malaysia strategic locality and geographical terrain conditions enable four
major forms of renewable energy, namely Hydro, Solar, Wind and Biomass, can be
considered as ideal; therefore other criteria must be included in determining most
suitable renewable energy with maximized capacity to be selected (Ahmad et al.,
2014). These four forms will be explained in the following section.
14
2.3.1 Hydro
Malaysia climate and geographical terrain is suits the requirement of generation of
hydropower in abundance. Malaysia has about 189 named rivers located in the
mountainous area and 3549mm of rain annually which is more than the prerequisite
for hydropower generation. However, Peninsular Malaysia hydropower has been
fully exploited, leaving the East Malaysia yet to be exploited with estimated of
29000MW untapped. The electricity generated (kWh) per cost is relatively low
accounting for the lifespan and capacity of the plant (Ahmad et al., 2014). However,
to ensure a constant capacity for hydropower plants requires building dams to
contain water reservoir, encompassing a sizeable amount of land. This will lead to
major social and environment problems such as native population displacement, soil
erosion and reduced agricultural land and also ecosystem disturbance (Rosnazri et al.,
2012). The construction of this dam involves a high initial CAPEX involving
billions most of the time and consistent operation expenditure (OPEX) to ensure the
dam is in good condition not subjected to catastrophic failure and the turbine
mechanical maintenance to enhance the productivity lifespan (Ahmad et al., 2014).
2.3.2 Wind
Malaysia geographical terrain creates low wind speed inland varying from 1.3 m/s to
2.7 m/s which is not sufficient enough for wind power generation. The coastal wind
however, has low potential with wind speed estimated about 3.5 m/s to 4.5 m/s due
to the locality of Malaysia with the 29th
longest coastline in the world amounting to
around 4,675 km. Although wind power shows low potential, Malaysia still has wind
potential, with the help of a wind map, in other aspects such as the flexibility in
equipment assembly, mobility in equipment transportation and relatively low
CAPEX. However, the adverse effect of wind power could alter migrating birds’
flight path, electromagnetic interference for radio signals surrounding the large
installations, consequential noise from rotating blades and also eyesore to the
landscape (Ahmad et al., 2014). Besides that, the mechanical parts are subjected to
15
wear and tear and require replacement to extend the lifespan which increase the
OPEX.
2.3.3 Biomass
Biomass utilizes organic waste for electricity production. The estimated potential of
biomass is around 800MW annually and is capable to increase to 1300MW annually
due to Malaysia as the second largest producer of palm oil in the world after
Indonesia, with over 4.06 million ha of palm oil land in 2009. The palm oil waste is
ideal for consistent electricity generation with 1 ha of land producing 50-70 tonnes of
waste; however there is a high level of uncertainty for the fuel source of palm oil
because of the competing prices for the palm oil waste, which serves multiple uses in
other industries. Other fuel source for biomass is palm oil mill effluent and manure
from livestock which in turn emits biogas. Another fuel source is from organic
municipal solid waste, which Malaysia has a high waste production of 17000 to
28500 tonnes per day, in turn emits methane. Both biogas and methane can be used
for electricity production but at the same time are greenhouse gasses that could
pollute the environment especially methane which is more harmful than CO₂ and can
be fatal when inhaled. Biomass also requires a sizeable amount of land and water and
could affect surrounding biodiversity (Ahmad et al., 2014; Afgan and Carvalho,
2012).
2.3.4 Solar
Malaysia’s potential is high due to the strategic geographic location near the equator
averaging 4.96 kWh/m² annual solar irradiance and with the range of 4.8 to
6.3kWh/m² irradiance monthly except for December due to the monsoon season
(Azhari et al., 2008). Malaysia is said to have solar potential about four times of the
world’s fossil fuel reserve. Solar power can be regarded as the cleanest technology
for electricity production. Nonetheless, there is scarcity in the availability of material
16
for higher efficiency solar cells and the solar cell production poses environmental
hazards if the production process is not handled appropriately (Oh, 2010). The
detailed production involves higher costs which increased the price of the solar
panels. On the other hand, the price for solar panels has decreased from (Malaysian
Ringgit) MYR 31,410 per kilowatt peak (kWp) in 2005 to MYR 20,439 kWp in 2009
(Ahmad et al., 2014). The latest pricing offered in 2013 sees a further drop to an
estimated MYR 10,000 kWp (Senheng, 2013). Though the decrementing in prices
looks promising in lowering the CAPEX for solar investment, yet the rates for return
on investment are seen as low competitiveness against the conventional fossil fuel
with heavily subsidized natural gas (Cheng et al., 2013). However, two-thirds of
Malaysia land area is tropical forest, hence to build major solar power plant is not
environmentally viable. Thus BIPV for rooftops to harness solar power is the best
option (Ahmad et al., 2014). The summary of impacts by Malaysian Renewable
Energy technologies and its comparison is shown in Table 2.1 and 2.2 respectively.
Table 2.1: Summary of impacts by Malaysian Renewable Energy technologies
(adapted from Ahmad et al., 2014)
Types Negative Impacts
Wind
1) Native population displacement
2) Soil erosion
3) Reduced agricultural land
4) Ecosystem disturbance
Hydro 1) Alter migrating birds’ flight path
2) Electromagnetic interference for radio signals
3) Consequential noise from rotating blades
4) Eyesore to the landscape
Biomass 1) Fuel source uncertain and requires land for waste production
2) Facility requires sizeable amount of land and water
3) Affect surrounding biodiversity
4) Emission of greenhouse gases such as deadly methane and CO₂
Solar Power Plant 1) Requires sizeable amount of land
2) Poses environmental hazards if the production process is not
handled appropriately
Solar BIPV 1) Poses environmental hazards if the production process is not
handled appropriately
17
Table 2.2: Summary of Malaysian Renewable Energy technologies in comparison
(adapted from Ahmad et al., 2014)
Types Wind Hydro Biomass Solar Power
Plant Solar BIPV
Source Limited Limited Limited Abundant Abundant
Cost per kWh High Low High High High
CAPEX Low Extremely
High High High High
OPEX Average High Low Low Low
Land
requirements Low
Extremely
High High High Low
FiT category Not listed Inclusive Inclusive Inclusive Inclusive
2.4 Solar Principle and Types
Solar has two categories which are the passive solar and the active solar. The passive
solar is the non-mechanical techniques used in construction to control the amount of
sunlight and the distribution of energy in a building such as heating, cooling, lighting
and ventilation. Cardinal direction positioning, material selection and design of the
building are the part of the system for passive solar. Active solar is a more
mechanical application which includes wide range of mechanical and electrical
components such as tracking mechanisms, fans and pumps. Some other parts are
panels that convert heat or sunlight to electricity (Onar and Khaligh, 2010).
Active solar has two subcategory which are thermal solar that convert Sun’s
heat into electricity and photovoltaic solar that uses the light from the Sun to create
mobile charged particles in the semiconductor which separates from the device
structure through “photovoltaic effect” in the panels thus producing electricity
current (Markvart, 2000).
18
2.4.1 Types of solar photovoltaic
There are five types of solar photovoltaic panels that exist currently. The commonly
used solar photovoltaic panels are the silicon solar panels because the panels have
been research throughout the years and are mature enough to be commercialized.
Monocrystalline has the highest efficiency but is the most expensive due to its
process to grow in high-tech labs, sliced, doped and etched. The second is the
polycrystalline which has a slightly cheaper price because it has a less complex
process but with a lower efficiency in electricity output. The cheapest is the
amorphous silicon which is easy to produce and is cheap but has the lowest
efficiency of only 5 – 10% (Foster et al., 2010).
For non-silicon panels, both Cadmium Telluride and Copper Indium Gallium
Diselenide are still under research because the yield is still low and the metals use in
producing are all too rare and very expensive. However to produce a solar
photovoltaic panel out of non-silicon is a simpler process than silicon base (Markvart,
2000). Table 2.3 and 2.4 will summarize types of solar panels for both silicon and
non-silicon.
Table 2.3: Types of solar panels (Silicon) (Foster et al., 2010)
Types Monocrystalline Polycrystalline Amorphous silicon
Material
Semiconductor-grade
silicon from a single
crystal ingot
Semiconductor-grade
silicon from various
crystal ingot
Amorphous silicon
Lifespan 20 – 25 years 20 years 10 years
Efficiency 15 – 20 % 13 – 15 % 5 – 10 %
19
Table 2.4: Types of solar panels (Non - Silicon) (Markvart, 2000)
Types Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide
(CIGS)
Material Screen-printing from Cadmium liquid
and Telluride liquid
Copper Indium/ Gallium Diselenide
alloy
Status Under research Under research
Efficiency Current: 6 % Current: 8%
Expected increment: 12 -14%
2.4.2 Thin film and Photovoltaic (PV) module
Thin film is actually the coating of a thin layer of semiconductor to a substrate,
usually glass or ceramic. This layer has a photovoltaic capacity to generate electricity
and is made from amorphous silicon, CdTe or CIGS. It is normally used in BIPV
façade because it is flexible enough and can be used on tiles or glass windows.
Photovoltaic (PV) modules are produced from silicon panels because of its durability
and higher efficiency yield. PV modules commonly used in BIPV roofing in a form
of array due to its maturity and availability for commercialization (Foster et al.,
2010).
Figure 2.1: PV module and Thin Film
(Source: Home Solar, 2009 and Thin Film, 2007)
20
2.4.3 BIPV and BAPV
BIPV and BAPV have almost similar in description but it totally different type of
system. BIPV is defined as BIPV system involves integration of the system into the
skin of the building and is considered in the conceptual phase of the project before
the building is actually developed. BAPV is defined as Building Applied
Photovoltaic which involves retrofitting the system into the building after the
building in completed, upon the requirement of the owner (GreenTech., 2010).
However, in Malaysia, both BIPV and BAPV are categorized under the BIPV
category to ease procedures and avoid confusion (SEDA, 2011). Therefore, there are
no differences between retrofitting after construction and truly integrate the system in
the design plan as both are equally know as BIPV.
2.5 Government Policy and Subsidy on BIPV
According to Ekins (2004), there are “No optimal model that has emerged, and
probably none will do so in the contexts that is shaped by different histories and
cultures.” Therefore, there are no perfect government policies or subsidy that can suit
any countries. Different countries will be based on their capacity and capability to
invest into green technologies, namely BIPV. However, there are a few key countries
that have been using renewable energy and especially BIPV other than Malaysia as
part of their initiative via the policy that is created by the government which are the
USA, Germany, Australia and Japan.
2.5.1 Other countries policies on BIPV
USA photovoltaic system has contributed to around 8% of the country’s electricity
with about 50MW installed around the country. These are few energy policies
initiatives that have been done by the USA government on renewable energy, which
21
are the Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS), incentives, Investment Tax Credit
(ITC), Production Tax Credit (PTC) and targets. RPS is a mechanism that helps to
maximise production energy and RE obligations though exchange renewable energy
credits by state utilities or renewable energy certificates (Fayaz et al., 2011). This
enables the other state utilities to invest into other states in where production of RE is
higher via the present state’s utilities.
Besides that, the adoption of Public Utility Regulatory Policies (PURPA) in
the 1978 requires the utilities to purchase renewable energy from qualified
independent generators over long term contracts unlike the Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) that
guarantees a premium for RE delivered to grid (Fayaz et al., 2011). This is because
the utilities are based on state and have the freedom to negotiate the contract with the
state utilities as well as other state utilities who wish to invest to fulfill RPS. It is part
of the incentive plan by the government, besides the Production Tax Credit (PTC).
PTC was introduced by the USA government in 1992 for small scale large wind
turbine farms based on the upfront capital cost. For individuals and other like
residential solar and wind projects will be in the form of Investment Tax Credit
(ITC), which help bloom to with more than 83,000 units installed the RE investment
by 30% and extension for 3 years with additional help from Congress for the tax-
extenders bill in their financial bailout plan in 2008 and will expecting go generate
an annual growth of 6000MW for solar installation is 2016. ITC is one of the most
important components in the increase in solar installation, although individual states
have their own programs to promote RE (Fayaz et al., 2011).
Countries with high technology frontier like Germany and Australia has been
adopting the solar energy and the FiT policy with various incentives and abandoning
nuclear energy after the Fukushima accident in Japan (Fayaz et al., 2011). Australia
started around the same time as Malaysia on RE, around in 2001. Australia adopted
the Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) policy too but it is a selectively based on states only
although the program is considered in the Renewable Energy Target. This move is to
help enhance the commercialisation of mandatory RE and FiT in the country because
the costs of the panels are too high. However, the Australian government are keen to
push on RE to reach a national mandatory RE target of 20% in the energy supply by
2020. Germany on the other hand adopts FiT based on cost avoided. It means a cost
is based on the electricity displaced price. This RE is given grand priority access to
the grid to be accepted and distributed up to 20 years depending of technology.
22
Germany is one of the most successful countries to implement FiT to promote RE
sources because of the attractive and convincing return on investment for RE
(Abdullah et al., 2012; Fayaz et al., 2011).
Japan has also adopted solar BIPV through their New Energy and Industrial
Technology Development Organisation (NEDO) project. They are more to a semi-
government organisation that is in charge of policy formulation and research and
design to innovate, solve problem, enhancing competitiveness and support the
technological industry. They are the largest research and development management
organisation in Japan. Their focus is on especially on RE and its technology plus the
usage and efficiency of it, and to promote by being part of initiative to recommend,
develop and demonstrate the advancement of the RE technology (NEDO, 2013).
Even Malaysia’s neighbour, Singapore is looking into the prospect of solar energy
harnessing through BIPV which is projected to supply 28% of the current electricity
demand and reduce approximately 8% of the CO₂ released with the 30% reserve
margin above peak set by their government. It is estimated that solar can meet the
electricity generation up to 65% in the morning by 2050 (Wagner et al., 2012).
2.5.2 Malaysian Government policy on BIPV
Though diversification has been initiated in the 80’s under the National Energy
Policy, National Depletion Policy and the Four Fuel policy which aims to shift the
reliance on petroleum to other sources for electricity generation, the reliance was
shifted from petroleum to natural gas, which is also under the same category of fossil
fuel. Ever since the formulation of these policies, the petroleum fields discovered
have matured more than 30 years with pending new discovery and remaining fields
are low quality, small and scattered in distribution. Natural gas is not looking good
either with 10% declining production rate per annum and scattered in distribution too.
Extraction and development of these scattered oil and gas field escalate the cost
which makes it not feasible economically. In year 2000, Malaysia turns its focus to
renewable energy (RE) through the three major plans which are the 8th
, 9th
and 10th
Malaysian Plan (Cheng, et al., 2013).
23
Under the 8th
Malaysian Plan, the fifth extension to the Four Fuel policy has
been added, formulating a new Five Fuel policy. The objective of this policy has not
change but to further diversify the reliance on oil and gas to other sources if possible.
Though nuclear energy is not one of this Five Fuel policy, a special provision has
been granted to explore the possibility potential for usage of nuclear for electricity
generation (Rosnazri et al., 2012). Other than that, a 5% target has been set for RE to
contribute to the electricity generation mix. Small Renewable Energy Program
(SREP) scheme has been set up by Special Committee on Renewable Energy
(SCORE) to achieve the objectives of the Third Outline Perspective Plan (2001-2010)
and the Fifth Fuel policy which is to solidify the development and exploitation of RE
(Fayaz et al., 2011). With the Energy Commission or “Suruhanjaya Tenaga (ST)”
formation under the Energy Commission Act 2001, the role of Depart of Electricity
and Gas Supply was taken over to further enhance effective supervisory of energy
sector and efficient energy usage. It has become the body to regulate any energy
related issues also (EPU, 2001). However, SREP developers’ have to sign a
Renewable Energy Power Purchase Agreement (REPPA) with Tenaga Nasional
Berhad (TNB), Peninsular Malaysia’s national power utility company. This lead to
SREP poor response because of 4 factors, which are high subsidy in fossil fuel
especially for electricity generation which makes the RE electricity prices not
competitive enough to fossil fuel electricity price, high capital expenditure (CAPEX)
with long return on investment and low tariff for RE electricity, long negotiations
with stringent conditions imposed and also uncertain price of RE source and
availability (Cheng et al., 2013).
The poor response from Small Renewable Energy Program (SREP), only
achieving less than 14MW of the targeted 350MW in the 8th
Malaysian Plan, did not
hamper the government’s commitment for renewable energy (RE) (Cheng et al.,
2013). The 9th
Malaysian Plan stresses more on the energy efficiency, parallel with
the sustainable development goal that Malaysia has been trying to achieve. It outlines
the strategy for addressing environmental and resource management issues in an
integrated and holistic manner, to ensure sustainable and resilient development
(APERC, 2009). The establishment of the Ministry of Energy, Communications and
Multimedia further enhanced this goal, with the purpose to support green economy
which is clean and sustainable (Fayaz et al., 2011). The launching of National Green
Technology in April 2009, with the intention of Green Technology development and
24
energy efficiency, is concrete evidence that Malaysia is further pursuing sustainable
development on the next level (Islam et al., 2011).
Besides that, the setting up of Malaysian Building Integrated Photovoltaic
Technology Application Project (MBIPV) joint effort by Global Environment
Foundation (GEF) via the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) initiates
the BIPV application in Malaysia (Solangi et al., 2011). This project involved three
categories which are BIPV demonstration, national “SURIA 1000” programme and
BIPV showcase, putting into action the establishment and participation of both the
private and the public sector in the BIPV market and application in both residential
and commercial buildings (Mekhilef et al., 2011). The construction of several
government building such as Centre of Environment, Technology and Development,
the Green Energy Office (GEO) of Pusat Tenaga Malaysia (PTM) and Monash
University (Sunway) along with a few residential building in Cheras, Semenyih,
Bukit Sebukor (Malacca), Setia Eco Park, Putrajaya and Bangsar shows the
government commitment to enhance this BIPV market (Kamaruzzaman et al., 2012).
Renewable Energy Policy and Action Plan under the 10th
Malaysian Plan
demonstrate the government’s interest further into RE. The objective has been raise
to 985MW by 2015, amounting to 5.5% of Malaysia’s electricity generation mix
compare to the previous 5%. SEDA has been set up when the Renewable Energy Act
2011 and Sustainable Energy Development Authority Act 2011 [Act 726] has been
passed to replace the Special Committee on Renewable Energy (SCORE)
permanently (Fayaz et al., 2011). A new mechanism called Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) has
been introduced under this two Acts which will allow RE investors to enjoy premium
tariff payback rate per unit energy generated by selling to Tenaga Nasional Berhad
(TNB).
A special collection for Renewable Energy Fund under the Renewable
Energy Act 2011 was initiated by SEDA which incorporate additional charge of 1%
into the consumer’s monthly electricity bill for usage above 300 kilowatt hour (kWh)
per month (Fayaz et al., 2011). This has been further raised to 1.6% in 2014 to show
stronger support and assist out in this FiT initiative expenditure (The Star, 2014a).
The government introduced the new National Energy Policy under the 10th
Malaysian Plan also which encompass economy, environment and social while
enhancing energy security in supply and utilization including RE, which can be
summarized into five core strategic pillar as follows (Cheng et al., 2013) :-
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