pengurusan zon pantai (skl3207) nota kuliah

Aspek-aspek ekonomi yang ada di perairan Malaysia;

proses-proses lautan dan pesisiran pantai; penggunaan dan eksploitasi zon pantai; perundangan dan akta-akta yang berkait dengannya.

Perundangan mengenai pembentukan zon-zon; pembentukan satu pelan pengurusan zon pantai akan diberi penekanan yang khas dengan mengambil kira aspek sumber-sumber pantai dan ekosistem yang peka di persekitaran

SINOPSIS / RANGKA KURSUS SINOPSIS / RANGKA KURSUS PENGURUSAN ZON PANTAI PENGURUSAN ZON PANTAI

(SKL 3207)(SKL 3207)

PENGURUSAN ZON PANTAI

• Untuk memberi pemahaman kepada pelajar tentang konsep-konsep dan teknik pengurusan zon pantai.

1. Pengenalan - Am, objektif, falsafah, asas pengurusan - Perancangan pantai, analisa sistem dan proses perancangan

2. Takrifan-takrifan kepada sistem pantai dan konsep carrying capacity

- Sucession, climax, diversity, productivity - ‘Carrying capacity’ dan faktor-faktor penghadnya.

3. Analisa sistem alam semulajadi dan klassifikasi pantai - Special areas, critical areas, langkah-langkah

4. Grafik (komunikasi)

5. Management Plan / Struktur Plan

6. Perubahan bentuk pantai disebabkan aktiviti manusia

7. Management tools----ESI- Kaedah, pemetaan

8. Management tools---EIA - Keadaan sedia ada, potential impact, mitigating measures

9. Panduan dan piawai untuk projek di pesisiran pantai

LAWATAN – LAWATAN DAN TUGASAN AKAN DIADAKAN MENGIKUT TEORI

PENILAIAN PELAJAR

Ujian kelas (2) 30%

Ujian akhir 40%

Bengkel/lawatan/ 30%

tugasan dll

BAHAN RUJUKAN

• Coastal Ecosystem Management – Clarke, J.R.

• The Coastline – Barnes, R.S.K.

• Introduction to Coastal Geomorphology – J.S. Pethick.

PENGURUSAN ZON PANTAI (MSM 3207)

Amali 1

Kawasan kajian : Pantai Tok Jembal Pengkalan Maras

1. Terangkan ciri-ciri pantai yang sedia ada (coastal features) dan ciri yang tidak

terdapat di kawasan kajian.

2. Senaraikan daya – daya geofizikal yang bertindak di kawasan kajian.

3. Tentukan / jangkakan daya mana yang paling dominan dalam proses

pembentukan pantai ini. Berikan sebab.

4. Senaraikan jenis – jenis projek yang boleh dijalankan di kawasan ini.

5. Pilih satu projek yang kamu ingin laksanakan dan terangkan kenapa.

6. Terangkan kesan projek itu seandainya ia dilaksanakan – kepada sekitaran

pantai itu khususnya kesan terhadap daya – daya geofizikal.

Soalan Bonus

a. Terangkan maklumat – maklumat tambahan lain mengenai kawasan kajian.

OBJEKTIF :-

MENGURUS SEKITARAN ZON PANTAI PADA TAHAP “CARRYING CAPACITY / KEUPAYAAN TAMPUNGAN” YANG SETINGGI MUNGKIN DENGAN KEUPAYAAN EKOSISTEM ITU MENAMPUNG DIRI SENDIRI SAMBIL MEMBERI FAEDAH KEPADA MANUSIA….”-

“CARRYING CAPACITY / KEUPAYAAN TAMPUNGAN” SECARA EKOLOGI – HAD KEPADA JUMLAH HIDUPAN YANG DAPAT DITAMPUNG OLEH SESUATU HABITAT. SECARA PENGURUSAN – KEUPAYAAN YANG MUNASABAH OLEH SESUATU KAWASAN UNTUK MENAMPUNG MANUSIA DAN AKTIVITINYA. KONFLIK??…

KONSEP YANG SEBENAR DALAM CZM…” POTENSI SESUATU EKOSISTEM UNTUK MENYUMBANGKAN HASIL YANG BERGUNA KEPADA MASYARAKAT….” KEUPAYAAN PALING TINGGI DENGAN KOS PALING RENDAH (KONSEP MANUSIA PANDAI ATAU TAMAK ?? ) – RENUNGAN

Coastal Mangrove ForestCoastal Mangrove Forest

Coastal StructureCoastal StructureCoastal StructureCoastal Structure

AquacultureAquaculture

AgricultureAgriculture

Urban Centers Along the ShorelineUrban Centers Along the Shoreline

Hotels and Resorts

Oil & Gas Industry

Tourism And Leisure

COASTAL EROSIONCOASTAL EROSION

Fishing Village

ResortResort

Agriculture AreaRoad

Pengurusan - Menjaga, memulihara. Pesisiran pantai – Kawasan bermula dari “continental self” hingga kepada kawasan berhampiran pantai.

Matlamat Pengurusan Zon Pantai - Untuk mengurus system ke tahap “carrying capacity” yang tertinggi supaya boleh system itu berdikari (self substaining) dan menghasilkan sumber kepada manusia.

Asas-asas Pengurusan Ekosistem:- 1. Perancangan mestilah termasuk keseluruhan ekosistem dan juga sempadan politik. 2. Melindungi kawasan yang penting dari segi ekologi semasa merancang. 3. Elakkan dari memusnahkan sesuatu system, cth. Pencemaran. 4. Mengawal perubahan bentuk pantai, sungai dan sempadan perairan (kawal f.w runoff) 5. Mengawal perubahan dan pergerakan /pengaliran perairan pantai. 6. Seimbangkan kegunaan manusia dengan system semulajadi.

FALSAFAH PENGURUSAN ZON PANTAI /EKOSISTEM

“….APA JUA CUBAAN UNTUK MENGURUS SECARA BERASINGAN, SALAH SATU DARI KOMPONEN-KOMPONEN EKOSISTEM YANG KOMPLEKS YANG SALING BERKAITAN BERKEMUNGKINAN BESAR AKAN GAGAL. BEGITU JUGA PERCUBAAN UNTUK MENGAWAL HANYA SATU SUMBER GANGUAN/CEMARAN KAPADA SISTEM TANPA MENGAWAL YANG LAINYA. DEFINASI EKOSISTEM MERUPAKAN SATU UNIT YANG UNIK DAN BERKAITAN, SATU YANG MELIBATKAN BUKAN HANYA “COASTAL WATER BASIN” TETAPI JUGA TANAH TEPIAN PANTAI YANG BERSEBELAHAN HINGGA HAD YANG MASIH BOLEH MEMPENGARUHI PERAIRAN PANTAI…..”

Ekologi – Kajian hubungan di antara tumbuhan dan organisma dengan

alam sekitar.

Ecotone : Kawasan yang bertindih (overlap areas), diversity tinggi. Terdapat di antara 2 iklim yang berlainan. Cth. Setiu lagoon. Sucession (Penggantian): Proses di mana tumbuh-tumbuhan ganti-mengganti antara satu sama lain di dalam sesuatu turutan hingga mencapai keadaan “climax state”. Cth. Sucession di tanah terbiar. Climax state: Keadaan di mana terdapat paling tinggi produktiviti dan paling stabil. Lebih banyak organisma dan lebih “niche”. Diversity (Kepelbagaian): Berjenis-jenis spesies ada terdapat di dalam sesuatu ekosistem.

Di dalam keadaan climax, terdapat diversity yang tinggi dan ada perseimbangan di antara berbagai spesies dan di antara individu. Sebaliknya di peringkat permulaan sucession. Produktiviti: Adalah keupayaan sesuatu ekosistem untuk menghasilkan bahan-bahan asas. Sucession , produktiviti

Fundamental Goal : ( of Coastal Management )…..maintenance of coastal ecosystems at the highest

achievable of quality, which means as near the natural condition as possible – at the level of best achievable ecosystem function. ………..AT THE SAME TIME GIVING BENEFIT TO MAN?Whatever its goal – The management aspect must embrace the whole ecosystem. Any attempt to manage separately one of the many interdependent components of a complex ecosystem will very likely fail. So, would any attempt to control any one of source of disturbance to the system, without controlling others. SO, IT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE A PROFESSIONAL ANALYSIS OF EACH ECOSYSTEM TO DETERMINE ITS VALUES AND VULNERABILITIES AND TO DEVISE EFFECTIVE CONTROLS ON POTENTIALLY ADVERSE ACTIVITIES.

THEREFORE MUST ANALYSE : Physical factors and their effects on ecosystem Biota Interactions between them

ECOSYSTEM PRINCIPLES ( IN ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT)

1.ECOSYSTEM INTEGRITY: No one part of an ecosystem operates independently of any other. 2.LINKAGE: Water provides the essential linkage of land and sea elements of the coastal ecosystem.3.INFLOW: The nature volume, pattern and seasonal rate of fresh water inflow

provides for optimum ecosystem function.4.ENERGY: The flow and amount of available energy governs life processes within the coastal ecosystem5.STRORAGE: A high capability for energy storage provides for optimum ecosystem function.6.BASIN CIRCULATION: The natural pattern of water circulation within basins provides for optimum ecosystem function7.NITROGEN: Productivity in coastal waters is normally governed by the amount of available nitrogen.8.LIGHT: The natural light regime provides for optimum ecosystem function.9.SALINITY: The natural salinity regime provides for optimum ecosystem function.

1. Ecosystem Integrity: Each coastal ecosystem must be managed with respect to the relatedness of its parts and the unity of its whole.2. Drainage: A fundamental goal of shoreland management is to retain the system of land drainage as near to the natural pattern as possible.3. Drainageway buffers: The need to provide vegetative buffer along drainageways increases with the degree of development.4. Wetlands and tidelands: The need to preserve wetlands and vegetated tidelands increases with the degree of development.5. Storage: Storage components of ecosystems are of extreme value and should always be fully protected.6. Energy: To maintain an ecosystem at optimum function, it is necessary to protest and optimize the sources and the flows of the energy that power the system.

Based upon this ecological principles the“MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND RULES” are formulated

1. Drainageways: Alteration of any drainageway by realignment, bulkheading, filling, impounding, or any other process that shortcuts the natural rate or pattern of or blocks or impedes its passage is unacceptable.

2. Basin circulation: Any significant change from to natural rate of water flows of a coastal water basin is presumed to be ecologically detrimental and is unacceptable.

3. Nutrient supply: Reduction of the natural supply of nutrients to the coastal ecosystem by alteration of fresh water inflow is unacceptable.

4. Nitrogen: Discharage of nitrogenous compounds into confined coastal waters is presumed to have adverse effects through eutrophication and is unacceptable.

5. Turbidity: Turbidity of higher than natural levels is to be presumed detrimental to the coastal ecosystem and is unacceptable.

6. Temperature: Significant alteration of the natural temperature regime of the coastal ecosystem is presumed to be adverse and is unacceptable.

7. Oxygen: Any significant reduction from the natural concentration of oxygen is presumed to be adverse and is unacceptable.

8. Salinity: Any significant change from the natural salinity regime is presumed ecologically detrimental and is unacceptable.

9. Runoff contamination: Any significant discharge of suspended solids, nutrients, or toxic chemicals is to be presumed adverse and is unacceptable.

PRINSIP-PRINSIP & KONSEP EKOLOGI DALAMPENGURUSAN ZON PANTAI:

SunlightPhotosynthesis

WAVE & TIDES

Plankton

Ground H20

WIND

Grass Bed

Estuary

F.W. Stream

EKOLOGI– SCIENCE OF INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FAUNA/FLORA AND ENVIRONMENT (diagram – interrelation)

GOVERNING ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE The carrying capability of a coastal water basin is controlled by all factors that influence the function of the ecosystem of which the basin is part.

QUALITIES OF AN ECOSYSTEM: features; processes; modulators and characteristics:

Features: Grass bed, mangrovesProcesses: Energy flow, nutrient cycles

Forcing function: Sun provide energy – basis of all food chain and life.

Waves / Tides – flushing; energy for recirculation of nutrients etc. Modulators: Variable factors that limit carrying capacity

on short term basis ( temp; D.O, toxic chemicals etc.)

Characteristics: Qualities that give each coastal basin its distinctiveness (Species mix; Visual appearance; general water condition etc.)

VITAL TO UNDERSTAND AND IDENTIFY ALL THE ABOVE CONCEPTS IN AN ECOSYSTEM.

ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS IN COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT.

THERE ARE SOME ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS THAT IS RELATED TO THE MANAGEMENT OF COASTAL ZONE. THEY PROVIDE A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING HOW ORGANISMS SURVIVE AND INTERACT WITH THE FORCES AND CONDITIONS OF THEIR ENVIRONMENT.

1. Carrying capability:- Limit to the amount of life that can be supported by a specified habitat. Always used as a potential. In ecological sense, C.C. – constraints imposed on the biota by existing environmental limits e.g. availability of food, space, temperature, sunlight, salinity, etc. Conflict of C.C. definition between Environmental planners and Town/Sociological planners:

2. Productivity :- capacity of an ecosystem to produce basic plant materials. Amount of energy converted from light, basic nutrients and CO2 to plant tissues within a unit area during a unti time. Estuaries 20x > Deep sea 3. Energy and Food :- The immediate energy needs of coastal ecosystem are met in two ways: (SEE TRANSPARENCY SYSTEM FOODWEB) A. Internal supplies that are recycled within system

- Internal Food web. / Energy cycle to nutrients B. External Driving Force - Tide - Ocean Currents - River inflow - Sunlight - Basic Inorganic Nutrients (MINERALS)

Already discussed :-“ Governing Principle :- Flow & Amount of available energy controls life processes and limits the carrying capacity of the coastal ecosystem”

4. Storage:- Capability of a system to store energy supplies in one or more of its component. These units all gather and store a supply of energy which is a reserve against shortages. These unit will be mobilized to replenish nutrients and food to the system during periods of shortage. e.g. – Marsh Grass – Organic sediment on the Bottom – Phytoplankton in a bay ( act as nutrient storage; stabilizes the system; buffer against irregular heavy stresses or seasonal shortage periods. – Organic sediment on the Bottom – Mangrove swamps – Sand dunes (non-biological function) “Ecologic Principle :- A high capability for energy storage provides for optimum ecosystem function”

5. Ecotone :- Transition area or border area between different ecological communities e.g. between mudflat to mangrove and mangrove to forest. (Diagram)

ECOTONE

Sea/ River/ Estuary

Mangroves

• Combines characteristics of two communities it separates and has an unusually high abundance and diversity of life.

• Uniquely beneficial function to the ecosystem. 6. Succession : Sequence of sps. replacement in a particular

area. - Used to describe the changes in biota that take place in

time-either via extended time because of long term changes in conditions or those that occur rapidly in environmental or those that occur rapidly to an area that has been disturbed by some short term event.

- Of concern to us are changes that occur due to man’s interference.

e.g. Filling of mangroves Dunes becoming bare due to wave action.How succession

restabilize the beach. Sand – sparse grass - closed grass canopy - shrub savanna - closed

shrub canopy - forest.

7. Diversity: Variety of species present in an ecosystem. It is generally assumed that high diversity of species lead to a better ecosystem balance and provides greater resiliency to catastrophic events such as disease.

- Low diversity indicates stressed system or one that has been degraded e.g. by pollution.

e.g.: desert vs. Forest.

Mangrove/Corals vs. Open ocean

Desert

Forest

Mangroves

Coral

Open Ocean

Vs. Vs.

1. Water circulation: is the result of a combined influences: F/W inflow, oceanic forces (Coriolis effect), wind tidal action

Circulation: Transports nutrients Propels planktons Distributes larvae’s Flushes animal and plant wastes Cleanses system from Pollution Controls salinity Shifts sediments; mixes water etc. “ Ecologic Principle:- Patterns of circulation within water basins govern

the C.C. of coastal ecosystems” Ocean : govern by gyres : Near shore currents etc.

2. Chemical constituents : Chemistry of coastal waters is complex because of the number of elements and compounds present and the multitude of ways in which they are involved with the biochemical processes of the diverse biota. Man’s action: Add nutrients, salts and other trace metals and toxic materials. Two of concern are: Trace metal and Nutrients. Nutrients: Added naturally, keeps system going normally. - Vital to the whole life chain (diagram nutrient cycle) - Free nutrients relatively scarce in water due to rapidly taken up. - Major nutrients taken up by plants- NO3 and PO4 ( with contents of N in plants > P) - In coastal water the amount of available Nitrate is generally believed to be the nutrient factor that controls the abundance of plants. “ Ecological Principle :- The primary productivity and C.C. of coastal waters are normally limited by the amount of available Nitrogen” Inorganic trace elements of importance are Fe, Mn, Mo, Co & Zn.

3. Salinity : Fluctuates throughout the coastal ecosystem with the amount of dilution by precipitation and by land drainage or river inflow.

- There is a gradient in salt content that starts with a value of about 35 ppt. Offshore drops to 30 ppt. In near shore waters and in the seaward end of estuaries and then falls to less than 0.5 ppt. at some distance up the tributary rivers. (DIAGRAM) Stratification also occur with heavier saline water at the bottom and fresh less saline water on top. Most flora and fauna already in harmony with the existent salinity regime and stratification.

“ Ecological Principle :- Natural salinity patterns usually maximize

the C.C. of coastal ecosystem”

4. Dissolved gases in the water: Most importance : CO2 & O2 for animal life and photosynthesis by plant cell.

For optimum ecosystem function and maximum C.C.

recommended ≥ 6 ppm O2 but not less than 4 ppm.

“ Ecological Principle :- Ample supplies of dissolved oxygen are required for efficient ecosystem function and maximum carrying capacity. ”

5. Temperature : influence the occurrence of sps and mix within the communities.

- Spatial composition of sps

vary with temperature- Vertical composition of

water vary temp. & light & D.O. e.g.: kenyir lake

Diagram:-

Stratification

Productivity Zone

75% Desert No Light

Temperature affect spawning cycle, metabolic rate and activity etc.

Biota adapted to existing long term patterns of seasonal temperature in such a complex manner that any significant change must be presumed detrimental in the absence of contrary evidence.

“ Ecological Principle :- The naturally balanced temperature regime provides for optimum ecosystem function.”

6. Light: Basic energy provider for any life on earth. In water light attenuation with depth and turbidity of water becomes the limiting factor for carrying capacity of any water bodies. (refer diagram on lakes vertical stratification and diagram on light vs. prodn).

“ Ecological Principle :- Enhancement of light penetration increases ecosystem productivity and C.C.”

Turbidity also play important role as protector of small larvae’s in estuarine water.

PENGURUSAN ZON PANTAI

(SKL 3207 )

Bahan-bahan bacaan harian seperti akhbar-akhbar dan yang berkala seperti majalah, memberi gambaran terkini tentang sesuatu isu - pada suatu masa, tidak kira samada berita itu betul atau salah, faktanya mengelirukan ataupun tidak. Pokoknya, ia merupakan bahan berita terkini yang didedahkan kepada umum. Oleh itu, anda sebagai seorang bakal intelek dan pemimpin negara, anda dikehendaki :

1. Membaca sebanyak mungkin akhbar dan majalah untuk mendapatkan berita-berita terkini mengenai pesisir pantai dan alam sekitar yang berkaitan dengan CZM.

2. Buat keratan ataupun salinan keratan berita-berita tersebut dan kumpulkan dari awal hingga akhir semester.

3. Buat pembahagian keratan-keratan tersebut mengikut kumpulan tajuk yang berbeza (anda bebas memikirkan tajuk yang sesuai).

4. Bukukan keratan-keratan tersebut sebagai satu fail atau buku skrap dengan cermat, bersih dan berimaginasi.

5. Untuk rujukan kemudian hari – keratan skrap yang dikumpul mestilah ditulis di atasnya perkara-perkara berikut:

a. Sumber b. Tarikh

6. Dari tajuk-tajuk yang telah anda buat untuk pembahagian keratan di atas, pilih satu

tajuk dan buat satu esei (7 – 9 mukasurat) mengenainya, dan bukukan sekali dengan buku skrap/fail anda.

Berkenaan dengan esei tersebut, apa yang diperlukan ialah pendapat, komen, ulasan dan perasaan anda mengenainya – e.g. adakah langkah-langkah yang dibuat oleh kerajaan sesuai, bertepatan dengan citarasa masyarakat-budaya, implikasi terhadap sekitaran ekonomi, sosial, sekitaran dsb.

GUNAKAN minda, pengetahuan dan asas pembelajaran anda untuk membuat satu ulasan esei yang bernas dan baik. (Untuk contoh, lihat – editorial-editorial akhbar harian).

Tarikh pengumpulan skrap : Sekarang hingga 3 minggu sebelum peperiksaan. Markah bergantung kepada : Jumlah keratan; imaginasi – pem. Topik, ESEI, kebersihan dan keunikan. ** p/s : Pembentangan dalam kelas oleh setiap individu /kumpulan mengenai satu isu. Termasuk :- 1). Isu, masalah 2). Cadangan

1. Peredaran air

Dipengaruhi angin, pasang-surut, F.W input.Kawal pergerakan dan taburan plankton, rega, shellfish dll.Alir keluar najis organisma, tumbuhan dan bahan pencemaran.Pengaruhi pergerakan enapan.Percampuran airDikawal oleh faktor fizikal.

2. Chemical constituents - (Nutrient & Trace element)

Asal dari hujan, laut dan sungaiNutrient adalah bahan makanan (phosphate and nitrate).Trace element – Fe, Mg, Molybdenum, Cobalt, Zinc, Sulfate, Calcium, Pottasium, Vitamin.

3. Salinity

Kandungan garam – cadmiun chloride.Dikawal oleh hujan dan F.W. input.Menyebabkan peredaran airOrganisma mempunyai tahap salinity berbeza – Jadi ada ‘species

diversity’.Tahap salinity yang natural akan meninggikan lagi CC.

4. Gases

O2 dan CO2 paling mustahak. i. Organisma - persenyawaan ii. Tumbuhan – fotosintesis

Kehidupan perlu nilai O2 yang cukup.Federal guideline – 4 hingga 6 ppm O2.

BALANCE

5. Suhu Kawal penghijrahan, pembiakan, pemakanan, pergerakan dan

metabolisma.Pertukaran suhu akan mengakibatkan kadar kematian yang tinggi.

6. Sinaran

Perlu untuk tumbesaran tumbuhan.Kawal perlakuan organisma.Pemangsa / predator memerlukan cahaya untuk melihat mangsanya.Sebaliknya organisma kecil memerlukan air keruh untuk berlindung.

7. a). Isipadu air tawar

Kawal saliniti.Sumber nutrient dari darat.Sumber bahan organan.Kawal proses fotosintesis dan persenyawaan.Pengaruhi saiz ‘watershed’, cerun, jenis tanah dan ‘evaporation’.

b ). Kadar kemasukan F.W.Kawal produktiviti dan stabiliti.Kadar kemasukan air tawar secara semulajadi adalah yang paling baik

untuk pertumbuhan sesuatu ekosistem – sama dengan point 5.

Nearshore and ocean system• Laut dalam – biological deserted

• Hanya 3 n.m. dari pantai adalah penting

o Kaya dengan nutriento Produktiviti tinggi o Mendapat perhatian lebih kerajaano Upwellingo Nurseries ground.

- Shellfish, fishing bank, coral reef.

• Mikroorganisma tinggi• Rekreasi• Kaya dengan nutrient• Peka kepada perubahan alam sekitar• Produktiviti tinggi, diversity tinggi• Banyak terdapat zooxanthellae untuk makanan batu karang• Kawasan nurseries

Barrier Island and Beach• Dynamic

-Disebabkan oleh ribut, arus dan proses enapan.• Tumbuhan disekitarannya – penahan hakisan.• Melindungi ‘tidal marshes’ dan sistem ‘mangrove’• Mangawal banjir dan membunag bahan toksik dari air.• Habitat• Penting dari segi ekologi

Coral reef

Mangrove• Malaysia : 650,000 ha – Terengganu : 2982 ha.• Boleh tahan air masin

- Anaerobic• Taburan mangrove ditentukan secara:

o Topographical patternso Jenis enapano Hydroperiod (SW/FW)o Tempat / kawasan daya hydraulic rendah

(cth: ombak kurang)

Kegunaannya• Produktiviti tinggi – menyumbang tenaga dan nutrient

• Menyumbangkan ‘detritus’ kepada mearshore envr.• Sumbang organic matter• ‘strom barrier’• land reclamation from sea• kayu api• mariculture and fisheries

Mengapa mangrove dimusnahkan ?

• Silap faham – o kawasan pembawa penyakit

o nilai ekonomi rendah

Mangrove peka kepada• tumpahan minyak

• siltation• oksigen rendah

Prinsip Pengurusan

DUN

a) Plan kegunaan kawasan

i. - Larangan pembinaan di atas pantai dan dun. - maintain beach profile - sand mining dilarang

ii. Setback line (SBL) Cth. : 60 m dibelakang dun. Tujuan : pemulihan pantai

a) Larangan laluan di atas dun

i. – Pembinaan jetty/titian ii. – pathway dsb.

b) Beach breeding area protection

i. – Kenalpasti kawasan ‘breeding’ - penyu dan telurnya

CORAL

Threat i.Collection / koleksi coral & shellii.Coral harvesting for lime and carbide industriesiii.Spear fishingiv.Koleksi aquarium reef fishv.Commercial fishing of reef fishesvi.Bahan letupanvii.Poisonsviii.Domestic sewageix.Red tidesx.Recreational impactxi.Mining

Ringkasan pengurusan

i. Cari alternatif lain untuk bahan lime dan carbide. ii. Control mining and dredging. iii. Larangan penggunaan bahan letupan. iv. Limit an annual harvesting of reef material and fish. v. Avoid intoduction of pollution and excessive nutrient. vi. Control tourism. vii. Elakkan pertukaran saliniti and suhu.

Mangrove (Ringkasan pengurusan)

i. Maintain topography ii. Maintain natural temporal and spatial pattern of surface and groundwater salinity. iii. Maintain natural equilibrium between accretion

and erosion – control activity. iv. Limit annual harvesting v. Contingency plan for oil spill.

Muara

i. Uses - food - navigation - mariculture - recreation - dll ii. Problems - Pollution - FW input - Diversion - dll

Ringkasan pengurusan

1. Threatment plant 2. lokasi kawasan perindustrian mestilah jauh dari muara dan lagun 3. control stormwater – runoff 4. maintain water circulation. · Design proper dock, bridge etc. 5. maintain natural salinity and T.Z.

Sifat dan Kepentingan Muara (Ekologi)

• Terlindung dari ombak, tumbuhan boleh lindung, rega terlekat• Cetek – untuk sinaran• Saliniti berbeza• Peredaran air• Pasang-surut – nutrient• Penyimpan tenaga• Tumbuh-tumbuhannya o Menahan hakisan o Kawalan banjir o Water pirification o Pertukaran bahan organan dan cahaya kepada tenaga simpanan o Detritus – bacteria – organisma o Menahan mineral o Membuangkan bahan toksik o Perangkap proses banjir o Lindungi populasi benthos o Habitat – cth : buaya

Kawasan alam sekitar yang perlu diambil berat

• Study environmental sensitivity.• Kelaskan kepada vital areas, areas of concern …. dsb.• Define / takrifkan kepada Coastal Co

Council, Florida.• Preservation – tiada pembangunan• Conversation – kontrol pembangunan• Development – penggunaan kawasan untuk pembangunan yang extensive.

• Kawasan penting dari segi ekologi – ketahanan kawasan itu kepada perubahan.

• Klasifikasi perairan di kawasan yang berdekatan.

• Kesesuaian tanah.

• Peka kepada banjir / ribut.

• Tempat-tempat bersejarah.

• Sesuatu keadaan alam sekitar yang unik.

Ada enam faktor yang digunakan dalam menentukan kawasan mana yang dipilih untuk ditetapkan di dalam sesuatu kelas

Kawasan Kritikal

• Kawal aktiviti manusia • Cth:

o Coastal wetland

o Marshes

o Beaches

o Dunes

o Estuaries

o Lakes, river

Dun Pasir

• Habitat – ‘urrowing species’

• Geological stability

• Disebabkan oleh angin

• Tumbuhannya penting untuk perangkap pasir

• ‘nesting ground’

LANGKAH – LANGKAH ANALISIS SISTEM 1. Pilih sempadan - Takrifkan sistem - Pilih yang mana dapat kita ukur. 2. Kenalpasti sub-sistem.

3. Kenalpasti hubungkait di antara subsistem.

4. Kenalpasti kegunaan dan penggunaannya.

3 kegunaan sistem :

i. multiple use ii. exclusive use iii. displaceable use 5. Tengok ‘constrains’ sistem.

Contoh : kegunaan air minuman. 6. Fahami proses-proses di dalam sistem

Contoh : diversity, stability, nutrient

7. Pusingan pengurusan (managing cycles) Contoh : mining (carigali) emas, menuai Sumber yang boleh dipulihkan atau tidak.

8. Langkah-langkah pembuangan sisa-sisa.

9. Fahami bagaimana cara aktiviti-aktiviti manusia boleh mempengaruhi sistem, terutamanya peredaran nutrient.

Steady state - Kecekapan tinggi - Tumbesaran perlahan - Diversity tinggi Transistion state (keadaan peralihan) - Persaingan hebat - Tumbesaran tinggi - Kecekapan rendah - Peka kepada perubahan

Kehilangan tenaga

580

5

Sun Plants Geo forces

Power plant

8000 8 4

7992heat sink & loss

4 Electric

Net

Feed back

Net E = Yield – Feed back

in = out Cth :

Sistem yang paling berjaya ialah satu sistem yang paling banyak mendapat tenaga.

Forcing function.Cth: Sumber tenaga matahari, angin, pasang-surut, minyak

Tangki simpanan tenaga.Cth: air, ………….

Energy pathwayPertukaran wang

Kehilangan tenaga ke tanah

Multiplier

Symbol produksi Cth: Fotosintesis

Self-Maintaining(Berdikari) – binatang liar

Konsep, idea, pendapat apa yang orang fikir

Tujuan Sistem Diagram

- Mengatur maklumat supaya mencapai keputusan yang tepat di masa akan datang.

- Memberi peluang dan cara untuk menilai.

- Mengawal apa yang kita telah buat.

- Mengetahui dan memahami bidang-bidang penyelidikan

yang diperlukan.

- Penunjuk samada langkah kita betul atau tidak.

- Untuk meneruskan rancangan seterusnya.

1. Kawasan penting dari segi ekologi – ketahanan kawasan itu

kepada perubahan.2. Klasifikasi perairan di kawasan yang berdekatan.3. Kesesuaian tanah.4. Peka kepada banjir / ribut.5. Tempat-tempat bersejarah.6. Sesuatu keadaan alam sekitar yang unik.

Preservation

Conservation

Development

Enam Ciri Yang Perlu

Kawasan

Kawasan kritikal

• Kawal aktiviti manusia • Cth: o Coastal wetland

o Marsheso Beacheso Duneso Estuarieso Lakes, river

Contoh sistem

GW RW Sed.

FW Evap. SW

Bird

Shellfish

Ekologi

-Kajian hubungan di antara tumbuhan dan organisma dengan alam sekitar.

Contoh

Grass bed

Upland

Muara

Sungai

Wet land

Physical process

Graphic / communication

• Kerja-kerja komunikasi

1. Message 2. Select vehicle 3. Audience • Simbol untuk komunikasi

o Contoh :

o Penyu – Sukan Sea

o Orang Utan – Tahun Melawat Malaysia

• Jangan pilih simbol yang tidak difahami oleh audience.

• Ambilkira umur, ethnic group – cth. Orang kaya, Miskin, Pelajaran dsb.

• Oleh itu audience adalah paling penting dalam komunikasi.

• Tentukan penerimaan message kepada audience.

• Message – perkara kedua mustahak.

• Vehicle – yang ketiga

o Pilih vehicle baik-baiko Jenis-jenis: speaker, video, filem, computer images.

• Everything you do must be – cost effective.

• Now we have message and audience, but how to combine both of them?

• Tentukan standard untuk kita. Jadi semua kena pilih dengan baik. Contohnya :

oColour (attracts attention, produce kesan psikologi, develop association, mengelokkan keadaan).o Inko rekabentuk dsb.

Example

Langkah

• Design – mencari plan for action

• Layout – tool and technique

• Format – mengikut plan asal

• Legible – understand the symbol

• Credibility – boleh faham dan dibaca

• Syntax – grammar kena betul

• Melibatkan orang awam dan agensi kerajaan. Dewasa ini agensi

kerajaan yang memikul tanggungjawab untuk melaksanakan program dan pengurusan pantai.• Malaysia meniru cara pengurusan dari USA dan Britain.• Agensi yang terlibat di Malaysia:- Jabatan Laut - Jabatan

Pelancongan- Jabatan Alam Sekitar - Jabatan Perhutanan - Jabatan Daerah - UPEN- Jabatan Perikanan - JPT- Jabatan Pertanian - JKR - Navy

Rangkakerja Pengurusan Pantai

• Di peringkat negeri, contohnya hakisan pantai, KSU negeri yang biasanya mempengerusikan mesyuarat berkenaan dengan pantai.

• Di US – US Army corp. Of Engineers• Lebih 12 batu nautika – Navy• Kurang 12 bn - ………….• Tetapi di Malaysia kebanyakannya SULIT• Kita juga ada NEPA (National Environment Policy Act) di bawah Jabatan Alam Sekitar – mengawal, policy dan undang-undang.• Di Malaysia, jarang orang awam yang membuat keputusan dan policy tapi di US orang awam boleh.

•Program-program perlu diadakan untuk menjaga/memelihara fisheries, wetland and shoreland. • Di US, program sebegini di bawah OCZM di arah oleh Kementerian Perdagangan. Tapi di Malaysia di bawah

Jabatan Alam Sekitar. • Tujuannya: Menjadi pemangkin di dalam perancangan dan pengurusan pantai dan pelaksanaan mestilah berada

dalam keadaan harmoni samada dari segi sosial, ekonomi dan aspek ekologikal.

• Di peringkat negeri faktor-faktor yang perlu diambil kira dalam rangka kerja ini ialah:

o Mengenalpasti kawasan-kawasan sempadan pantai.

o Memilih kawasan yang perlu di ambil berat.

o memberi garis panduan kepada kegunaan sesuatu kawasan di pantai mengikut keutamaannya.

o Menentukan kegunaan air dan tanah yang ada secara langsung impak ke atas pantai.

o Cara-cara bagi mengawal kegunaan kawasan pantai.

o Mengadakan organisasi yang boleh melaksanakan program-program pengurusan.

• Peringkat negeri juga perlu perunding

dengan pihak persekutuan dan lain-lain badan swasta yang mempunyai minat yang sama.

Element program-program pembangunan pantai adalah dikelaskan kepada berikut.

1. Permissible Uses (yang boleh digunakan)• Menentukan kegunaan kawasan tanah dan

perairan yang ada direct dan kesan significant ke atas pantai.• Mesti mengenalpasti kegunaannya. Contohnya : - seperti dredging, dan sbg. Jika kebenaran tidak diberi, mestilah diberitahu sebab-sebabnya dengan jelas.

2. Kawasan yang perlu di ambil berat. Cth: - Littoral, habitat, recreational value / flood, erosion etc. ini perlukan kepada penyelidikan. 3. Kawasan yang dipreserve – Memilih kawasan yang

perlu dipreserve dan memberi memberi garis panduan dan cara-cara untuk preserve dan sebabnya supaya orang ramai tahu.

4. Kegunaan mengikut keutamaan – Memberi garis panduan dan menentukan kegunaan yang diperlukan oleh sesuatu negeri. ini memerlukan analisis dari segi keperluan dan keupayaan serta kesesuaian kewasan pantai berkenaan sesuatu kegunaan.

Lain-lain program• Penjagaan/pemuliharaan spesis2 yang endangered yang berkurangan. Contohnya Penyu, Manatee, Sea cucumber … atau juga threatened spesis.• Buat program dan undang-undang untuk melindungi binatang tersebut.• Study – flora-fauna, spesis bernilai untuk historical, recreational, scientific value dan pembelajaraan.

Perancangan & Undang-undang

• Program Master Plan• Not perancangan pantai• Undang-undang perlu diadakan untuk pencemaran air – di sini Jabatan Alam Sekitar – jaga mutu air.• Undang-undang tanah/kegunaannya dan pemuliharaan air.

Water Resources Development Act Clean Air Act Shoreland Management

Program-program Shoreland Management

Ini termasuklah:• Menentukan kawasan banjir dan kawasan yang terdedah kepada bencana alam.• Melindungi kawasan perairan• Kawalan perubahan kepada pesisiran pantai.• Sumber – perikanan pantai• Kawalan pencemaran – termasuk ocean dredging.• Mengawal ‘pesticide’ racun serangga yang dibawa dari darat.• Menjalankan projek-projek ‘restoration’, pemulihan,

membaikpulih.

Cth :-

o Water basin restorationo Drainage restorationo Vital area restorationo Restoration circulationo Buka channel, korek, galio Dune restorationo Marsh restoration

• Dalam mesyuarat, kadang-kadang ada juga orang akan bertanya mengapa kita mesti buat. Apa jadi kalau kita tidak buat.

Penulisan coastal plan

• Perkara-perkara yang perlu dititikberatkan :

o Basic ekologi pada tempat itu.o Buat system diagram dan hubungkaitkannya.o Sempadan-sempadan yang bagus seperti watershed, shoreline, system perparitan dan water basin. • Tengok input dan outcome dan

hubungannya. • Contoh : Input dalam system itu – sunlight, hujan, O2 dll. • Hubungan dengan suhu system, salinity, water circulation, sub-system – storage.

• How are we going to plan a system?

• Apa dia planning?

o Planning – sesuatu proses penganalisaan system yang mempunyai hubungan yang berturutan, interpretasi data-data bagi menepati sesuatu plan untuk sesuatu tindakan.

o Jadi kita kena faham :- • System itu• Classify sub-system di dalamnya.• Fahami attributes

Perundangan (ordinan)

Kewangan

Kesesuaian

Matlamat + Tujuan

Kajian asas

Penilaian semula matlamat dan

tujuan

Tulis rancangan

Plan i). Matlamat + tujuanii). Kajian asas iii). Alternatifiv). Penilaian alternatifv). Pensyoran untuk planvi). Pelaksanaan

Peringkat Perancangan

Peringkat Pelaksanaan

Tindakbalas Masyarakat

Peringkat Nilaian

Penilaian Projek

No BASIC STUDIES (KAJIAN ASAS) SUMBER

1. Topografi - ketinggian tanah Jab Ukur & Jab. Kajibumi

2. Edaran air (hydrological cycle) JBA & Jab. Kajicuaca

3. Peta penggunaan tanah (land cover/land use)

Majlis Perbandaran, Jab. Pertanian, UPEN

4. Peta jenis tanah (Soil Map) Majlis Perbandaran, Jab. Pertanian, UPEN

5. Peta banjir JPS & JKR

6. Ground water analysis JBA & Geologi

7. Peta ‘ surficial geology’ Geologi

8. Tempat bersejarah / kebudayaan Arkib

9. Biological significant areas Jab. Alam Sekitar, Perikanan & Pertanian

10. Hazard zone Jab. Kajibumi & Kajicuaca

11. Sosio-ekonomi UPEN & Majlis Daerah

12. Cuaca Jab. Kajicuaca

MAKLUMAT YANG PERLU SEMASA MEMBUAT PERANCANGAN

Kajian sektor pesisiran pantai dan luar pantai bagi kajian rancangan struktur daerah manjung dan perak

tengah

1.0 PENGENALAN 2.0 OBJEKTIF 3.0 SKOP KAJIAN 3.1 Gunatanah Pesisiran Pantai 3.1.1 Ciri-ciri Geografi dan Fizikal 3.1.1.1 Rupa bentuk Bumi dan Coral Saliran

FizikalKedalaman airPasang surutAnginPergerakan arusGelombangJenis dasarCiri-ciri pantaiMutu air laut

3.1.2 unatanah Corak gunatanah Kegunaan sediada Perletakan Bangunan dan Pembinaan Lain(Anjakan) 3.1.3 Kesesuaian Pembangunan

3.1.3.1 Pembangunan Bandar Pekan Lumut Pekan Kg. Baharu Pekan Damar Laut Pekan Pangkor Pekan Sg. Pinang Kecil

3.1.3.2 Pembangunan Pelancongan

3.1.3.3 Pembangunan Industri

3.1.3.4 Kesan Pembangunan

3.1.4 Masalah dan Isu 3.1.5 Strategi Pembangunan Gunatanah 3.1.6 Garis panduan

3.1.6.1 Anjakan Bangunan dan Pembinaan 3.1.6.2 Lokasi, Rekabentuk dan Pembinaan Kemudahan 3.1.6.3 Operasi dan Pengurusan Industri Berisiko 3.1.6.4 Keperluan Pembentungan dan Pembuangan Sisa Pepejal 3.1.6.5 Sistem Pembentungan 3.1.6.6 Pembuangan Sisa Pepejal 3.2 Pemantapan Garisan Pantai (Shoreline Stability)

3.2.1 Sejarah Perubahan Garis Pantai 3.2.2 Pemantapan Garis Pantai 3.2.3 Klasifikasi Tahap dan Punca Hakisan 3.2.4 Perletakan Garis Pantai

3.3 Perlombongan Pasir 3.3.1 Intensiti Perusahaan Perlombongan

3.3.2 Potensi dan Masalah Perlombongan

3.3.2.1 Impak Perlombongan Pasir Laut Impak Ekologi Impak Fizikal Impak Sosio-ekonomi 3.3.2.2 Impak Perlombongan Pasir Di Darat dan Sungai 3.3.3 Kawasan Perlombongan Pasir

3.3.4 Garis Panduan Operasi dan Kawalan Perlombongan

3.3.4.1 Isu-isu perundangan dna peraturan Bidang kuasa Kerajaan Persekutuan dan Negeri

Proses-proses Pengizinan Pengenalan Semula EIA

3.3.4.2 Objektif dan Matlamat Cadangan-cadangan Pengurusan

Zon Pengurusan Sumber Pasir Alternatif Garis Panduan Am

3.3.4.3 Cadangan-cadangan aturan menurut undang- undang dan peraturan

Aspek Perundangan Aspek Institusi 3.3.4.4 Cadangan untuk Penyelidikan Lanjutan Menentukan had kedalaman air Impak biological Impak fizikal Impak Perlombongan Pasir

3.4 Hutan Bakau

3.4.1 Identifikasi Hutan Bakau 3.4.2 Fungsi Hasil Hutan Paya Bakau Kawasan pengasuhan dan Pembiakan

Pengawalan Hakisan Pantai Pengawalan Kualiti Air Habitat Hidupan Liar Sumber Rekreasi dan Saintifik

Bahan Kajian Saintifik dan Pendidikan Pemecah Angin 3.4.3 Pemusnahan Kawasan Hutan Bakau dan Impaknya 3.4.4 Anjakan Pembinaan Hutan Bakau 3.4.5 Hutan Bakau dan Ekotourism 3.4.6 Dasar dan Strategi Pemuliharaan Hutan Bakau

Strategi Pemeliharaan Paya Bakau

3.5 Hutan Pantai Cadangan penggubalan undang-undang dan peraturan 3.5.1 Identifikasi Hutan Pantai 3.5.2 Karakter dan Kepentingan Hutan Pantai Karakter Hutan Pantai Hutan Semak Hutan Bukit Pesisir Pantai Hutan Paya Bakau Kepentingan Hutan Pantai Perlindungan Pesisiran Pantai dan mengurangkan Kesan Hakisan Pantai Sumber Tumbuhan dan Habitat untuk Haiwan Liar Pengekalan Kesuburan Tanah

3.5.3 Keluasan Hutan Pantai 3.5.4 Zon Penampan Hutan Pantai 3.5.5 Dasar dan Strategi Pemuliharaan Kawasan

3.6 Kepulauan Luar Pantai dan Persekitaran Laut Samudera

3.6.1 Potensi Kepulauan

3.6.2 Kualiti Persekitaran Marin Mutu Air Laut

3.6.3 Potensi Pembangunan Yang Optima Kawasan Pulau

3.6.4 Strategi Pembangunan kawasan kepulauan Pelancongan Penggunaan Tanah Pelupusan Sisa/Sampah Sarap Kemudahan Dan Sumber-Sumber Estetik

Sumber-Sumber Kebudayaan/Sejarah

3.7 Perkhidmatan

3.7.1 Lokasi dan Kesesuaian Kemudahan Pesisiran Pantai 3.7.2 Kepentingan dan Kesesuaian Pelabuhan 3.7.3 Operasi dan Pengurusan Pelabuhan dan Perkapalan. 3.7.3.1 Operasi dan Pengurusan Perkapalan

Ordinan Perkapalan Saudagar 1952Pendaftaran Kapal di Malaysia

Persyaratan dan Kelayakan

Penahanan dan Cagaran Kapal

3.7.3.2 Operasi dan Pengurusan Perkapalan.

3.7.4 Keperluan Kemudahan Pengangkutan Laut

3.7.5 Isu dan Cadangan

3.8 Rangkakerja Perundangan dan Institusi

3.8.1 Agensi dan Badan Perancangan, Pengawalan dan Pengurusan Pesisiran Pantai Struktur Institusi Perundangan

3.8.2 Akta, Perundangan dan Dasar Perancangan dan

Kawalan Pesisiran Pantai.

3.8.3 Masalah dan Isu Mengenai Perancanganm dan Pengurusan Pesisiran Pantai

4.0 Rujukan

Perubahan bentuk pantai disebabkan oleh aktiviti manusia – shoreline

modification - Seboleh-bolehnya jangan modify shoreline.

- Maintain wetland, coastal. Zone. Cth: Dune

- Wetland : - Natural protection againts erosion - Buffer area

- Nutrient - Sediment trap - Protect from flooding, improve water quality. - Di pantai – kawasan salt marsh

- Di Dutch/Belanda – kunci kejayaan – mengurus dune .

Walaupun terdapat pusat-pusat rekreasi, tetapi tiada bangunan dibenarkan di atas dune.

- Bagaimana kita nak uruskan shoreline?

- Kita tahu pantai – kawasan yang tidak stabil – kena seimbangkan kuasa ombak, ribut, proses pasang-surut dan current.

- Cth: Muara Sebastian di Floida – bergerak 400 ft. dalam masa

200 tahun. - Masalah-masalah dengan pantai – ada dua:

- Natural

- Man-made

Sebab-Sebab Semulajadi

1. Short-term (jangka pendek) - Dapat diukur dalam jam atau hari.

Cth: Ribut Tsunami (Seismic wave) 2. Intermediate-term (jangka sederhana) - Jangkamasa bulan Cth: Perubahan tenaga ombak mengikut musim yang mengakibatkan perubahan profil pantai. 3. Long-term (jangka panjang) - Jangkamasa tahun

Cth: Sea level rise - Sekarang 1m/tahun, akan datang (2090)- 1.5 m setahun - Ini menyebabkan perubahan besar kepada pantai

Aktiviti Manusia

1. Heavy use of recreation (Cth: rekreasi atas pantai – boleh memusnahkan dune).

2. Aktiviti pembangunan. Cth:-

Dredging dan pembuangan bahan-bahan sisa.Membuat terusan (canal) untuk pelayaran.

Offshore structure, either bottom fixed or floating.

Cth: dock, towers, oil rigs dan breakwater.Infrasturktur pantai seperti jeti, walkways, groin dsbnya. Di US, beach hingga ke MHW adalah kepunyaan public/rakyat. Pihak pemaju sepatutnya memberitahu kepada public terutamanya projek-projek yang akan dijalankan.

Dari segi ekologi, pantai mustahak walaupun tempat yang sukar untuk kehidupan, tetapi ada spesis yang berjaya hidup di situ. Cth: - Burrowers dan ada yang temporary resident (Sea turtles, birds).

Pioneer plant, stabilize dune, build up beach as ( trap sediment.)Dune – tempat simpanan pasir dan kestabilan pantai bergantug kepada pasir simpanan ini.

Kalau kerajaan tidak ambil tindakan, rakyat akan bising, jadi mestilah diuruskan dengan baik di peringkat daerah hinggan ke mukim.

Land use control

• Di US, Army C. of Engineers – project of erosion controls. 50% grant %, 50% local.

• Di sini, projek kecil – kerajaan Negeri, projek besar- kerajaan Persekutuan.

Cara-Cara Management

Biarkan natural protection to continue.

Rancangkan pembangunan yang permanent behind natural shoreline so as not to be threatened. Paling kurang 30 tahun erosion/shoreline.

Behind 30 yrs.

SBL

Elakkan dari removal/pembuangan pasir dari storage area or disrupt free movement of sand.

Seboleh-bolehnya gunakan non-structural approach supaya slope, dune, bar dapat dijaga.

Pelaksanaan

Structural solution hanya digunakan untuk support natural protection.

Cth: Stability inlet, protect private property.Cth: Seawall – to protect flooding.

Proposal

1. High, medium or low erosion area

2. Land use

3. Beach stuctures – suitables for the areaCth: Inlet – kadang-kadang perlu digali.

- Perlu ada undang-undang untuk perlindungan/ kegunaan tanah - Perlu safety buffer and natural vegetation.

4. ENVIRONMENTAL SENSITIVITY INDEXING OF THE SHORELINES VULNERABLE TO OIL IMPACTS

The present investigation enables the identification of the following shoreline types along the Chukai-Dungun coastline as well as their ranking relative to oil sensitivity by modifying the Environ- mental Sensitivity Indexing method as used by Getter et al. (1981).

4.1. Exposed, Rocky Headlands, Wave-cut Platforms and Seawalls (ESI = 1)

Physical Description

Exposed granite or quartzite bedrock - located at headlands as steep walls, platforms or boulders

- exposed to high wave energy - little or no sediment in intertidal zone

Man-made concrete or tightly cemented seawalls - located on shorelines facing open ocean or open fetch areas –

exposed to high wave activity and/or strong currents - subtidal sediments, natural sand or sand to boulder-sized fill Plants

Attached vegetation - composed of algae

Animals

Moderate epifaunal density with high species diversity - common species observed: Metagrapsid crabs,

barnacles, littorinid and and neritid snails, and rock oysters

Infaunal and under-rock fauna absent due "to lack of available sediments and unconsolidated sediments.

Behaviour of Oil

Heavy and weathered oil would adhere to rough surfaces, enter crevices, and get in-between unconsolidated rocky surfaces.

4.2. Exposed Fine-Grained Sand Beaches and Sandy Shoals (ESI = 2)


* Fine-grained sand beaches - gently sloping (less than 10°) beach faces - compacted sediment - moderate to high wave energy

* Sandy Shoals - located near the river mouths; result in shallow openings - composed of moderately sorted coarse-grained sand sediment - moderate to high wave energy

Plants Fine-grained sand beaches

Rooted sand beach type vegetationShoals

- algae arid shoal grasses

Animals Fine-grained sand beaches

- low density and diversity of epi - and infaunal organisms - hennit crabs, ghost crabs, mole crabs, and nereid polychaetes

Sandy Shoals - very low density and diveristy of epi - and infaunal organisms- polychaete worms and bivalve molluscs

Behaviour of Oil Oil would pass over or be removed quickly from low-lying

shoals.Large accumulations would cover entire beach face and

upper intertidal shoals.Small accumulations would be deposited primarily along

high-tide swash lines.

4.3. Exposed, Medium to Coarse-grained Sand Beaches (ESI = 3) Physical Description

Beaches north of Tg. Gemok

composed of moderately sorted coarse-grained to very coarse- grained quartz sand with few shell fragments beach faces slope steeply (18°)exposed to high wave activity very often have narrow back beaches or extend to beach

ridgesmost common beach type in which turtles nest

Beaches south of Tg. Gemok

composed of moderately well sorted medium-grained quartz sand

generally gently sloping (10°) with wide back beachesmoderate to high wave activity

Plants composed of attached sand-beach type vegetation

Animals low density and diversity of epi-and infaunal organisms dominant species: hermit crabs, ghost crabs and polychaete

worms edible clams (Donax sp.) common during November to

January

Behaviour of Oil

Large accumulations would cover entire beach face. Small accumulations would be deposited primarily along

high-tide swash lines and in wrack deposits. Oil penetration would be moderate, light oils penetrating

deeper than heavy oils.Oil may b~ buried up to 50 - 100 cm deep within a few days

- Water-soluble fractions may contaminate interstitial water in beach face.

Chronic tar balls are presently a problem on these beaches.

4.4. Exposed, Mixed Sand and Gravel Beaches and Sand Gravel Fills (ESI = 4)


Exposed, mixed sand and gravel beaches - coarse material composed of shell and coral fragments- moderate to high wave activity

Sand and gravel fill

- composed of poorly-sorted mixture of mud to cobble sediments - can be very hard packed with mobile surface sediment

- toe of beach generally composed of coarser, better

sorted sediment

Plants

Dominant species: mangroves and algae

Animals

low epi - and infaunal density and diversity

dominant species: nerite snails and polychaete worms

Behaviour of Oil

Oil penetration on natural beaches may be high with greatest penetration in coarser, well-sorted sediments.

Little to no penetration in fills due to poor sorting compactness

No burial of oil expected in fills

Potential Biological Damages

Persistence of impacted oil would be somewhat higher at natural sand and gravel beaches due to high degree of oil penetration.

Sensitivity of epifauna to toxic oil fractions would be low since many observed species are tolerant to acute oil exposure:

•however, some toxicity in attached sedentary epifauna may result from mechanical smothering if large quantities of oil are washed ashore. •chronic, sub-lethal effects in oysters and mussels may occur due to their known abilities to bio-concentrate aromatic toxic oil fractions within soft body tissues.

Sensitivity of infauna to toxic oil fractions would be low as most species of polychaetes

4.5. Exposed, Gravel Beaches and Rip-raps (ESI = 5)

Physical Description Exposed gravel beaches

Rips-raps

generally composed of granite boulders 01 irregular shapes and sizesmoderate to high wave activit little or no beach at low tide designed for shoreline protection or as breakwaters

Plants Attached vegetation

- dominant species:- algae

Animals

Dominant species:-

metagrapsid crabs, littorinid and neritid snails

Behaviour of Oil

On gravel beaches, oil would coat individual pieces and penetrate to several tens of centimeters.

Cavities in rip-rap structures may be completely filled

Penetration would be greatest in areas of largest grain site and least sorting.

Heavy and weathered oils would adhere to irregular surfaces on rip-raps.

Potential Biological Damage

Probability of oiling would be greatest in areas facing tanker routes.

Persistence of impacted oil would be moderate to high due to high degree of oil penetration into coarse sediments; deep burial of oil may occur, thus increasing persistence of oil in these areas.

Sensitivity of epifauna to light aromatic (more toxic) oil fractions would be low since some of the observed species (littorinid and neritid snails) are tolerant to acute oil exposure:-

•majority of epifauna present would be somewhat more tolerant of acute exposure to aromatic oil fractions

4.6. Exposed Tidal Flats (ESI = 6)


Vary in width. Sediment composition dominated by sand with minor

amounts of mud and decomposing litter. Low to moderate wave activity and tidal currents. Located in open bays, or near tidal inlets.Generally fringed by mangrove forests. Can be sparsely to moderately vegetated by sea grasses.

Plants

Rooted vegetation - dominated by mangroves along the fringe

Animals Epifauna

•high density but generally low in species diversity •dominant species: fiddler crabs, batillaria snails, cerithid snails.

Infauna •high density and with moderate species diversity – dominant species: polychaetes •several commercial species of bivalves and snails may occur

Behaviour of Oil Most oil would be transported across tidal flat surfaces by

waves and tidal currents.Oil would be deposited primarily along high tide lines.

Potential Biological Damages Persistence of oil impact would be low due to minor degree of

oil penetration into fine-grained sediments. Sensitivity of epifauna to light aromatic oil fractions would be

low to moderate since only a few species present are unable to tolerate acute oil exposure .

4.7. Sheltered Rocky Shores, Seawalls, Sand Beaches (Including Pocket Beaches) and Raised River Banks (ESI = 7)

Physical Description Sheltered rocky shores

- outcrops of exposed rocks along Sg. Kemaman, Sg. Paka and Sg. Dungun

- associated with pocket sand beaches - exposed to low wave energy and tidal currents

Man-made seawalls are of two types:-

(1) Concrete cement walls built along river banks to protect the shoreline, especially near

populated towns of Chukai, Kemaman, Paka and Dungun.

vertical walls with smooth regular surfaces

(2) Granite boulders cemented together to form wallsRaised river banks

•found along the rivers •with or without vegetation •with or without evidence of habitation and agricultural activity

Plants Rooted vegetation

high diversity almost 30 species observed fringing sheltered rocky shores, sand beaches (including pocket beaches) and river banks see Appendix for a complete list

Attached vegetation •algae in the lower intertidal zone

Animals Epifauna

- moderate density and diversity

4.8. Sheltered Tidal Flats and Coral Flats (ESI = 8) Physical Description

* Sheltered tidal flats

- composed of moderately well sorted fine to medium-grained sand

- occur mainly along river banks and near river mouths - sheltered from wave and/or strong tidal currents

- very shallow even at high tide

* Coral flats

- substrate may include sand, shells, coral rubble and dead coral skeletons

- limestone skeleton of living corals vary in shape and size

- moderate to high wave activity

Plants * Sheltered tidal flats

- rooted vegetation associated with tidal.flat fringe - dominant species usually mangroves

- attached vegetation common on the surface of tidal flat - dominant species: blue-green algae, shoal grass * Coral flats

- attached algae and sea grass common

Animals Sheltered tidal flats •high density and diversity of epifauna •dominant species: batillaria snails, clams, oysters and hermit and fiddler crabs•high density and diversity of infauna •dominant species: polychaete worms, fiddler crabs •sensitivity of epifauna would be high due to the low tolerance of acute oil exposure exhibited by observed species. Snails would be more tolerant of acute oil exposure; however, chronic sublethal effects may occur.

4.9. Exposed Mangroves (ESI = 9) Physical Description * possibility of exposure to relatively high wave activity and currents * sediment ranges from sandy mud to muddy peat * topographic profile generally flat * accessibility limited by density and width of forest as well as by sediment type.

Plants Rooted vegetation:

•dominant species: Rhizophora (2 sp.), Broguiera sp., Sonneratia sp. and Nipa. •distinct zonation observed with Sonneratia sp., Rhizophora sp., and Avicennia sp., on seaward side while Brugueira and Avicennia occur behind them.

Attached vegetation: Algae, associated with prop-roots

Animals* Epifauna:

- moderate density and diversity - dominant species: neritid, littorinid and

batillaria snails * Infauna:

- moderate density and diversity - dominant species: fiddler crabs and several

species of polychaete worms.

Behaviour of Oil As oil moves into forests, roots and associated epiphytic

communities would be coated with oil. Oil would form pools, especially toward the landward portions

of forests. Under more exposed conditions, the outer forest fringes may

be naturally cleansed, confming impact to inner fringes. Overworked (island) forests with no intertidal substrates are

least sensitive. Presence of a beach berm would limit extent of oil impact to

seaward side of berm, preventing oiling of interior forest.

4.10. Sheltered Mangroves (ESI = 10)

Physical Description •located in bays and along rivers; well-sheltered from waves and strong tidal currents. •sediments composed of thin to thick deposits of mud •very flat topographic profIles Plants •Rooted vegetation

- dominant species: Rhizophora sp., Bruguiera sp., Sonneratia sp., Avicennia sp., Ceriops. and Nipa flu ticans Animals •Epifauna

- high density and diversity - dominant species: Neritid, Cerithid and Uttorinid

snails and hermit crabs. •Infauna

- moderate density and diversity - dominant species: Nereid polychaete worms and

grapsid crabs, mangrove crabs (Scyllo se"ata), a commercially important species

Behaviour of Oil movement of spilled oil in sheltered mangrove forests

controlled mainly by geomorphic features; berms tend to trap oil and promote penetration of oil in front of them.

as oil enters mangrove forests, their roots and associated epiphytic communities would be covered with a band of oil.:

- width of this band of oil depends on size of slick and tidal range.

- epiphytic prop-root algae would act as a natural oil absorbent.

- stilt roots of mangroves would tend to act as baffles, often trapping oil during ebb tides

prolonging natural clean-up. Oiling of sediments would occur if large quantities of oU were

washed ashore.

Potential Biological Damages Persistence of oil would be great due to:

EIA – Prosedur penilaian impak alam sekitar di Malaysia

1. Matlamat dan Objektif : Matlamat : Untuk menilai impak projek (awam dan swasta) secara Keseluruhannya terhadap alam sekitar. Objektif:1.Mengenalpasti langkah-langkah yang perlu diambil untuk mengurangkan impak. Langkah kawalan.2.Jangkaan impak yang tidak dapat diatasi.3.Mengenalpasti ‘coast dan benefit’ projek itu.

2. Senaraikan projek-projek di pantaiMariculturPelabuhanBreakwaterHotel Reclamation dsbKelaskannya

3. Senaraikan apa yang perlu dikaji terutamanya di kaw. pantai dan bincangkan impaknya.

BiologiGeologiCoastal Processes Tumbuhan dsb.

4. Siapa yang akan menjalankan EIA. Beberapa orang - coordinator 5. Guidelines for Preparing Preliminary Detailed Assessment 6. EIA matrix 7. Panel yang check

Guidelines for preparing preliminary assessment reports

Introduction This chapter provides guidelines for preparing Preliminary Assessment Reports. The contents of the Preliminary Assessment Reports and Format are detailed and discussed.

Title of projectThe project title should identify the type of project proposed e.g. multipurpose dams project, and the general location if it is known e.g. Sungai Lebir, Kelantan. The title should indicate too if the project is part of a larger proposal.

3. Project initiatorA clear statement is required as to which public or private organisation has initiated the project. If the Preliminary assessment has not been carried out “in house” then the name of the consulting or other organisation that carried out the Preliminary Assessment should be given. It should also make quite clear the organisation and the individual (the assessor) to whom any enquiries should be directed.

4. Statement of needThe statement of need should outline the background to the project and the reasons for it being proposed. It should establish a social and/or economic need for the project and should conclude with definite statement of aim for the project. 5. Project descriptions

A more detailed description of a selected project option (if the option has been selected during the prefeasibility study) or a detailed description of the project concept (if options have been kept open) should be given here.

As guide, the project description should include: -a) Description of the project with technical data

available.b) Maps and diagrams (photographs might also be

useful to describe some projects).c) A summary of the technical economic and

environmental features essential to the project.

6. Project options

Within the constrains of the aim and broad economic, technical and environmental factors there are a number of available project options in terms of size, technology, layout, raw materials, energy sources or even product. The principle features of each option should be given and the economic, technical and environmental advantages and disadvantages of each discussed and evaluated (Section 1.4.6 and 2.4.6).

Included in the discussion should be the “no project” option. This is an opportunity for the assessor to highlight any social, economic or environmental benefits that may accrue from the project and which would be denied to the community if the project were abandoned.

If more than one location option is available, this too should be discussed and compared. In support of the discussion the matrix used to reach these conclusions should be included (See also Section 1.4.2).

7. Description of the existing environment

The description of the existing environment should identify as appropriate: -

1.The conditions in qualitative and quantitative terms, of the physical, biological and human environment prior to implementation of the project.

2.The spatial boundaries within the environment are considered.

3.Environmentally sensitive areas of special or unique scientific, socio-economic or cultural value. (See Appendix 13).

8. Potential significant impacts

Using the matrix for reference this section should describe how both beneficial and adverse significant impacts are expected to occur. Consideration should be given to possible cumulative, synergistic or antagonistic environmental effects.

The discussion should state:

a.The nature of the effect (e.g. air quality).b.The source of the impact (e.g. oil fired furnace chimney emission).c.The nature of the impact (e.g. human health, visual aesthetics).d.Why the impact is judged to be significant or unknown.e.the case of an impact of unknown significance any courses of action considered to assess the impact.

It must be clearly understood that the environmental matrix is not an environmental impact assessment in itself. It performs three important functions however: i.It assists the projects initiator to compare and select from the real project options available.ii.It provides a checklist for the prediction of environmental impact.iii.It communicates to the reader in graphic from the environmental concerns arising from the project proposal. 9. Mitigation and abatement measures

In this section assessors should discuss all the design measures, which have been adopted into the project plan to reduce or to eliminate significant potential environmental impact (Section 1.4.3).

The discussion should include an economic evaluation (Section 2.4.6) of the design measures adopted and of those considered but rejected.

10. Residual impacts

Potential environmental impacts may remain after mitigating measures have been adopted into a project plan. These are described as residual impacts, which generally required further studies during the detailed assessment stage. Knowledge of these impacts is necessary for the formulation of terms of reference and defining the scope of works for undertaking detailed environmental studies.

Where monitoring and the management of follow-up are necessary, the project initiator should described the monitoring program needed. The criteria for determining this are described in Section 1.4.7.

11.Summary of conclusion

The project initiator should draw appropriate conclusions in each section of this report. It is useful however, to have the conclusions summarised in a series of brief statements referring to relevant sections of the report.

12.Data sources, consultations and public participation

Individuals or agencies consulted for specialist knowledge or information used in the report should be referred to in the text and documented in this section.

Such documentation should include the person’s name and parent organisation, the form of the communication and the date. Field data collection programmes (Section 1.4.4 and 2.4.4) completed by the project initiator or his agent, and the form and extent of public participation (section 1.4.5 and 2.4.5) during Preliminary Assessment should be reported here. Written opinions received from outside specialist should be appended.

13.List of references

Scientific and technical publication used and quoted in the report should be listed.

Detailed Assessment Required?

YESNO

YES

YES

NO

NO

YES

NO

ProjectInitiator

PrescribedActivity?

Preliminary Assessment

Report Review(DOE)

Approving Authority

ProjectApproved?

Detailed *Assessment

Report Review

(Review Panel)

Report Accepted?

More Information Required

Detailed Assessment

ReviewDOCUMENT

Fig 1.1: Outline of Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure in Malaysia* Consultation with doe of terms of reference

Sifat dan Kepentingan Muara (Ekologi)

• Terlindung dari ombak, tumbuhan boleh lindung, rega terlekat• Cetek – untuk sinaran• Saliniti berbeza• Peredaran air• Pasang-surut – nutrient• Penyimpan tenaga• Tumbuh-tumbuhannya : -

o Menahan hakisano Kawalan banjiro Water purificationo Pertukaran bahan organan dan cahaya

kepada tenaga simpanano Detritus – bakteria – organismao Menahan mineralo Membuangkan bahan toksiko Perangkap proses banjiro Lindungi populasi benthoso Habitat – cth : buaya

Dun Pasir

Habitat – ‘urrowing species’

Geological stability

Disebabkan oleh angin

Tumbuhannya penting untuk perangkap pasir

‘nesting ground’

Tasik

Awan hujan

Kejadian awan (condensation

Precipitation

Water pooling

Marsh

Evaporation

Percolation Infiltration

Water table aquifer

SISTEM PENGALIRAN DARAT

Apabila ‘field capacity’ (keupayaan menangkung) ‘water table’ menjadi tepu, air akan mengalir ke sungai.Jika cerun itu landai – kurang hakisan dan air akan diserap balik ke tanah. Dengan itu terdapat ‘nutrient’ dari tanah yang kemudian akan dialirkan ke sungai.Dalam proses pembangunan : -o Akan megakibatkan kehilangan tumbuh-

tumbuhan, jadi hujan akan menyebabkan aliran air lebih laju.o Lebih banyak percolation.o Mutu air menurun.o Bertambah isipadu air yang akan mesuk ke sungaio Menukar salinityo BOD bertambaho DO menuruno Coliform bacteria menuruno Fecal coliform bertambaho Evaporation menurun

Panduan/langkah yang patut diambil

Maintain water volume, rate of flow, water quality. Sebolehnya sama dengan keadaan semulajadi.

Cegah aliran air dari wetland

Regulate the volume of flow on delivery schedule of water to surface water system.

Cegah (avoid) salt-water intrusion iaitu kemasukan air masin samada secara menegak atau mendatar.

5. Gunakan sistem perparitan yang cetek dan luaskan terusan itu. Ini dapat mengurangkan kemasukan air masin dan penyerapan sinar cahaya matahari yang lebih.

6. Restore natural drainage pattern – Marshes

7. Kawal kemasukan air masin. Contoh: dengan pembinaan empangan atau lain-lain ‘salt barrier’ atau silk screen.

8. Skimmers untuk merangkap ‘oil-grease’

9. Tentukan tumbuh-tumbuhan yang ada mencukupi : sebagai buffer (sistem pertahanan) di sepanjang pantai.

10. Maintain water level at one ……… benificial for everyone throughout the year.

Dams and water diversion Dam – untuk simpan dan kawalan isipadu air

Kegunaan dam :

Kawalan banjirSumber airIrrigation – pertanianRekreasiHEPPelayaran Lindungi dari kemasukan air masin

Reservoir – artificial lake & block water flow and made into another place.

Impak ‘diversion’

Menukar kadar kemasukan airMenukar isipadu airMenukar masa, kadar, arah dan mutu air1% kadar (flow) diubah akan mengakibatkan 50% sumber

air tersekat.

Impak Kepada Muara

• Tukar corak peredaan air• Tukar salinity profiles• Kesan ke atas pantai• Tukar kemasukan enapan• Flushing rates.• Commercial fisheries.

Panduan Asas Untuk Pengurusan Aliran Air

1. Paras air di belakang dam hendaklah sekurang-kurangnya 8 kaki semasa musim kemarau.

2. Maintain ‘survival’ organisma.

o Saliniti semulajadio Masa yang tepat untuk melepaskan air.o Jangan biarkan saliniti berubah lebih dari 10%.

3. Fahami ‘hydrology’ cycle sesuatu tempat. 4. Maintain ‘vegetation cover’. 5. Di USA, minimum flow : 15 ft/sec -untuk menahan kemasukan air masin. 6. Jangan bina empangan di tidal region.

Ground Extraction

• Jika kegunaan melampau akan mengakibatkan kemasukan air masin.• 2% kemasukan air masin ke dalam sistem air tawar boleh dikatakan ‘contaminated’. • Jadi kurangkan kegunaannya.

Kegunaannya :

• Irrigation• Water supply• Industry• Air condition

Masalah :

• Salt water intrusion• Land subsidence (sink holes)• Depletion.

Cara membersih pantai jika berlaku pencemaran. Cth. Oil Spill

• Buat sesuatu

• Diam diri (hope for the best)

Oil Pollution

• Floating barriers dan skimmed it. eg. Boom dekat dengan inlet muara.

• Chemical dispersant (toxic)• Pasir untuk tenggelamkan minyak• Pumps• Fame – thrower• Jets of water.• Solid waste, spt. Tayar dan coal ash – buat tukun tiruan.

Panduan piawai untuk bahan toxic.

• Jalankan baseline studies – toxicant level.• Buat monitoring program• Kenalpasti dan kelaskan kawasan yang ada potensi untuk

jadi punca pencemaran• Buat program pendidikan dan incentive untuk industri dan

galakkan kilang-kilang recycle water. Guna bahan-bahan sisa untuk lain-lain kegunaan.

• Kawal pesticide• Kuatkuasa undang-undang• Buat penyelidikan dan cari jalan yang terbaik untuk

pembuangan sisa.

Parameter Unit Limit1. Temperature C 452. pH Value - 5.0 – 9.03. BOD5 at 20C mg/l 4004. COD mg/l 10005. Suspended Solids mg/l 4006. Mercury mg/l 0.17. Cadmium mg/l 1.08. Chromium, Hexavalent mg/l 2.09. Arsenic mg/l 2.0

10. Cyanide mg/l 2.011. Lead mg/l 2.012. Chromium, Trivalent mg/l 1013. Copper mg/l 1014. Manganese mg/l 1015. Nickel mg/l 1016. Tin mg/l 1017. Zinc mg/l 1018. Iron (Fe) mg/l 5019. Phenol mg/l 5.020. Sulphide mg/l 2.021. Oil and Grease mg/l 100

Environmental Quality Act 1974Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents)

Regulations 1978

(Regulation 11 (5) (b) )PARAMETER LIMITS OF EFFLUENT OTHER THAN OF STANDARD a OR b.

Primary

1. Tapis2. Settling (tank)

• Untuk membuang bahan yang pepejal dan patogen

Secondary

• Membuang bahan organik dengan menggunakan microorganisma.

Tertiary

• To further reduce the solid dan pathogen + nitrogen.• To remove toxic

Cara: - electrolysis, dilution

Parameter Inffluent Effluent

Suspended solid 300 mg/l 10 mg/l

pH 6.5 – 8.5 8.5

BOD 300 mg/l 10 mg/l

COD 300 mg/l 10 mg/l

Nitrogen 5 – 35 mg/l 1 mg/l

Phosphorous 5 – 15 mg/l 1 mg/l

Coliform 108 – 109 / 100 ml 1/100 ml

Nilai yang biasa

LC50 - nilai / ukuran tahap pencemar

LD50 – kosentrasi pencemar yang menghasilkan 50 % kadar kematian ke atas organisma yang diuji dalam sesuatu masa yang ditetapkan. Menentukan LC50

• Procedure • Experiment • Exploratory test• Setting up the test• Observing mortality• Report

Definisi

1) Chronic – recurring2) Lethal – mati kerana tindakan secara langsung3) Cumulative – build up overtime4) Delayed5) Long term – chronic6) Short time – right away response7) Acute – shoe up right away.

Source of pollution

• Domestic waste product• Industrial – chemical / thermal• Land runoff• Pertanian• Dredging & filling• Underwater mining• Water craft operation

• Kenalpasti sumber adverse impact, cara untuk maintain quality mutu air. • In this case, Environmental Protection Agency lays out standard piawai. o Pathogen - 200 fecal coliform per 100 mm of water - salinity water o 2000 per mm - non-salinity.

COASTAL WATERS o Oxygen - 0.6 ppm o Temperature - Changes not more than 1.5°F in

summer or more than 40°F during the rest of the year. Biasanya

dekat dengan janakuasa elektrik. o Nutrient - tentulah tiada - algal bloom o Turbidity - no standard but di syorkan kerohan air

kurang dari 1 meter bacaan Secchi disk.

Water circulation - aktiviti jangan ganggu atau tukar geometri/ geomorfologi sesuatu tempat terutamanya kemasukan air tawar.

Saliniti - pertukaran jangan sampai 10%. Seboleh-bolehnya natural salinity

Sedimentation - tiada piawai tapi control erosionProduktiviti - tiada piawaiHabitat - tiada piawai tapi conserveBiota - no shift atau pertukaran komuniti biotikIndicator sp. - penunjuk - mengawal pencemaran air.

Ulva …….Wild celery - keadaan bagusEel grass - keadaan bagus

Impact Assessment

• Jangkaan chance (probability / kemungkinan) berlaku sesuatu kesan buruk daripada pembangunan, projek, kegunaan tanah dan lain-lain.

• Contoh : - 0 Pertukaran dalam flow rate of water. 0 Kehilangan timbunan 0 Discharge of sediment 0 Nutrient 0 Toxic 0 Haba

• Effect are considered adverse if pertukaran populasi biotic, kurang

sihat, kurang selamat, kurang produktiviti, kurang diversity and low renewable resources.

• Impact Assessment - kajian pusingan event, linked in a chain of and effect that proceed from human needs.

• Effect of dredging - tengok macamana ianya boleh bagi kesan, impact kepada rantai atau ubah sesuatu system.

• Dalam sesuatu system, kita kena buat jangkaan : -

Tentukan status projek Tengok perubahan kepada …….. Semasa berjalannya projek itu

• Contoh lain: Jika pembalakan dan penebangan hutan akan mendatangkan kesan kepada pertukaran aliran air/isipadu.

• Di Florida (Rookery Bay) ada 6 kesan : - 0 Pertukaran dalam salinity air. 0 Pertambahan dalam kekeruhan air.

0 Pertambahan dalam jumlah phosphate.

0 Kekurangan D.O.

0 Pertambahan BOD

0 Pertambahan jumlah coliform dan fecal coliform Semakin maju pembangunan sesuatu tempat, semakin perlu

ditanam semula tumbuh-tumbuhan terutamanya dekat dengan sistem perparitan. Ia adalah sebagai 'buffer zone'.

Jika boleh biarlah sistem perparitan adalah sama dengan yang asli.

http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/cuba

4.0 GUIDELINES FOR COASTAL AREA DEVELOPMENT

4.1 Introduction

Many coastal areas are subject to the ever increasing and often conflicting demands of modern living. Nowhere else are so many uses – recreation, fishing, navigation, industrial, commercial and residential development, extraction of mineral resources, water supply and waste disposal – concentrated in such a small and vulnerable space.

At present, planning and development in estuarine and coastal areas is often conducted in an independent, fragmented fashion often at great cost to the natural environment. Rational planning and evaluation is therefore required, through which environmental controls can be formulated and implemented.

Voluntary measures by private developers and individuals, however, could be the most effective means of ensuring that scenic and natural qualities of the coastal area prevail. Thus, this section outlines some of the special factors that developers should consider when dealing with a site on or near the coastline.

If development activities are conducted within the framework of a coastal management scheme (as shown below), communities may derive longer-term-socio-economic benefits from the associated natural resources.

pengurusan zon pantai (skl3207) nota kuliah

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