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Research MethodsPh.D./ M Phil Course Work
August 2012 batch
Research Methods class
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OutlineSession by Session
Discussion Item OneWhat is ResearchDefining Research and Research Process
Discussion Item TwoEthics in ResearchCase Studies and Analysis
Discussion Item FourPresentationsResearch in Our Domains
Discussion Item FiveWhat is a Research DesignFeatures of a Research Design
7 Sept
14
September
5 Oct
21 Sept
28 Sept
Discussion Item ThreeChoosing a Research TopicHow does one select a topic and do Review of Literature
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Broadest senseSEARCH FOR KNOWLEDGE Strategies for undertaking this search
The Importance of Procedure and Processes -Systematic Process
Performing a methodical study in order to
answer (a) specific question/s
Why Research?
What is Research ?
So what?
My Goals/
Objectives /
Orientation
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Gathering of data,
informationand factsfor
the advancement of
knowledge
The focus on interpretation
The researchers
perspective
Can one be objective as a
researcher?
Begin with an Interesting Question
Known to Unknown
ResearchIt is my
research? Why
should anybody
interfere
Objectivity my
foot!!!
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Formulation of theresearch topic
Hypothesis
Defining what onewishes to investigate
Gathering of data
Analysis of data
Interpreting of Data ,Testing and Revising of
hypothesis Conclusions
Steps in the Research ProcessWhere are you now?
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Learning 1
Learning 2
Learning 3
Learnings of Session I
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ETHICS IN RESEARCH
ETHICS OF A RESEARCHER
SESSION II
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Ethics in thecontext of research
usually includes
reference to moralsor the rules or
standards
governing the
conduct of
research
ETHICS IN/OF RESEARCHARE THERE ETHICAL QUESTIONS HERE TOO?
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1947 Nuremberg Code -first modern ethical code
1964 Declaration ofHelsinki - modified severaltimes
1990 WHO InternationalGuidelines on Ethics
1993 WHO InternationalEthical Guidelines forBiomedical ResearchInvolving Human Subjects
ETHICS IN/OF RESEARCHARE THERE ETHICAL QUESTIONS HERE TOO?
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maintain ethical standardsof practice in research
to protect subjectsof research and research workers fromharm or exploitation
to preserve the rights of the subjects,and
to provide reassurance to the publicthatthis is being done
Objectives of an Ethical Code
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Ethical code includes .
Research Methods class
A Researcher /Research must ensure that thedignity, rights, safety and well-being of all actualor potential research participants is protected
Consider the ethical implications of allexperiments, investigations and proceduresinvolving human oranimal subjects
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Ethical code includes .
Research Methods class
The proposed study is scientifically valid andjustifiable Adequate steps have been taken toanticipate and avoid physical orpsychological harm
That confidentiality of all subjects is ensuredand privacy maintained. Consent is truly valid informed)and given without any form ofduress
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Starting Trouble Payal is a Ph.D. student in Management. She has just joined her Ph.D. programme. In the
first term she needs to complete her course work. Soon after she joins she is given amonth to identify her research topic. She delays meeting her Guide as she is caught up in
a lot of work. She soon realizes that the deadline to decide the topic is fast approachingand she has not yet met her Guide. Her Guide has sent her two gentle reminders that themeeting is due. Payal has also been missing her course work classes. Two days before thedeadline she goes to meet her Guide. As luck would have it he is out of station on work.She meets him the next day. The Guide asks her about her area of interest. She seemsvague and unclear. In desperation she asks her Guide to suggest the area and that she is
ready to work in that area. The Guide clearly mentions that the topic selection should bebased on her interest. The Guide gives her some material to read and says that he willseek one week more time for finalizing her topic. Payal is relieved and takes all thematerials. She opens it after a week,. She can make no sense of it. She goes to meet
the Guide and `bluffs` that she has read everything. The Guide isable to make out and firmly tells her that this would not do.
She breaks down and the Guide further adds that this too will not do
What should Payal be doing now?
Should she get a second chance?
What type of commitment does a full time research course involve?
Has the Guide been too lenient with her?
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Conflict of Interests
Research Methods class
Jayant, a Ph.d. student, is participating in a department-wide seminar wherestudents, doctoral researchers, and faculty members discuss work in progress. An
Assistant Professor prefaces her comments by saying that the work she is about
to discuss is sponsored by both a private company and a private advertising firm
for which she consults. In the course of the talk Jayant realizes that he has been
working on a business model that could make a major contribution to the work
being discussed. But his research guide consults for a different, and competing,
marketing firm.
How should Jayant participate in this seminar?
What, if anything, should he say to his guide -and when?
What implications does this case raise for the traditional
openness and sharing of data, materials, and findings that
have characterized modern research?
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Values in Research
Research Methods class
Researchers need to make decisions on
which problems to pursue, interpretation of data,
when to conclude an experiment
These are all questions of judgment
Being sensitive to cultural differences
Duty not to exploit the vulnerable
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FABRICATION OF DATA
Nalini was an M Phil student pursuing her studies inPsychology. She has a brilliant academic record. She also had a
very motivating guide. Her research required her to do asurvey. She was extremely keen to do the field work for herresearch.. She was however bogged down by a slew ofpersonal problems. This did not allow her to focus on herwork.. As the dissertation submission time neared, Naliniwas at her wits end as she had not done her survey Nalinibecame desperate and in a weak moment took a decision ..She cooked up the data and wrote her dissertation. Her guidewas very impressed. Something made the Guide want to meeta few sampled respondents.. When she went to the fieldshe could not find even one of the respondents ..
Nalini was called and asked to explain. Sheconfessed to what she had done..One month is left for submission.What should the guide do?
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Haste at the expense of care
Errors through negligent work
Making and acknowledging an honest mistake
Research findings are often tentative
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CASE OF PLAGIARISMManasi is a M.Phil student in English Literature preparing her first presentation fora seminar. She incorporates whole sentences and paragraphs verbatim fromseveral published papers. She does not use quotation marks, but the sources are
suggested by statements like "(see . . . for more details)." The evaluator of herpaper notes inconsistencies in the writing styles of different paragraphs of the textand check the sources, uncovering Manasis plagiarism.
After discussion, Manasis plagiarism is brought to the attention of the dean of theFaculty, whose responsibility it is to review such incidents. The Dean expelsManasi from the program with the stipulation that she can reapply for the next
M.Phil.course.
Is plagiarism like this a common practice?
Are there circumstances that should have led
to Manasi being forgiven for plagiarizing? Should Manasi be allowed to reapply to the
program?
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Misconduct in Research
Research Methods class
Making up data or results (fabrication),
Changing or misreporting data or results
(falsification), and
Using the ideas or words of
another person without giving
appropriate credit (plagiarism)
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Credit where it is due Binoy , a second year Ph.D. student in Culture Studies and has been working on a
research project that involved an important new experimental technique. For anational meeting in his discipline, Binoy wrote an abstract and gave a brief
presentation that mentioned the new technique. After his presentation, he wassurprised and pleased when Dr. Rastogi, a leading researcher from anotheruniversity, engaged him in an extended conversation. Dr. Rastogi asked Binoyextensively about the new technique, and Binoy described it fully. Binoy's ownGuide often encouraged his students not to keep secrets from other researchers,and Binoy was flattered that Dr. Rastogi would be so interested in his work.
Six months later Binoy was leafing through a journal when he noticed an article by
Dr. Rastogi. The article described an experiment that clearly depended on thetechnique that Binoy had developed. He didn't mind; in fact, he was againsomewhat flattered that his technique had so strongly influenced Dr. Rastogi'swork. But when he turned to the citations, expecting to see a reference to hisabstract or presentation, his name was nowhere to be found.
Does Binoy have any way of receiving credit for his work?
Should he contact Dr. Rastogi in an effort to have his work recognized? Is Binoy's Guide mistaken in encouraging his students to be so open about their
work?
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Authorship Practice
Research Methods class
Research is collaborative work
Different conventions regarding mention of
authors namebest decided before hand
Order of importance in contribution to work
Order of importance in seniority
Alphabetical order
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Getting Started
Research Methods class
Choosing a
Research
Topic
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Get Started..
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Contextually specific
Academically interesting
Career enhancing
Practicality
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Narrowing to a sub topic.
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Next asking questions..
Research Methods class
Censorship Are movie ratings a form of censorship? What censorship lawsexist in Iowa? Should cigarette manufacturers be allowed to sponsor sportingevents on TV? What are frequently censored books?
War in Iraq What events led to the Iraqi War?? Should the US have become
involved? What was the role of women or should women be in combat?
Bilingualism Should English be declared our national language? Shouldschools be expected to meet the needs of all bilingual students?
PREPARE A SIMILAR LIST IN YOUR SUBJECT
(TASK BEFORE START OF THE CLASS)
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Next..
Research Methods class
Literature search
Research question.variables
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Psychological preparation
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RESEARCH DESIGN
SESSION V
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RESEARCH DESIGN
Research Methods class
Scheme that governs functioning, developing
and unfolding of research
Arranging elements/ details Structure within which research is conducted
Blueprint for data collection/
measurement and analysis
Helps define my research topic
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Research Methods class
Helps define my research topic
Theoretical Framework
What is my research question
What method will I use
Provide a broad outline
Can be modified with time as one
progresses
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Research Design
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Depends on Research Method being employed
Fundamental and Applied
Quantitative and Qualitative
Descriptive, Co-relative and Experimental
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Research Methods class
What am I studying
Why am I studying it
Where will I be studying it
What is the nature of data I need
Where can that data be found
What period of time will it take
How do I collect the data How will I analyse it
How will I present it
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L i f S i IV
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Learning 1
Learning 2
Learning 3
Learning of Session IV
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Research Methods class
Hypothesis
Research begins with a question
Hypothesis is not the question. It is a statement thatflows from engaging with that question
A problem (question) cannot be directly tested,whereas an hypothesis can be tested and verified
It is the starting point of analysis
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D li E M th d R lit
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Decoupling an Economy : Myth and Reality
An economy that is able to sustain GDP
growth without having a negativeimpact on environmental conditions is
said to be decoupled.
Decoupling of an economy is not
feasible in the age of globalization
For a developed economy decoupling is
easier than for a developing economy
Commerce/ Management
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Commerce/ Management
Effectiveness of Buzz marketing as marketing technique and its
impact on Purchase Behaviour of the Consumers
Buzz marketing techniques influence the
purchase behaviour of consumers
Gender, age, educational level, income
level & marital status influence
consumer purchase &its responsetowards buzz marketing technique
C lt St di / Hi t
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Culture Studies / History
The Communication of Culture and the State
The state while communicate culture, choosesclassical depictions of culture over the folk and
modern.
The communication of culture and the choices
for that is influenced by the prevailing
political conditions.
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H th i
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Research Methods class
Hypothesis
Research hypotheses are the specific testablepredictions made about the variables in the study.
Research hypothesis is a pairing down of theproblem into something realistic, testable and
falsifiable.
Review of Literature and Intuition
Give the researcher a focus
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Research Methods class
A hypothesis is never `proved` . it is betterpractice to use the terms supported orverified
A Research hypothesis, which stands the test of
time, eventually becomes a theory
Hypotheses are couched in terms of the
particular variables that are going to beused in the study.
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Types of Hypothesis
Directional and Non Directional Hypothesis
Directional hypothesis measures the effects of
two variables on each other.
It measures the direction of variation of two variables.
This effect of one variable on the other variable can be
in a positive direction or in a negative direction.
Non-directional hypothesis do not indicate
the kind of effects but only shows the
relation between two variables
Deductive and Inductive Hypothesis /
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Deductive and Inductive Hypothesis /Null Hypothesis
Deductive from theory to particular
Inductivefrom Evidence to generalization
Null Hypothesis
Research Question
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Research Question
May be used to compare variables.
May be used torelate variables.
May be used to describe variables.
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V i bl
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Variables
What is a Variable
Independent and Dependent Variable
Independent
These variables are ones that are more
or less controlled.
They still vary, but the variationis
relatively knownor taken into account.
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Independent vs Dependent
Dependent variables are not controlled ormanipulated in any way, but instead aresimply measuredor registered.
These vary in relation to the independentvariables, and while results can be
predicted, the data is always measured.
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Independent vs Dependent
Independent VariablePresumed Cause Dependent VariablePresumed effect
Researcher manipulates Independent Variableto observe changes in dependent variable
Independent V Dependent
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Independent V. Dependent
Intentionallymanipulated
Controlled
Vary at known rate
Cause
Intentionally leftalone
Measured
Vary at unknown
rate
Effect
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Theoretical Research
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Focus on Theory
Word first meant aconcept or scheme
(1592)
To theorizeto
generalize afterobservation testing,
verificationexplain a
phenomena/ relationship
between variables,
codify, synthesize andorganize knowledge
Organized body of knowledge
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Organized body of knowledge
Focus on Expanding the Base of TheoreticalKnowledge in a Subject
History
The Nature of Power
Bio Polar Competition and Globalization
End of History
Commerce/ Management
A theoretical model for early warning of inflation
Theories of Compensation and Work Efficiency
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Case Study
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Micro Studies
More detailed investigation
Justifying the case study
Should allow one to do a generalization
Should mirror the Universe it represents
Case Study
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athering data from arepresentative sample byposing questions on selectpreferences and beliefs anddrawing conclusions on attitudesand behaviour for the entire`universe`
What is Survey
Method?
JAINUNIVERSITY
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Part of the Package of the Western
Research Tradition
Allergy to numbers
Indexed Journal Articles
Maths
JAINUNIVERSITY
Context and Content
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What does the surveywish to explore
The profile of myprospectiverespondents
The time frame for
completing the survey
Context and Content
JAINUNIVERSITY
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Purposive Sample
Random Sample
Stratified Random Sample
SAMPLE
JAINUNIVERSITY
Case Study of National ElectionSt d 09
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Study 09
4 LEVELS
LEVEL 1 : ENTIRE UNIVERSEwith a few exceptions 536 of 543
Level 2 : assembly constituency 722:Weighed share
Level 3 : polling station: 4 per ac
Level 4 : respondents
Choosing aSTRATIFIED
RANDOM
SAMPLE
JAINUNIVERSITY
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A National Sample of 5000respondents
Face-to-face interviews among youth
between age 14-34
An Urban Booster sample of1216 respondents
Choosing a SAMPLE : example 1
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Questions
Does the question measure whatis intended to be measured?
Is it clear and understandable toall categories of prospectiverespondents?
Wording and Phrasing is the Key
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Do you smoke ?
In a recent survey some people said that they have neversmoked, some others said that they smoke but have reduced
the number of cigarettes they smoke per day and some otherssaid that they smoke and were not able to give up that habit.What about you?
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Pre-coded Response
Categories (14) Leaving aside the period of elections,
how much interest would you say you have in politicsand public affairsa great deal of interest, someinterest or no interest at all.1. No interest 2. Some interest 3. Great deal 8. D.K
(2d) What was the main reason due towhich you could not vote in this election?
1. Out of station 2. Not well 3. No interest/ did not feel like voting4. Prevented/ fear of violence 5. No identity card/ identity proof
7. Others (specify)___________________ 8. DK9.N.A.
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Questions that tap respondent
intensity
(32) In whatever financial conditionyou are placed today, on the wholeare you fully satisfied, somewhatsatisfied, somewhat dissatisfied or
fully dissatisfied? (18/15/48/15)
(25) What is your assessment of the your Ph.D/. M Philwork done in last few years/months - would you say thatyou are satisfied or dissatisfied with it?
(probe further whether fully or somewhat satisfied ordissatisfied)
Avoiding loaded questions / one
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Avoiding loaded questions / one
sided questions
During the Godhra riots many people felt that thegovernment did not take sufficient and prompt action.Who do you think was primarily responsible for theriots in Gujaratthe government, Muslims
extremists, Hindu extremists or someone else
(41) Who do you think was primarily responsible forthe riots in Gujaratthe government, Muslimsextremists, Hindu extremists or someone else
How do I frame an agree/ disagree question - thebias in favour of agree
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Double barreled questions
Would you vote for a party that favours higher spending oneducation & entertainment?
"Do you approve of tax increases to end the budget deficits?"
Questions which challenge but not confusing
Which leader would you prefer (1) Someone who is involvedin criminal cases, but can be relied on to get work done; (2)Someone who is known to be a gentleman, but can notalways get work done. ( 37%/35%)
Which leader would you prefer (1) Someone who is accessiblebut corrupt; (2) Someone who is honest but inaccessible.(24/49%)
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Question Order
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What should the question order be ?
Why questions come first?
Respondents have previous questions at theback of the mind when answering
Spreading out questions which may be linked
Dependent questions
The `Dont Know`
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The Don t Know
Response Is there an link between high dont knows and
the way we frame the questions ?
High DK`s are linked to agree/disagree
questions, questions on remote and abstractissues, and ones with greater task difficulty
The way a respondent answers is partiallydependent on what the response alternatives areand how they are presented to them
Availability of data
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Data Availability of data
Quality of data
Reliability of data
Evaluation of datainternal andexternal
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Period of Data collection Is it the normal periodor a special
period
Baseline year and Endline year
Short term and long term effects
Reliability of Data
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PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH
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STUDY PHENOMENA FROM THE PERCEPTION OF
THOSE IN A SITUATION
WHEN PEOPLE ARE INVOLVEDPARTICIPANTOBSERVATION, INDEPTH INTERVIEWS AND
DISCUSSIONS
No taken for granted assumptions/ usual perceptions
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Importance of personal perspective and interpretation
Describes first explains next
Free of preconceptions Is that possible?
Pioneered by Edmund Husseri in what was called Evidenz - in
mid 1890s
Research on ethnicity, gender, politics, films
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S o u r c e s o fD a t a -P r i m a r y a n dS e c o n d a r y
Primary Sources
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Raw Data
Statistics, Perspectives, Original Experiments
which have not yet been subject to
interpretation
The Researcher is required to make the
inference
Government statistics, Survey, Archival
Material, Laboratory Experiments, Field
Experiments
Secondary Sources
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Data which has already been interpreted
and researcher draws on the inferences
Ph.D. Thesis and M.Phil Thesis
Journal articles which draw on primary data
Studies based on Primary sources
Observation as a tool of
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research
How, When, Why and Challenges
Observation
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Observation
Casual Observation and Observation
for Research
What happened in our Role Play
Scientific observation
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Issues in any Observation
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Issues in any Observation
Chances of subjectivityreducedas long asobservation is accurate anddone scientifically
Relates to the presentnot thepast or the future
Independent of Respondenttheir willingness
Issues in any Observation
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Issues in any Observation
Time consuming and could escalate costs of
research
Accessibility
Unforeseen factors impacting the observation
Is the researcher making a correctinterpretation of what he/she observers
Issue 1 : Plan for Data Collection
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Issue 1 : Plan for Data Collection
Sounds so straight forward what looks straight forward
rarely ever is
What am I trying to achieve through the data collection
Need to address the below mentioned issues
A brief description of the research :
the specific data that is needed, the rationale for collecting the data, what insight the data might provide what will be done with the data once it has been
collected.
Issue 2 : Freeze Operational Definitions and
Methodology
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Methodology
What are we measuring?
Why are we measuring?
How are we measuring?
Who is measuring?
Clarity on definitions andprocedures
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Issue 4: The Data Collection
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Issue 4: The Data Collection
Process
Scrupulously follow through for
consistency and accuracy
Role of Guide
Issue 5: Soon after Data
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Collection
How to address missingdata?
How to addressmeasurement error ?
How to addressspecification error ?