2. Sejarah Dan Perkembangan Teori Motivasi
kajian motivasi telah bermula sejak zaman purba Greeks lagi
Perkembangan kajian boleh dilihat dari 2 perspektif utama: FALSAFAH FISIOLOGI
Perspektif falsafah
Tokoh awalnya seperti:Socrates, Plato,Aristotle
Plato (TRIPARTITE)
1. Primitif (Appetitive) 2. Kedua (Competitive)3. Tinggi (Calculating)
Aristotle1.Makanan (nutritive)2.Sensitif3.Rasional
Perspektif Fisiologi Hippocrates (dlm Decatanzaro,
99) Peranan otak organ utama
intelektual manusia Antesedan fisiologi seperti saraf
motor, tenaga saraf spesifik, implus saraf elektrik semulajadi, fungsi spesifik yg terdapat di otak (Petri,1996)
100 tahun kemudian (DUALISME)
JIWA (jasad dan akal) Keduanya berada di tahap hirarki yang sama
Perbezaannya hanya elemen-eleman yang terkandung di dalamnya
Descartes (Decatanzaro, 99)
Sesuaikan aspek fisiologi dan kerohanian melalui konsep dualisme
Jasad dan akal yg menentukan segala t/laku yg akan di ambil oleh ind
Batang pinal dan kalenjer kecil di pusat otak turut b/t/jawab mengawal minda dan rohani
Perkembangan kajian motivasi tidak begitu pesat jika dibandingkan dgn perkembangan sub bidang psikologi yg lain
1952 diberi nafas baru U. Nebraska adakan simposium motivasi
Tokoh2 lihat m/s 18
Era mini teori (1960-70)
w/b/pun banyak dipengaruhi oleh teori
utama (kehendak,naluri dan dorongan)
MINI TEORI Achievement motivation (Atkinson,
1964) Attributional theory of achievement
motivation (Weiner,1972) Cognitive dissonance theory(Festinger,
1957) Effectance motivation (White, 1959;
Harter,1978a) Expectancy x value theory
(Vroom,1964) Intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1975)
Goal - setting theory (Locke, 1968) Learned helplessness theory
(Seligman, 1975) Reactance theory (Brehm, 1966) Self-efficacy theory (Bandura,
1977) Self-schemas (Markus, 1977)
Peralihan pandangan tentang konsep motivasi Cofer & Appley (1960) cuba
ubah perspektif motivasi daripada prinsip semulajadi, biologi dan fisiologi…
kepada prinsip pertumbuhan
Revolusi Kognitif 1970, Psikologi Zeitgeist Motivasi berasaskan KOGNITIF Perancangan, matlamat, ekspektasi, kepercayaan, atribusi, insentif dan ganjaran sebagai PENGGERAK motivasi
Reeve (2001) Empat tahap utama Teori besar pertama (the first
grand theory)=KEHENDAK (WILL) Teori besar kedua (the second
grand theory) =NALURI (INSTINCT) Teori besar ketiga (the third grand
theory) =DORONGAN (DRIVE) MINI-TEORI
Smith (1998) Naluri
Dorongan Insentif
Kebangkitan optimal Hirarki keperluan Maslow
Kognitif Psikologi evolusi
Baron (2001)Dorongan
KebangkitanEkspektasi
Matlamat-seting
Sternberg (1997) FISIOLOGI (penyelenggaraan –
hemeostasis, proses bertentangan-opponent-process theory), kebangkitan)
PERSONALITI (keperluan, keperluan pencapaian, keperluan hirarki)
KOGNITIF (intrinsik-ektrinsik, kepelikan(curiosity), penentuan-diri, kecekapan-diri, matlamat-perancangan)
Teori MotivasiTeori Motivasi
Teori KehendakTeori Naluri
Teori Dorongan Teori Insentif
Teori Kebangkitan
Teori Kehendak “WILL” = inisiatif dan tindakan
yang terus dan segera “to act” and “what to do when
acting” kehendak juga kuasa kepada
minda yg mengawal jasad grand teory krn semua t/laku
bergerak atas dasar kehendak n/begitu sifatnya terlalu falsafah
Teori Naluri
Charles Darwin (1859)> automatik, mekanistik, genetik baka
William James (1890) (naluri fizikal & mental)
McDougall(1908)> secara semulajadi, genetik (lari, jijik, ingin tahu, keaiban diri, keyakinan diri, pembiakan, kemesraan, pemerolehan dan pembinaan)
1920 = 6000 naluri
Teori Dorongan
Woodworth (1918) - pelopor prinsipnya asas biologi Ketidakseimbangan (keperluan psikologi
defisit) maka akan terhasil DORONGAN Pengurangan DORONGAN hasilkan
pembelajaran HOMEOSTASIS need+drive+homeotasis
Andaian teori dorongan Freud, 1915 & Hull, 1943
1. Dorongan muncul drp keperluan2 badan
2. Pengurangan dorongan menghasilkan pembelajaran
3. Dorongan memberikan tenaga kepada t/laku
Teori Insentif 1960 Fenomena motivasi yg tiada
kaitan dengan keperluan biologi dipengaruhi idea hedonism Motivasi akan wujud drp
rangsangan luaran (ganjaran) Persoalannya mengapa manusia
bermotivasi kerana ganjaran? stimulasi {positif, ganjaran &
objek}
Ada 3 pekara utama dlm motivasi insentif1. Insentif drp persekitaran
(external event)2. thp motivasi daripada
pengalaman3. gambaran tahap motivasi berubah mengikut masa sbb insentif persekitaran berubah
Teori Bangkitan Sistem bangkitan drp
“neurophysiological” di otak (Moruzzi & Mogoun, 1949)
“central stimulation” vs “physiological stimulation of biological need” or “environmental stimulation of insentives”
Hukum Yerkes -Dodson bangkitan optimum(keselesaan)
APAKAH TEORI MOTIVASI UTAMA (Reeve, 2001: 33 –35 & Petri, 1996:19-22)
Post-Drive Theory Years Physiological sources of
motivation > “DRIVE” Environmental sources of motivation >“INCENTIVES” Central/brain sources of motivation > “AROUSAL”
DISCREPANCY OR EQUILIBRIUM
Kewujudan Mini-teoriMotivasi
Kewujudan Mini-teoriMotivasi
Lebih spesifik dan telitiMengapa ia lebih popular ?Jurnal 1-1977>Motivation and emotion (emperikal sifatnya)
1987 - Cognition and emotion
Abbreviated list of the mini-theoriesAbbreviated list of the mini-theories
Abbreviated list of the mini-theoriesAbbreviated list of the mini-theories
Mengapa mini-teori lebih digemari berbanding grand-teori
Active Nature of the Person
Cognitive RevolutionApplied, Socially Relevent Research
I. Active Nature of the Person dulu ada keperluan - “move’ “inactive-inert” so motivasi “to-
arouse” “the process of arousing action,
sustaining the activity in progress and regulating the pattern of activity”
“motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex”
mid 1960 > Charles Cofer & Mortimer Appley> membahagikan teori motivasi kpd >Pasif;Aktif dan Pertumbuhan
2. Cognitive revolutiondorongan, keperluan, lapar,
bangkitan, hemeotasis {base bio & fisiologi} semulajadi
1970 > Zeitgeist Psikologi > Revolusi Kognitif > internal mental process(konstruk kognitif dan konstruk struktur)
konstruk kognitif {plan, matl, ekspektasi,kepercayaan,atribusi,k-diri}
konstruk struktur {ganjaran insentif}kog > kemanusiaan drp mekanikalbuku Theories of Motivation:From
Mechanism to Cognition (Carven & Scheiri,1981; Marcus&Wurf, 1987)
3. Applied, Socially Relevent Research
humanistic tentang idea “motivasi hasil dari desakan biologi dan kawalan persekitaran”
Maslow & Roger “motivasi pertumbuhan”
aplikasi motivasi di sekolah,kerja, dayatindak-stress, hunger kpd bulimia, dieting, obesity ect.
“Why behave”? Tdk ptg > “to be alive is to be active” Why does behaviour vary in
its intensity? Why does the person do one
thing rather than onother?
Tiga elemen utama motivasi
Tenaga Arah tuju Matlamat
3 elemen ini merupakan penyebab utama untuk manusia bertingkah laku
Mengapa keamatan berbeza? Motif dalaman
(kehendak, kognitif dan emosi)
peristiwa luaran(rangsangan drp persekitaran,
kontek sosial)
Hubungan diantara kajian motivasi dan emosi dengan bidang lain di dalam Psikologi
(lihat Reeve,2001:42 rajah 2.1)
Social
Industrial/ Organizati
onal
Developmental
Educational
Personality
Cognitive
ClinicalPhysiologi
cal
HealthCounseling
Motivation and Emotion
Domain-specific Answers to These Core Questions:
What causes behavior? Why does behavior vary in its intensity?
Relationship of Motivation Study to Psychology’s Areas of SpecializationFigure 2.2
Motivation study in the 21st century is populated by multiple perspectives and multiple voices, all of which contribute a different piece to the puzzle of motivation and emotion study.
Perspektif Motivasi (Reeve,2001:38-39)
Tingkahlaku Biologi/fisiologi
Kognitif Evolusi
Kemanusiaan Psikoanalitik
Motivation’s new paradigm is one in which behavior is energized and directed not by a single grand cause but, instead, by a multitude of multi-level and co-acting influences.
As expressed in Box 2, most motivational states can be (and indeed need to be) understood at multiple levels—from a neurological level, a cognitive level, a social level, and so on.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Perspective: Motives emerge from…__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Behavioral Environmental incentives
Neurological Brain activations
Physiological Hormonal activity
Cognitive Mental events and thoughts
Social-cognitive Ways of thinking guided by exposure to other people
Cultural Groups, organizations, and nations
Evolutionary Genes and genetic endowment
Humanistic Encouraging the human potential
Psychoanalytical Unconscious mental life__________________________________________________________________
Box 2
The Many Voices in Motivation Study
Applikasi perspektif Isu :motivasi sex (Reeve,2001:38:39) Tingkahlaku {fizikal, bau, humor ect} Biologi {hormon > bangkitan} Kognitif {fantasi, ekspektasi,
agama,moral} Evolusi {l/w berbeza strategi dan kualiti} Kemanusiaan {hubungan, kemesraan
ect} Psikoanalitik {zmn knk, ideal partner}
Themes in the Study of Motivation
Motivation Benefit Adaptation Motives Direct Attention
Motivation Varies Vary over Time and Influence the Stream of Behaviour
Motivation Includes Both Approach and Avoidance Tendencies
Motivation Study Reveals What People Want
To Flourish Motivation Needs Supportive Condition
Antecedent Conditions
MotiveStatus
Sense of “Wanting to”
Urge toApproach vs.
Avoid
Energizing & Directing
•Behavior
•Engagement
•Physiology
•Self-Report
Needs Cognitions
Emotions
Framework To Understand The Study Of Motivation
Framework To Understand The Study Of Motivation
Figure 1.5