constructivism

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PUSAT PEMBELAJARAN:

INSTITUT PERGURUAN TEKNIK

KUALA LUMPUR

HBSC3203:

TEACHING SCIENCE FOR UPPER PRIMARY

NAMA :

SIVAJOTHY SIVALINGAM

670728-10-5626

s_sivajothy@yahoo.com

NAMA PENSYARAH :

AZIZAH NGAH TASIR

ngahtasir@oum.edu.my

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CONTENTS

No Title Page

1 Contents 1

2 Definition constructivism 2 - 3

3 Twelve Principles of Constructivism 4

4 Characteristics of Constructivism 5 - 9

5 Types of constructivism 10

6 Constructivism 5-stage model 11 - 12

7 Role of teachers and students in constructivist classroom 13

8 Lesson plan based on constructivist 14 – 17

9 Card Activities ( Construct Model of Solar System ) 18

10 Card Activities ( Games of Model of Solar System ) 18

11 Diagrams 19

12 Assessment on games 20

13 Worksheet 1 21

14 Worksheet 2 22

15 Conclusion 23 – 24

16 References 25 - 27

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Definition Constructivism

Constructivism is a theory of learning based on the idea that knowledge is constructed by the

knower based on mental activity. Learners are considered to be active organisms seeking

meaning. Constructions of meaning may initially bear little relationship to reality (as in the naive

theories of children), but will become increasing more complex, differentiated and realistic as

time goes on.

It is impossible to discuss constructivism without contrasting it with its opposite, objectivism.

Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy and Perry (1991) state the philosophy of objectivism as follows:

Objectivism is a view of the nature of knowledge and what it means to know something. In this

view, the mind is an instantiation of a computer, manipulating symbols in the same way....These

symbols acquire meaning when an external and independent reality is "mapped" onto them in our

interactions in the world. Knowledge, therefore is some entity existing independent of the mind

of individuals, and is transferred "inside". Cognition is the rule-based manipulation of these

symbols...this school of thought believes that the external world is mind independent (i.e., the

same for everyone) and we can say things about it that are objectively, absolutely and

unconditionally true or false....Consistent with this view of knowledge, the goal of instruction,

from both the behavioral and cognitive information processing perspectives, is to communicate

or transfer knowledge to learners in the most efficient, effective manner possible. Knowledge

can be completely characterized using the techniques of semantic analysis (or its second cousin,

task analysis). One key to efficiency and effectiveness is simplification and regularization:

thought is atomistic in that it can be completely broken down into simple building blocks, which

form the basis of instruction. (p. 91)

Jonassen (1991) talks about constructivism as follows:

Constructivism, founded on Kantian beliefs, claims that reality is constructed by the knower

based upon mental activity. Humans are perceivers and interpreters who construct their own

reality through engaging in those mental activities...thinking is grounded in perception of

physical and social experiences, which can only be comprehended by the mind. What the mind

produces are mental models that explain to the knower what he or she has perceived.... We all

conceive of the external reality somewhat differently, based on our unique set of experiences

with the world and our beliefs about them. (p. 10)

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Bednar, et al (1991) elaborate further:

...the learner is building an internal representation of knowledge, a personal interpretation of

experience. This representation is constantly open to change, its structure and linkages forming

the foundation to which other knowledge structures are appended. Learning is an active process

in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience....Conceptual growth comes from the

sharing of multiple perspectives and simultaneous changing of our internal representations in

response to those perspectives as well as through cumulative experience.

Consistent with this view of knowledge, learning must be situated in a rich context, reflective of

real world contexts, for this constructive process to occur and transfer to environments beyond

the school (p. 91-2).

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Twelve Principles of Constructivism 

 1. Constructivist teachers encourage and accept student

Autonomy and  initiative .

2. Constructivist teachers use raw data and primary sources long with manipulative, interactive,

and physical material.

3. While framing tasks, constructivist teachers use cognitive terminology such as classify,

analyze, predict, and create.

4. Constructivist teachers allow student responses to drive lessons, shift instructional strategies,

and alter content.

5. Constructivist teachers inquire about students' understanding of concepts before sharing their

own understanding of those concepts.

6. Constructivist teachers encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with the teacher and

with other students.

7. Constructivist teachers encourage student inquiry by asking 

thoughtful, open-ended questions and encouraging students to ask questions to each other.

8. Constructivist teachers seek elaboration of students' initial responses.

9. Constructivist teachers engage students in experiences that might engender contradictions to

their initial hypotheses and then encourage discussion.

10. Constructivist teachers allow wait time after posing questions.

11. Constructivist teachers provide time for students to construct relationships and create

metaphors.

12. Constructivist teachers nurture students' natural curiosity through frequent use of the learning

cycle model. 

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Characteristics of Constructivism

Moving from constructivist philosophy, psychology and epistemology to the

characterization of constructivist learning environments presents the challenge of synthesizing a

large spectrum of somewhat disparate concepts. An appropriate analogy for the way in which

constructivist concepts have evolved is that of a prism with many facets. While the facets reflect

the same light and form one part of a whole, they nonetheless each present distinct and finely

delineated boundaries.

The presentation of characteristics in this section aims to remain true to this analogy in

that it recognizes and attempts to represent the variety of ways in which constructivism is

articulated in the literature. Situated cognition, anchored instruction, apprenticeship learning,

problem-based learning, generative learning, constructivism, exploratory learning: these

approaches to learning are grounded in and derived from constructivist epistemology.

Each approach articulates the way in which the concepts are operationalise for learning.

The researchers and theorists whose perspectives are listed below suggest links between

constructivist theory and practice. They provide the beginnings of an orienting framework for a

constructivist approach to design, teaching or learning.

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Jonassen (1991) notes that many educators and cognitive psychologists have applied

constructivism to the development of learning environments. From these applications, he

has isolated a number of design principles:

1. Create real-world environments that employ the context in which learning is relevant;

2. Focus on realistic approaches to solving real-world problems;

3. The instructor is a coach and analyzer of the strategies used to solve these problems;

4. Stress conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representations or perspectives on

the content;

5. Instructional goals and objectives should be negotiated and not imposed;

6. Evaluation should serve as a self-analysis tool;

7. Provide tools and environments that help learners interpret the multiple perspectives of

the world;

8. Learning should be internally controlled and mediated by the learner. (pp.11-12)

Jonassen (1994) summarizes what he refers to as "the implications of constructivism for

instructional design". The following principles illustrate how knowledge construction can

be facilitated:

1. Provide multiple representations of reality;

2. Represent the natural complexity of the real world;

3. Focus on knowledge construction, not reproduction;

4. Present authentic tasks (contextualizing rather than abstracting instruction);

5. Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined

instructional sequences;

6. Foster reflective practice;

7. Enable context-and content dependent knowledge construction;

8. Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation. (p.35)

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Wilson and Cole (1991) provide a description of cognitive teaching models which

"embody" constructivist concepts. From these descriptions, we can isolate some concepts

central to constructivist design, teaching and learning:

1. Embed learning in a rich authentic problem-solving environment;

2. Provide for authentic versus academic contexts for learning;

3. Provide for learner control;

4. Use errors as a mechanism to provide feedback on learners' understanding. (pp.59-61)

Honebein (1996) describes seven goals for the design of constructivist learning

environments:

1. Provide experience with the knowledge construction process;

2. Provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives;

3. Embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts;

4. Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process;

5. Embed learning in social experience;

6. Encourage the use of multiple modes of representation;

7. Encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process. (p.11)

Ernest (1995) in his description of the many schools of thought of constructivism suggests

the following implications of constructivism which derive from both the radical and social

perspectives:

1. sensitivity toward and attentiveness to the learner's previous constructions;

2. diagnostic teaching attempting to remedy learner errors and misconceptions;

3. attention to met cognition and strategic self-regulation by learners;

4. the use of multiple representations of mathematical concepts;

5. awareness of the importance of goals for the learner, and the dichotomy between learner

and teacher goals;

6. Awareness of the importance of social contexts, such as the difference between folk or

street mathematics and school mathematics (and an attempt to exploit the former for the

latter). (p.485)

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Honebein (1996) describes seven goals for the design of constructivist learning

environments:

1. Provide experience with the knowledge construction process;

2. Provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives;

3. Embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts;

4. Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process;

5. Embed learning in social experience;

6. Encourage the use of multiple modes of representation;

7. Encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process. (p.11)

An important concept for social constructivists is that of scaffolding which is a process of

guiding the learner from what is presently known to what is to be known. According to

Vygotsky (1978), students' problem solving skills fall into three categories:

1. skills which the student cannot perform

2. skills which the student may be able to perform

3. skills that the student can perform with help

Scaffolding allows students to perform tasks that would normally be slightly beyond their ability

without that assistance and guidance from the teacher. Appropriate teacher support can allow

students to function at the cutting edge of their individual development. Scaffolding is therefore

an important characteristic of constructivist learning and teaching.

Multiple perspectives, authentic activities, real-world environments these are just some of the

themes that are frequently associated with constructivist learning and teaching. There were many

similarities between the perspectives of different researchers in this brief review of the literature.

The following section presents a synthesis and summary of the characteristics of constructivist

learning and teaching as presented by the above review and as suggested by the previous section

on constructivist theory.

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These are not presented in a hierarchical order.

1. Multiple perspectives and representations of concepts and content are presented and

encouraged.

2. Goals and objectives are derived by the student or in negotiation with the teacher or

system.

3. Teachers serve in the role of guides, monitors, coaches, tutors and facilitators.

4. Activities, opportunities, tools and environments are provided to encourage meta

cognition, self-analysis -regulation, -reflection & -awareness.

5. The student plays a central role in mediating and controlling learning.

6. Learning situations, environments, skills, content and tasks are relevant, realistic,

authentic and represent the natural complexities of the 'real world'.

7. Primary sources of data are used in order to ensure authenticity and real-world

complexity.

8. Knowledge construction and not reproduction is emphasized.

9. This construction takes place in individual contexts and through social negotiation,

collaboration and experience.

10. The learner's previous knowledge constructions, beliefs and attitudes are considered in

the knowledge construction process.

11. Problem-solving, higher-order thinking skills and deep understanding are emphasized.

12. Errors provide the opportunity for insight into students' previous knowledge

constructions.

13. Exploration is a favoured approach in order to encourage students to seek knowledge

independently and to manage the pursuit of their goals.

14. Learners are provided with the opportunity for apprenticeship learning in which there is

an increasing complexity of tasks, skills and knowledge acquisition.

15. Knowledge complexity is reflected in an emphasis on conceptual interrelatedness and

interdisciplinary learning.

16. Collaborative and cooperative learning are favoured in order to expose the learner to

alternative viewpoints.

17. Scaffolding is facilitated to help students perform just beyond the limits of their ability.

18. Assessment is authentic and interwoven with teaching.

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Types of constructivism:

1. Trivial or Personal

Knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the

environment.

2. Radical

Coming to know is a process of dynamic adaptation towards viable interpretations of

experience. The knower does not discover truth about the real world.

3. Social

Individuals participate in the learning of a collective, sometimes with what is learned

distributed throughout the collective more than in the mind of any one individual.

4. Cultural

The ways in which individuals think are affected by the tools, artifacts, and symbolic

systems used to facilitate social and cultural interaction.

5. Critical

Myths that keep individuals from being empowered should be made visible and hence

open to question.

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Constructivism 5-Stage Model

Teaching and learning model is proposed in the "Children's Learning in Science Project

(Needham, 1987). In this model, students are encouraged to exchange ideas through a phase of

the outbreak of the idea. This phase can also stimulate the students review their original idea. In

the phase of the restructuring of ideas, teachers are encouraged to plan appropriate activities to

help students change their original ideas. Pupils are given the opportunity to challenge his own

original idea and the idea of their friends. 

Is believed new idea is being built by the students themselves are more easily accepted by

them if the idea is understandable and useful. In the phase of the use of ideas, students can use

their new ideas to solve problems and explain phenomena related to those ideas. Back reflection

phase is the final phase. In this phase the students compare the original idea back reflection is the

final phase. In this phase the students compare their original ideas with new ideas and reflect on

the learning process that has resulted in changes to their ideas. This phase can also develop meta-

cognitive skills.

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Phases of the constructivist teaching model based on 5-phases as follows: -

No Phase Purpose / Use Methods

I Orientation Generate interest and provide an

environment

Practical solution of real

problems, a demonstration by

teachers, film, video and

newspaper cuttings

II

Brainstorming

Ideas

So that students and teachers

aware of the previous idea

Practical, small group

discussions, mapping and

reporting concern

III

Restructuring ideas

i. Explanation and

exchange 

ii. Exposure to

conflict situations 

iii. Construction of

a new idea

iv. Rating

To create awareness about the

alternatives in the form of

scientific ideas. 

Recognizing that existing ideas

should be modified, expanded or

replaced with a more scientific

ideas .

Identify alternative ideas and

critically examine the existing

ideas of their own 

Test the validity of existing ideas 

Modification, or conversion idea

and development

To test the validity of new ideas

developed

Discussions in small groups and

create reports

Discussions, readings, teacher

input.

Practical project work,

experiments, demonstration

teachers

IV Application

Strengthening the idea that has

been built in the new situation and

the normal

Writing their own project work

V Reflection

Aware of changes in student

ideas. Pupils can make a reflection

of the extent of their original idea

has changed.

Writing Self, discussion groups,

personal notes and other.

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Role of teachers and students in constructivist classroom

Role of teachers in constructivist classroom

In the constructivist classroom, the teacher’s role is to prompt and facilitate discussion. Thus, the

teacher’s main focus should be on guiding students by asking questions that will lead them to

develop their own conclusions on the subject. David Jonassen identified three major roles for

facilitators to support students in constructivist learning environments:

Modeling

Coaching

Scaffolding

Role of students in constructivist classroom

To explore the learning environment in concert with others and construct meaning from learning

experiences. To apply knowledge in personally meaningful contexts .

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LESSON PLAN BASED ON CONSTRUCTIVIST

Class : 4 Adidev

Subject : Science

Total pupils : 40 pupils

Time : 1 hour

Theme : Investigating Earth and Universe

Topic : Our Solar System

Learning Objectif : 1.1 Understanding the solar system

Learning outcomes : At the end of this lesson, pupils should be able to :

1. List the constituents of the Solar System

2.List the planets in the solar system in the Solar System insequence

3.State that planets moves around the sun.

Scientific skills and Thinking skills:

Observation and sequencing ; Relating and inferring ; Planning and communicating ;

Mathemathical skills ; Discussion

Scientific Attitudes and Noble values :

Being thankful to god ; Being confident and indipendent

Pupils shoul realise that the use of science is a means to understand the solar system and

be thankful to God for perfecting the Solar System

Teaching and Learning Resources :

Charts of the Solar System, LCD, computer, worksheet,lyrics

Suggested Teaching Strategies :

Constructivism 5-Stage Model

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Steps Content P&P Activities Note

Orientation

(induction set )

( 5 minutes )

Introducing

Solar System

Simulation

- Model

of

solar

system

- Singin

g song

- Teacher had chosen 10 pupils as

planets, one of them was chosen

to represent Sun and remainders

are nine planets.

- Teacher distributed lyrics about

solar system to all the pupils

including the observers. The

teacher had drawn nine

concentric circles in the middle

of school field using powdered

chalk.

- Then, the teacher and the student

sang the song together.

- The selected student had took

their positions as nine planets

and moved around the pupil who

represent the sun.

- As the song finished the pupils

stop moving around the

concentric circle.

- Then, the teacher asked

questions to the pupils regarding

the lesson.

Observation

Skill

Brainstorming

Ideas

( 15 minutes )

Members in

solar system

- The teacher provided a model of

solar system to a student and

asked the pupil to explain about

the members in the solar system.

- Then, the teacher played

animation related to the solar

system in My CD and had

discuss with the pupils.

- materials

- computer

- LCD

Steps Content P&P Activities Note

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Restructuring

ideas

(15 minutes)

Interpreting

and analyzing

the members

in solar

system

Pupil

construct the

model of

Solar System

Naming the

planets in the

Solar System

- Teacher explained briefly to the

pupils regarding the activities

which going to be carried out in

Simulation of Model Solar

System

- Rules of the activities was

distributed for the pupils.

- Pupil was brought to the school

field.

- Pupils were divided into 3

groups, and each group has 10

members.

- With the help of instruction of

teacher, the pupils , used their

thinking skill to construct the

model of solar system using the

materials provided.

- Each group was provided with

chalk pieces, a few centimeters

of square paper, scissors and

string for the activity planned.

- Pupils used the chalk pieces

provided by the teacher to draw

nine orbits of the planets in the

school field.

- The pupils cut strips and pieces

of paper representing the

diameters of the planets.

-Communication

skill

- Guideline

activity

worksheet

( attachment )

Steps Content P&P Activities Note

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Application

(20 minutes)

‘ Tricky Box ’

game

- Teacher explained the concept of

the game, which is tricky box

containing the name of the

planets was passed by around the

circle by the pupils. As the

teacher blew the whisel, the

pupil who holds the box will

pick up the name of the planet

and will start searching for the

position planet which picked by

the pupil.

- The steps were repeated for

other planets in solar system.

- Pupils named the sequence of

planets which is nearest from the

sun.

- Pupils went back to the class

and start doing the worksheet

distributed by the teacher, to find

out the achievement of learning

objective.

-Card activity

Games

( attachment )

Reflection

(5 minutes)

Summary of

the lesson

- Teacher gave chance to the

students to summarise the

learning topic.

- Teacher guide the pupils to

summarise the lesson of the

topic.

- Pupils were given chance to

present their summary of the

topic to the class.

- Other pupils were questioned the presenter.

- Membuat

kesimpulan

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Card Activities ( Construct Model of Solar System )

1. Provide the pupils with few centimeters of square paper, a ball, some pieces of string

and pair of scissors.

2. Cut the square papers representing the diameters of the planet which follows the size of

planet. ( Refer to the text book as a guideline )

3. Build the centre of the Solar System. ( Use a ball as the sun )

4. Sketch the orbits of the planet using the diagram of Solar System in the text book on the

field.

5. The model was arranged on the orbits according to their sequence in Solar System.

6. Name the planets according to their sequence from the planet nearest to the sun.

Card Activities ( Games of Model of Solar System )

1. With the guide of the teacher, pupils sketch the centre of Solar System and the orbits

of the planet on the field using powdered chalk.

2. Pupils were ordered to stand in circles.

3. A box containing the name of planets were passed among the pupils in the circle.

4. While the students passing the Tricky Box among them the teacher will blew the whisel

The last person holding the box will, pick a name of planet and will look for the orbit of

the planet which sketch by them.

5. The game was continued until the naming of the nine planets.

6. Pupil were required to name the planet form the nearest to the sun to the farer.

7. The game was repeated for several times. ( depends on the P&P time )

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Diagrams

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Assessment on games

In this games, all the pupils were provided with assessment worksheet , where all the pupils

required to complete the worksheet during the games carried out. The scientific skills involved in

the activities are observation and sequencing ; relating and inferring ; planning and

communicating ; mathemathical skills and discussion. The thinking skill used in the games is for

arranging planets in sequence.

Members of Solar System Name

Centre of Solar System

First planet

Second planet

Third planet

Fourth planet

Fifth planet

Sixth planet

Seventh planet

Eighth planet

Nineth planet

According to the graphic above, teacher required the pupils to fill in the blanks according to the

lesson they studied in the learning process.

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Worksheet 1

Name: _______________________ Class : _________________

The Planets

Answer all questions:

1. How many planets and dwarf planets are in our Solar System?_________________ 

2. Which planet or dwarf planet is nearest the Sun?_______________________ 

3. Which planet or dwarf planet is farthest from the Sun?_______________________ 

4. Which planet is the biggest?_______________________ 

5. Which planet has the biggest, most easily-seen rings orbiting it? _____________________ 

6. What is the name of the group of objects that orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter? ______

7. What is at the center of our Solar System?_______________________ 

8. Are the inner planets made of rock or gas? _______________________ 

9. What are the icy objects with huge tails that orbit the Sun? ______________________ 

10. Which planet is called the "red planet"? ______________________ 

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Worksheet 2

Name: _______________________ Class : _________________

Characteristics of Planet Name of Planet

- No moon

- Nearest to the earth

- The hottest planet

- No moon

- Second smallest planet

- Nearest to sun

- Has two moon

- Looks red

- Only planet has living things

- Has only one moon

- Smallest and coldest planet

- Farer planet from sun

- Has 20 moons

- Has three rings surrounding it

- Biggest planet

- Has 16 moons

- Has 8 moons

- Second farer planet from sun

- Looks greenish-blue

- Has 15 moons

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Conclusion

“Constructivism is a theory of learning, and it is also a theory of knowing. It is an

epistemological concept that draws from a variety of fields, including philosophy, psychology,

and science” (Walker & Lambert, 1995 p. 1). Constructivism "has become de rigueur in

educational circles and ... stems from a long and respected tradition in cognitive psychology,

especially the writings of Dewey, Vygotsky, and Piaget" (Danielson, 1996, p. 23). Ernst von

Glasersfeld's basic principles of radical constructivism are the following:

1. Knowledge is not passively received either through the senses or by way of

communication, but it is actively built up by the cognising subject.

2. The function of cognition is adaptive and serves the subject's organization of the

experiential world, not the discovery of an objective ontological reality. (von

Glasersfeld, 1988, p. 83)

His principles are built on the ideas of Jean Piaget, who applied the biological concept of

adaptation to epistemology (von Glasersfeld, 1996). Von Glasersfeld (1993, p. 24) refers to his

ideas as "postepistemological" because his radical constructivism posits a different relationship

between knowledge and the external world than does traditional epistemology.

Theories about conceptual change have been built on constructivist principles.

Conceptual change can be subdivided into differentiation in which new concepts emerge from

more general concepts, class extension in which existing concepts become cases of another

subsuming concept, and re-conceptualization in which nature of and relationship between

concepts changes significantly (Dykstra, Boyle and Monarch, 1992). After dissatisfaction with

existing conceptions, requirements for conceptual change are that the new conception be

intelligible, plausible, and fruitful (Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982). The status of a

conception is increased as more of these three conditions are met (Hewson, 1996).

A constructivist view does not lead to a simple, uncontested set of rules for pedagogical

practice. General agreement is that students need interaction with the physical world and with

their peers to stimulate meaning-making. The teacher elicits students’ initial beliefs about the

subject to be studied and about the nature of learning. The teacher sets up situations that will

cause dissatisfaction with existing ideas. Realizing that students' expectations affect their

25

observations and that multiple approaches to problem solving are acceptable, the teacher

monitors students' understandings, requests from them evidence and justification, provides

constraints for their thinking, and gives them opportunities to represent their knowledge in a

variety of ways. The teacher's role also includes introducing, when necessary, new ways of

thinking about phenomena and working with symbols. Then the teacher guides and supports

students as they make sense of these ideas and tools for themselves in cooperation with their

classmates (Driver, 1995; Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer, & Scott, 1994; Duit, 1995; Fosnot,

1996; Lewin, 1995; Rubin, 1995; Tobin & Tippins, 1993; von Glasersfeld, 1995).

Constructivist approaches to teaching and cooperative learning techniques can be thought

of as having both personal and interpersonal components. Each person constructs his or her own

mental frameworks and conceptions using preferred learning styles. However, this is seldom

done in isolation. The cognitive developmental perspective emphasizes that participants should

engage in discussion in which cognitive conflict is resolved and inadequate reasoning is

modified. Language passing back and forth between individuals in written and oral forms is

viewed as indispensable for the development of understanding (Belenky et al, 1986; Driver,

1995; von Glasersfeld, 1995). The social interdependence perspective has the assumption that

the way social interdependence is structured determines how individuals interact. This, in turn,

determines what is accomplished by the group (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). Intrinsic motivation

is generated by interpersonal factors and joint aspirations. At the same time that students

become more aware of and take more responsibility for their own thinking, they increase their

understanding and appreciation of other people’s thinking.

3500 words

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