universiti putra malaysia reproductive pattern of …ditangkap di ladang kelapa sawit terbiar, hutan...

UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

REPRODUCTIVE PATTERN OF DOG-FACED FRUIT BAT CYNOPTERUS BRACHYOTIS MÜLLER IN BINTULU, SARAWAK, MALAYSIA

AZEMA BINTI IBRAHIM

FH 2013 10

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REPRODUCTIVE PATTERN OF DOG-FACED FRUIT BAT CYNOPTERUS

BRACHYOTIS MÜLLER IN BINTULU, SARAWAK, MALAYSIA

By

AZEMA BINTI IBRAHIM

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in

Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Science

November 2013

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COPYRIGHT

All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons,

photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia

unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis for

non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material may

only be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra Malaysia.

Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia

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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfillment of

the requirement for the degree of Master of Science

REPRODUCTIVE PATTERN OF DOG-FACED FRUIT BAT CYNOPTERUS

BRACHYOTIS MÜLLER IN BINTULU, SARAWAK, MALAYSIA

By

AZEMA BINTI IBRAHIM

November 2013

Chair: Mohamed Zakaria Bin Hussin, PhD

Faculty: Forestry

Reproductive period is a critical phase for most living organisms including bats.

However the influence of environmental condition on the reproductive patterns of

Chiroptera in Malaysia is not well studied. The development in industries, urbanisation,

animal husbandry, agriculture, and the fragmentation and isolation of natural habitats are

currently affect population of bats. If there is no restriction to these man-made

disturbances, it will lead to the extinction of bat populations due to loss of habitat,

pollution, decreasing food resources, deliberate killing, and loss of genetic diversity.

Therefore, the objective is to determine the reproductive status of C. brachyotis, to

determine the effects of environmental factors on C. brachyotis reproduction and to

investigate the synchronisation of reproductive patterns between male and female C.

brachyotis. A study on the reproductive patterns of dog-faced fruit bat, C. brachyotis

was conducted at Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Campus, Sarawak (UPMBC). Bats

were captured in the abandoned oil palm plantation, Planted Forest which is a cultivated

forest since 1990, Nirwana Natural Forest which is a secondary forest and was logged 18

years ago and Forestry Park which is also a secondary forest, using mist-nets for a

period of 14 months from January 2009 to February 2010. The reproductive status was

determined based on morphology of the bats. Five (I-Minor testes enlargement, no

epididymal distention, II-Testes at or near maximal enlargement, no epididymal

distention, III-Testes regressed, cauda epididymal distented, IV-Testes not regressed,

cauda epididymal distented and V-No testiscular or epididymal enlargement) and four

categories (I-Possibility pregnant, II-Lactating, III-Post-lactating and IV-Not

reproductively active) of reproductive status were categorized for male and female C.

brachyotis respectively. Bintulu climatic data were obtained from Kuching Meteorology

Station, Sarawak. Assessment of fruit availability was done by casual observation. Bats

reproduced at all time of the year and the peak periods were associated with the rainy

seasons. The first peak of reproduction (pregnancy and lactation) occurred in January to

April 2009 and second peak in June to November 2009. The highest frequency of

pregnancy and lactation female coincided with the fruit abundance and the rainy season.

The results indicated that C. brachyotis performed a non-seasonal reproductive pattern.

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The knowledge on C. brachyotis reproductive biology can be used in the management

and conservation of other threatened bat species.

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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai

memenuhi keperluan untuk Ijazah Master Sains

HUBUNGAN CORAK PEMBIAKAN KELAWAR BUAH CECADU PISANG

KECIL CYNOPTERUS BRACHYOTIS MÜLLER DI BINTULU, SARAWAK,

MALAYSIA

Oleh

AZEMA BINTI IBRAHIM

November 2013

Pengerusi: Mohamed Zakaria bin Hussin, PhD

Fakulti: Perhutanan

Waktu pembiakan adalah satu fasa kritikal untuk semua organisma hidup termasuk

kelawar. Walaubagaimanapun pengaruh keadaan persekitaran ke atas corak pembiakan

Chiroptera di Malaysia tidak dikaji dengan sebaiknya. Pembangunan dalam industri,

pembandaran, penternakan haiwan, pertanian dan pemecahan dan pemencilan habitat

semulajadi pada masa sekarang mempengaruhi populasi kelawar. Jika tiada halangan

kepada gangguan buatan manusia ini, ia akan menjurus kepada kepupusan populasi

kelawar, berpunca daripada kehilangan habitat, pencemaran, penurunan sumber

makanan, pembunuhan yang disengajakan dan juga kehilangan kepelbagaian genetik.

Oleh itu, objektifnya adalah untuk menentukan status pembiakan C. brachyotis, untuk

menentukan kesan faktor cuaca ke atas pembiakan C. brachyotis dan untuk menyiasat

penyelarasan corak pembiakan antara C. brachyotis jantan dan betina. Satu kajian ke

atas corak pembiakan kelawar buah cecadu pisang kecil, C. brachyotis telah dijalankan

di Universiti Putra Malaysia Kampus Bintulu, Sarawak (UPMKB). Kelawar telah

ditangkap di ladang kelapa sawit terbiar, hutan tanam semula yang mana hutan ini

ditanam semenjak tahun 1990, hutan semulajadi Nirwana, yang mana ia adalah hutan

sekunder dan telah dibalak 18 tahun lepas dan Taman Pertanian yang mana ia juga hutan

sekunder, menggunakan jaring kabut selamat 14 bulan dari Januari 2009 hingga Februari

2010. Status pembiakan telah ditentukan berdasarkan morfologi kelawar tersebut. Lima

(I-pembesaran testis minor, tiada pengembungan epididimal, II-testis pada atau hampir

pembesaran maksimal, tiada pengembungan epididimal, III-testis merosot, kauda

epididimal mengembung, IV- testis tidak merosot, kauda epididimal mengembung dan

V-tiada testis atau pembesaran epididimal) dan empat kategori (I-kemungkinan bunting,

II-menyusu, III-lepas menyusu dan IV-pembiakan tidak aktif) status pembiakan telah

dikategorikan masing-masing bagi jantan dan betina. Data cuaca Bintulu telah diperolehi

dari Stesen Meteorologi Kuching, Sarawak. Penilaian keterdapatan buah telah dilakukan

melalui pemerhatian kasual. Kelawar membiak pada semua masa sepanjang tahun dan

puncak masa telah bergabung dengan musim hujan. Puncak pembiakan pertama (bunting

dan menyusu) berlaku pada Januari hingga April 2009 dan puncak kedua pada Jun

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hingga November 2009. Frekuensi tertinggi betina bunting dan menyusu sama dengan

kelimpahan buah dan musim hujan. Keputusan menunjukkan yang C. brachyotis

mempunyai satu corak pembiakan yang tidak bermusim. Ilmu ke atas biologi pembiakan

C. brachyotis boleh digunakan dalam pengurusan dan pemeliharaan spesies kelawar

terancam yang lain.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful. Alhamdulillah, all

praises to Allah for the strengths and His blessing in completing this thesis. Special

appreciation goes to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Mohamed Zakaria bin

Hussin, for his support and knowledge regarding this topic. Not forgotten, my

appreciation to my lecturer, Dr. Marina binti Mohd Top @ Mohd Tah for her

supervision and constant support. Her invaluable help of constructive comments and

suggestions throughout the field works and thesis works have contributed to the success

of this research.

My acknowledgement also goes to all the Forestry Department staffs and Forestry

Diploma students of Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Campus Sarawak for their co-

operations. Sincere thanks to all my friends especially Rosliza binti Shamsuddin and

others for their kindness and moral support during my study. Thanks for the friendship

and memories.

Last but not least, my deepest gratitude goes to my beloved husband, Mohd Adnan bin

Bachok for his endless love, prayers and encouragement. Also not forgetting my parents,

Ibrahim bin Mamat and Wan Rahani binti Wan Ahmad for their love and care. To those

who indirectly contributed in this research, your kindness means a lot to me. Thank you

very much.

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I certify that a Thesis Examination Committee has met on (21st November 2013) to

conduct the final examination of Azema binti Ibrahim on her thesis entitled

“Reproductive Pattern of Dog-faced fruit bat Cynopterus brachyotis Müller in Bintulu,

Sarawak, Malaysia” in accordance with the Universities and University Colleges Act

1971 and the Constitution of the Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U.(A) 106] 15 March

1998. The Committee recommends that the student be awarded the degree of Master of

Science.

Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows:

Hazandy bin Abdul Hamid, PhD Associate Professor

Faculty of Forestry

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Chairman)

Abdullah bin Mohd, PhD

Associate Professor

Faculty of Forestry


(Internal Examiner)

Ahmad bin Ismail, PhD

Professor

Faculty of Science


(Internal Examiner)

Shahrul Anuar bin Mohd Sah, PhD

Associate Professor

School of Biological Sciences

Universiti Sains Malaysia

(External Examiner)

NORITAH OMAR, PhD

Associate Professor and Deputy Dean

School of Graduate Studies


Date: 18 August 2014

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This thesis was submitted to the senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been

accepted as fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science.

The members of Supervisory Committee were as follows:

Mohamed Zakaria Bin Hussin, PhD

Professor

Faculty of Forestry


(Chairperson)

Ebil Yusof, PhD

Senior Lecturer

Faculty of Forestry


(Member)

BUJANG KIM HUAT, PhD

Professor and Dean

School of Graduate Studies


Date:

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Declaration by graduate student

I hereby confirm that:

This thesis is my original work;

Quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced;

This thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other degree at

any other institutions;

Intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned by

Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)

Rules 2012;

Written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of Deputy Vice-

Chancellor (Research and Innovation) before thesis is published (in the form of

written, printed or in electronic form) including books, journals, modules,

proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers, manuscripts, posters, reports, lecture

notes, learning modules or any other materials as stated in the Universiti Putra

Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;

There is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and scholarly

integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies)

Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)

Rules 2012. The thesis has undergone plagiarism detection software.

Signature:…………………………… Date:……………..........................

Name and Matric No.: ……………………………………….........

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Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee

This is to confirm that:

The research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our supervision;

Supervision responsibilities as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia

(GraduateStudies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) are adhered.

Signature:………………………… Signature:…………………………

Name of

Chairman of

Supervisory

Committee :………………………

Name of

Member of

Supervisory

Committee :………………………..

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT i

ABSTRAK iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

APPROVAL vi

DECLARATION viii

LIST OF TABLES xii

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATONS/NOTATIONS/GLOSSARY OF

TERMS

xiv

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 General View 1

1.2 Objectives 2

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 3

2.1 Bats (Chiroptera Order) 3

2.2 Suborder of Chiroptera 5

2.2.1 Microchiroptera 5

2.2.2 Megachiroptera 7

2.3 Life History and Reproductive Strategies 8

2.4 Seasonality and Reproduction 9

2.5 Climate effect 10

2.5.1 Rainfall 10

2.5.2 Temperature 12

2.6 Reproductive Patterns 13

2.6.1 Male Bat Reproductive Patterns 14

2.6.2 Female Bat Reproductive Patterns 15

2.7 Activity Patterns/Rhythms 16

3 MATERIALS AND

METHODS/METHODOLOGY

17

3.1 Study Animal 17

3.2 Study Area 18

3.2.1 UPMKB’s Oil Palm Plantation 20

3.2.2 Planted Forest (UPM-Mitsubishi

Corporation Forest Rehabilitation

Research Project)

21

3.2.3 Nirwana Natural Forest 21

3.2.4 Forestry Park 21

3.3 Trapping of Bats 21

3.4 Sample Collection 22

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3.5 Reproductive Categories 22

3.6 Climatic Data 22

3.7 Plant Species 24

3.8 Assessment of Fruit Availability 24

3.9 Data Analysis 24

4 RESULTS 25

4.1 Reproductive Status 25

4.1.1 Male Cynopterus brachyotis 25

4.1.2 Female Cynopterus brachyotis 29

4.2 Environmental Factors 31

4.3 Food Abundance 36

4.3.1 Plant Species 36

4.4 Movement Patterns 38

5 DISCUSSIONS 40

5.1 Reproductive Status 40

5.1.1 Male Cynopterus brachyotis 40

5.1.2 Female Cynopterus brachyotis 41

5.2 Environmental Factors 43

5.3 Food Abundance 44

5.4 Movement Patterns 45

5.5 Significant of the Study 46

6 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE

RESEARCH

47

REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY 48

APPENDICES 61

BIODATA OF STUDENT 64

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 65

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