UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

CHONG SENG TONG

FBMK 2015 42

CONSTRUCTION OF MALAYSIAN CHINESENESS THROUGH BIOMETAPHORS IN MALAYSIAN CHINESE LITERATURE IN ENGLISH

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CONSTRUCTION OF MALAYSIAN CHINESENESS THROUGH

BIOMETAPHORS IN MALAYSIAN CHINESE LITERATURE IN

ENGLISH

By

CHONG SENG TONG

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,

in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

December 2015

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All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons, photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis for non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material may only be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra Malaysia. Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia

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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of University Putra Malaysia in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

CONSTRUCTION OF MALAYSIAN CHINESENESS THROUGH

BIOMETAPHORS IN MALAYSIAN CHINESE LITERATURE IN ENGLISH

By

CHONG SENG TONG

December 2015

Chairman: Zalina Mohd Kasim, PhD Faculty: Modern Languages and Communication This thesis examines the interaction between human and nonhuman (animals, plants and abiotic elements) from a biologically oriented perspective. It reads contemporary Malaysian literature in English written by Malaysian Chinese authors. Reading these bodies of texts from a biological perspective challenges the way we think about human and nonhuman interaction, specifically in relation to Malaysian Chinese and their cultures. Drawing various scientific rubrics from biological science as the theoretical frameworks can provide insightful reading and findings. With Conceptual Metaphor Theory as its methodological framework, this thesis examines the biophilic ideological construct of “Malaysian Chineseness” revealed in the works of Tan Twan Eng, Ho Thean Fook, Tash Aw, Khoo Kheng Har and Chong Seck Chim. The key findings indicate that the Malaysian Chinese use very specific to universal biometaphors in ideas construction. In addition, the Malaysian Chineseness is biophilic, which suggests the existence of harmony and peace with the environment as well as with the influence of Malaysian Chinese religion. Chapter one brings together many theoretical and current concerns that provide an impetus for the onset of this thesis. It sets out as a starting point for the research journey. Chapter two discusses literature on biophilia hypothesis, a theoretical framework from the biological science in relation to Malaysian Chinese. It also discusses the biological reading of literary texts within the broader scope of Malaysian Chineseness. Chapter three explains the methodological framework with step by step procedures, in detail. The procedure is divided into metaphor identification, metaphor interpretation and metaphor explanation. Chapter four is devoted to the analysis and discussion of the research pertaining to linking biometaphors, biophilia and Malaysian Chineseness. Lastly, chapter five concludes the entire research by revealing the idea of Malaysian Chineseness.

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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah

PEMBENTUKAN KECINAAN MALAYSIA MELALUI BIOMETAFORA

DALAM SASTERA INGGERIS DI MALAYSIA

Oleh

CHONG SENG TONG

Disember 2015

Pengerusi: Zalina Mohd Kasim, PhD Fakulti: Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi Tesis ini mengaji interaksi antara manusia dan elemen bukan manusia (alam flora, alam fauna dan elemen abiotik) dari perspektif yang berorientasikan biologi. Tesis ini focus kepada sastera kontemporari Inggeris yang ditulis oleh pengarang berbangsa cina dari Malaysia. Teks dibaca dari perspektif biologi untuk mengkaji interaksi antara manusia dan bukan manusia, khususnya yang berhubung dengan isu-isu falsafah kehidupan dan kebudayaan orang Cina Malaysia. Pelbagai konsep dari sains biologi digunakan sebagai kerangka teori. Teori metafora pula berfungsi sebagai rangka kaedah penyelidikan yang dapat membantu dalam pembinaan ideologi biofilik dan “ Kecinaan Malaysia” yang ditunjukkan dalam karya Tan Twan Eng, Ho Thean Fook, Tash Aw, Khoo Kheng Har dan Chong Seck Chim. Dapatan kajian ini membuktikan bahawa Cina Malaysia menggunakan biometafora yang sangat spesifik dan juga yang universal dalam pembentukan idea. Kajian ini juga menyimpulkan bahawa identiti Cina Malaysia adalah biofilik dimana kehidupan yang harmoni dan aman damai dengan persekitaran adalah dipengaruhi oleh agama Cina Malaysia. Bab satu merupakan pendahuluan kepada tesis ini serta membincangkan kerangka teori dan isu-isu semasa yang menjadi fokus kepada tesis ini. Ia juga merupakan titik permulaan bagi penyelidikan ini. Bab dua membincangkan kajian literatur tentang hipotesis biofilia dari bidang sains biologi yang merupakan satu kerangka teori dalam penyelidikan ini. Bab ini juga membincangkan pembacaan teks sastera Inggeris dalam skop kecinaan Malaysia. Bab tiga menerangkan kaedah penyelidikan serta prosedur analisis secara terperinci. Prosedur dibahagikan kepada pengenalan metafora, tafsiran metafora dan penjelasan metafora. Bab empat fokus kepada analisis dan perbincangan kajian yang berkaitan dengan biometafora, biofilia dan kecinaan di Malaysia. Akhirnya, bab lima merumuskan keseluruhan penyelidikan yang berfokus kepada kecinaan Malaysia.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The thesis took me more than seven years, and seven years is not a short journey, and I know. There are a lot of people whom I need to thank. The arrangement is directly linked to the production of my thesis.

To My Lord Jesus Christ, Amen. To my supervisor, Dr Zalina Mohd Kasim, who rescued me from the “tragedy”

and see me through the journey. To my best friend, Ng Yu Jin, who is too overwhelmed that no word can ever,

ever describe him, he is “the theory of everything”. To my colleague in UNITEN, Dr Yap Boon Kar, who kept telling me that this

thesis should have been done long long long ago. To My dean, Pak Arif, who gave me the opportunities, and kept reminding me

that life, is, really, really, not just this thesis. To a special friend, Zoe Lim, and with whom I shall bury my thoughts in a

secret place, and it is the tyranny of choice. To my brother Kee Shyuan and sister Su Yee, who were there, are there and

will be there, the constant in the river of time. To My miracles, Yong Bing and Cia Fen, Yong Kai, Yong Zhi,

You have tamed me

有一种超越叫懂得

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I certify that a Thesis Examination Committee has met on (date of viva voce) to conduct the final examination of Chong Seng Tong with his thesis entitled “CONSTRUCTION OF MALAYSIAN CHINESENESS THROUGH BIOMETAPHORS IN MALAYSIAN CHINESE LITERATURE IN ENGLISH” in accordance with the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 and the Constitution of the Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U. (A) 106] 15 March 1998. The Committee recommends that the student be awarded the relevant degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows: Shamala Paramasivam, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Ain Nadzimah Abdullah, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Wan Roselezam Wan Yahya, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Lixian Jin, PhD Professor Centre for Intercultural Research in Communication and Learning De Montfort University, UK (External Examiner) _________________________ Zulkarnain Zainal, PhD Professor and Deputy Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date:

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This thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia has been accepted as fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory committee were as follows: Zalina Mohd Kasim, PhD Senior Lecturer Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Afida Mohamad Ali, PhD Senior Lecturer Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) Hardev Kaur Jujar Singh, PhD Senior Lecturer Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

______________________ Bujang Kim Huat, PhD Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date:

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Declaration by graduate student I hereby confirm that: this thesis is my original work; quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced; this thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other

degree at any other institutions; intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned

by Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;

written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) before thesis is published (in the form of written, printed or in electronic form) including books, journals, modules, proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers, manuscripts, posters, reports, lecture notes, learning modules or any other materials as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;

there is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and scholarly integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012. The thesis has undergone plagiarism detection software.

Signature: _______________ Date: _________________ Name and Matric No.: _______________________________________________________________

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Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee

This is to confirm that:

the research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our supervision;

supervision responsibilities as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) are adhered to.

Signature: Name of Chairman of Supervisory Committee:

Signature:

Name of Member of Supervisory Committee:

Signature:

Name of Member of Supervisory Committee:

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ABSTRACT iii ABSTRAK iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v APPROVAL vi DECLARATION viii LIST OF TABLES xiv LIST OF FIGURES xv ABBREVIATIONS xvi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Motivation for the Study 1 1.2 Introduction 3 1.3 Research Method: Conceptual Metaphor Analysis in Literary

Studies 6

1.4 Biophilia Hypothesis as Theoretical Framework 10 1.5 Statement of the Problem 11 1.6 Research Questions 13 1.7 Significance of Study 14 1.7.1 Significance of Malaysian Chinese Studies

1.7.2 Significance on Metaphor Studies in Literature 1.7.3 Significance on Malaysian Literary Studies 1.7.4 Significance on Interdisciplinary studies

14 15 15 15

1.8 Research Designs 16 1.9 Research Scope and Limitations 17 1.10 Operational Definitions

1.11 Conclusion of Chapter One 1.12 Overview of the Following Chapters

18 21 21

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Malaysian Chinese 23 2.2.1 History of Malaysian Chinese 24 2.2.2 Pre - British Colonial Period (Pre 1786) 27 2.2.3 British Colonization Period (1786 - 1957)

2.2.4 Post Independence Period (Post 1957) 2.2.5 Malaysian Chinese Religion

28 28 29

2.3 Malaysian Chinese Literature in English 34 2.3.1 The Role of Literature Amongst the Chinese 34 2.3.2 Chinese Literature Overseas

2.3.3 Malaysian Literature in English of Chinese Origins 2.3.4 Tash Aw's The Harmony Silk Factory 2.3.5 Khoo Kheng-Hor's Nanyang 2.3.6 Chong Seck Chim's Once Upon A Time in Malaya

35 36 37 38 39

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2.3.7 Ho Thean Fook's God of the Earth 2.3.8 Tan Twan Eng's The Gift of Rain

39 40

2.4 Biophilia Hypothesis 2.4.1 Typology of Values of Nature 2.4.2 Aesthetic Value 2.4.3 Dominionistic Value 2.4.4 Humanistic Value 2.4.5 Moralistic Value 2.4.6 Naturalistic Value 2.4.7 Negativistic Value 2.4.8 Scientific Value 2.4.9 Symbolic Value 2.4.10 Utilitarian Value 2.4.11 Concluding Remarks

41 41 42 44 45 46 46 47 48 49 51 51

2.5 Conceptual Metaphor 52 2.5.1 Lakoff and Johnson’s Conceptual Metaphor Theory 52 2.5.2 Anatol Stefanowitsch's Approach 61 2.5.3 Jonathan Charteris-Black's Approach 62 2.5.4 Similes 63 2.5.5 Concluding Remarks 64 2.6 Conclusion 65 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 66 3.1 Introduction

3.2 Research Design 3.3 Description of Literary Data and the Selection of Novels 3.4 Step by Step Procedures 3.4.1 Phase One: Corpus Creation 3.4.1.1 Step One: Determining the Purpose of the Study 3.4.1.2 Step Two: Determining the Source of Data 3.4.1.3 Step Three: Sampling 3.4.1.4 Step Four: Critical Reading 3.4.1.5 Step Five: Digitization of the Text 3.4.2 Phase Two: Data Collection 3.4.2.1 Step One: Concordances Analysis 3.4.2.2 Step Two: Similes Identification 3.4.2.3 Step Three: Biosimiles Identification 3.4.2.4 Step Four: Lexical Item Search 3.4.2.5 Step Five: Categorization 3.4.3 Phase Three: Metaphor Analysis, Interpretation, & Evaluation 3.4.3.1 Step One: Textual Analysis 3.4.3.2 Step Two: Metaphor Analysis 3.4.3.3 Step Three: Metaphor Interpretation 3.4.3.4 Step Four: Metaphor Evaluation

66 66 69 71 74 74 75 75 75 75 76 76 76 77 77 78 78 78 78 79 79

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3.5 Dealing With Internal Validity / Creditability, Reliability / Consistency & Dependency, & External Validity / Transferability 3.5.1 Internal Validity / Creditability 3.5.1.1 Triangulation 3.5.1.2 Reflexivity 3.5.1.3 Member Checks 3.6 External Validity / Transferability 3.7 Reliability / Consistency and Dependability 3.7.1 Interrater Test 3.7.2 Peer Examination 3.8 Sample of Analysis 3.9 Conclusion

79 80 80 80 80 81 81 82 83 83

4 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 85 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 Research Question One 87 4.2.1 Animal Source Domain 90 4.2.2 Plant Source Domain 91 4.2.3 Ecological Components Source Domain 94 4.2.4 Concluding Remarks 95 4.3 Research Question Two (A) 95 4.3.1 Dog Metaphor 97 4.3.1.1 Introducing Dog Metaphor 97 4.3.1.2 Dog Metaphor in Selected Novels 99 4.3.1.3 Dog Metaphor and Biophilia Hypothesis 107 4.3.2 Fish Metaphor 109 4.3.2.1 Introducing Fish Metaphor 109 4.3.2.2 Fish Metaphor in Selected Novels

4.3.2.3 Fish Metaphor and Biophilia Hypothesis 111 117

4.3.3 Pig Metaphor 118 4.3.3.1 Introducing Pig Metaphor 118 4.3.3.2 Pig Metaphor in Selected Novels

4.3.3.3 Pig Metaphor and Biophilia Hypothesis 120 126

4.4 Research Question Two (B) 127 4.4.1 Flower Metaphor 127 4.4.1.1 Introducing Flower Metaphor 127 4.4.1.2 Flower Metaphor in Selected Novels 130 4.4.1.3 Flower Metaphor and Biophilia Hypothesis 133 4.4.2 Root Metaphor 135 4.4.2.1 Introducing Root Metaphor 135 4.4.2.2 Root Metaphor in Selected Novels 139 4.4.2.3 Root Metaphor and Biophilia Hypothesis 141 4.4.3 Fruits Metaphor 142 4.4.3.1 Introducing Fruits Metaphors 142 4.4.3.2 Fruits Metaphors in the Selected Novels 143 4.4.3.3 Fruits Metaphors and Biophilia Hypothesis 145

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4.5 Research Question Two (C) 147 4.5.1 Rain Metaphors 147 4.5.1.1 Introducing Rain Metaphors 147 4.5.1.2 Rain Metaphor in the Selected Novels 149 4.5.1.3 Rain Metaphor and Biophilia Hypothesis 154 4.5.2 Sea Metaphors 155 4.5.2.1 Introducing Sea Metaphors 155 4.5.2.2 Sea Metaphors in Selected Novels 157 4.5.2.3 Sea Metaphors and Biophilia Hypothesis 161 4.6 Research Question Three 162 4.7 Conclusion 166 5 CONCLUSION 168 5.1 Introduction 168 5.2 Summary of the Present Studies 169 5.3 Limitations and Constraints 170 5.4 Implications 171 5.5 Contributions to the Field and Recommendations for Future

Research 172

5.5.1 Corpus Development 172 5.5.2 Interdisciplinary Studies 173 5.5.3 Comparative Literary Studies 173 5.5.4 Metaphor Studies 174 5.6 Conclusion 174 5.7 Coda 175 REFERENCES 177 APPENDIXES 208 Appendix A: Resumes of The Inter Rater 208 Appendix B: Email Correspondence with Khoo Kheng Hor 216 Appendix C: Resumes of Peer Examiners 217 Appendix D: The Royal Belum Map 222 Appendix E: Email Communication with Michael Podzuweit 223 Appendix F: Email Communication with Stephen Kellert 224 Appendix G: Sample of Concordances Analysis 225 Appendix H: Keyness Analysis 226 Appendix I: List of Malaysian Corpora 227 Appendix J: Passion Flower 228 Appendix K: Excerpt from God of the Earth, page 88. 229 Appendix L: To Autumn by John Keats 230 Appendix M: Inter rater test questions 231 Appendix N: Water cycles. 232 Appendix O: Classification of the Animal Kingdom 233 Appendix P: Classification of the Plant Kingdom 234 BIODATA OF STUDENT 235 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 236

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page Table 1.1 A Typology of Values of Nature 10 Table 2.1: The typology of Biophilia Values 42 Table 2.2: ANGER IS HEAT OF A FLUID Metaphor 55 Table 2.3: Some Examples of Common Metaphorical Mappings 56 Table 2.4: Form of ‘As” Simile 63 Table 2.5 Form of “Like” Simile 64 Table 2.6: List of Literary Data 71 Table 3.1: Inter Rater Reliability Test 81 Table 3.2: Cohen's Kappa Value Scales and Interpretations 82 Table 4.1: Summary of biosimiles used by various authors 87 Table 4.2 Biosimiles used by various authors 88 Table 4.3 Domains and Percentage 88 Table 4.4: Lists of Different Types of Animals used in the Similes 90 Table 4.5: Animal similes used by various authors 91 Table 4.6: Lists of Different Types of Plants used in Similes 93 Table 4.7: Plant similes used by various authors 93 Table 4.8: Lists of Different Types of Ecological Components used in Similes

94

Table 4.9: Ecological components similes used by various authors 95 Table 4.10: Mapping of Dog Metaphor 102 Table 4.11: Summary of Metaphors and the Typology of Biophilia Hypothesis

166

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page Figure 1.1 Metaphor and Worldview 7 Figure 1.2: Mapping for ARGUMENT IS WAR Metaphor 9 Figure 1.3: Research Design 16 Figure 2.1: Organization of Literature Review Chapter 23 Figure 2.2: The Timeline for the Evolution of Malaysian Chinese Culture

26

Figure 2:3: Yin Yang and the Five Phases 31 Figure 2.4: The Fibonacci Symmetry 44 Figure 2.5: Charteris-Black's (2004, p.244) Hierarchical View of Metaphors

62

Figure 3.1: Research Design 67 Figure 3.2: Qualitative Research Strategies 68 Figure 3.3: Archival Strategies 68 Figure 3.4: Methods in Phase One 72 Figure 3.5: Methods in Phase Two 73 Figure 3.6: Methods in Phase Three 74 Figure 3.7: Purpose of the Study 74 Figure 3.8: Dealing with Internal Validity/Creditability, Reliability/Consistency and Dependency, and External Validity/Transferability

79

Figure 4.1 Discussion Structure for Research Questions Two and Three

85

Figure 4.2 Keyness Analysis 89 Figure 4.3: A General View of Kampung Baru Hulu Kepong New Village (Source: Phang and Tan 2013)

97

Figure 4.4: Mapping of Dog Metaphor 102 Figure 4.5: The Functional Relationship between Displacement and Loyalty

103

Figure 4.6: Leaping Fish in the Brain 114 Figure 4.7: The relationship between gas molecules in a container 115 Figure 4.8: Symbolism of passion flower 130 Figure 4.9: The National Flower of Malaysia, Hibiscus (Courtesy of Prof Malachi Edwin Vethamani, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus 2014)

131

Figure 4.11: Mapping of Sea Metaphor 160

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ABBREVIATION

HTF Ho Thean Fook’s God of the Earth (2003)

TA Tash Aw’s The Harmony Silk Factory (2005)

CSC Chong Seck Chim’s Once Upon a Time in Malaya (2005)

KKH Khoo Kheng Hor’s Nanyang (2007)

TTE Tan Twan Eng’s The Gift of Rain (2007)

Note:

English translation of Chinese proverbs and idioms are taken from

1. Zheng, W.D. (2011). Chinese proverb dictionary. Shanghai, China: Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House

2. Lin, M. & Leonard, S. (2012). Dictionary of 1,000 Chinese idioms. New York: Hippocrene Books.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Motivation for the study

The Chinese are everything: they are actors, acrobats, artists, musicians, chemists and druggists, clerks, cashiers, engineers, architects, ... cultivators of pepper and gambier, ... merchants and agents, ... opium shopkeepers, pawnbrokers, ... rice dealers, ship chandlers, shopkeepers, ... carpenters, ... seamen, ... grocers, beggars, idle vagabonds or samsengs and thieves. (Vaughan, 1974, p. 15)

This thesis discusses the notions of biological environment, metaphors and cultures, and the constructions of Chineseness within the broader perspective of the Malaysian Chinese. It examines the construction of the categorical ethnic group “Malaysian Chinese” in literary texts written by Malaysian Chinese authors. The researcher’s research journey foregrounds the notion of Malaysian Chineseness in the context of Malaysia using data from contemporary literary texts. The researcher has always been intrigued by the idea of Chineseness – what is Chineseness? How does the researcher, a Malaysian Chinese, experience the world in this multicultural site? Does the researcher belong to the ideological category of Malaysian Chinese? Just as Lao Tzu once said, “Knowing others is wisdom, knowing the self is enlightenment” (Feng & English, 1972). This study, then, carries a personal burden, and a journey towards self-discovery, because this journey has been largely influenced by the researcher’s own background and ancestry. And through this journey, the researcher wishes to explore further, to know the illusive past, to acknowledge the current present and to lift up the windows of the enigmatic future. V.S. Naipaul, in his 2001 Nobel Banquet Speech, stated a phenomenon so close to the researcher’s heart when he said that “I know my father and my mother, but beyond that I cannot go. My ancestry is blurred”. This is exactly what the researcher is encountering and with the shift in the Malaysian Chinese family institutions, the researcher believes this phenomenon is just the beginning.

Our hunger to belong is the longing to bridge the gulf that exists between isolation and intimacy. Distance awakens longing; closeness is belonging. Everyone longs for intimacy and dreams of a nest of belonging in which one is embraced, seen and loved. Something within each of us cries out for belonging. O’Donohue (1999, p. xvi)

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The researcher came to the question of being a Malaysian Chinese in secondary school days, when an acquaintance once asked the researcher “why am I a Chinese but also a Malaysian?” It took the researcher years to realise the importance and significance of her question. The term, “Chinese but Malaysian” for the researcher basically means being a Malaysian Chinese. The researcher studied in a missionary school because the ideology of his parents is that English is more superior. The parent’s ideology echoes Ain Nadzimah Abdullah, Rosli Talif and Jariah Mohd. Jan’s idea when they say that “English was often seen as a value-added experience which provided a person with a better future” (2012, p.46). The researcher went to an Anglican Church where half of the population was Indian, the researcher lived in a Taman (Housing area) with Malays as the majority, and the researcher speaks English in School, Mandarin at home, answered examination papers in Malay from PMR (Penilaian Menengah Rendah, equivalent to British LCE), SPM (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia, equivalent to GCE ‘O’ Level) to STPM (Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia, equivalent to GCE ‘A’ Level). The researcher practices multilingualism. Ever since, the researcher has always been sensitive and aware of the notion of “Malaysian Chinese”, and its implications and representations. This identity crisis, as suggested by Leon (2009, p.13) is further “aggravated by the hasty transformations taking place on both local and global levels because the postcolonial condition also gestures towards multicultural, global contexts”. The fact is, genealogically, the researcher is a third generation Chinese living in Malaysia, a multiracial country. Comparatively, this country is a rather young nation as she achieved independence on 31 August 1957, from the British colonisers. However, the effects of imperialism remain. The effect of British colonialization is still vivid such as the existing of missionary schools, convents, churches, the use of English in daily life, inter alia. According to Young (2003, p.3), independence is a relatively minor move from direct to indirect rule, a shift from colonial rule and domination to a position not so much of independence as of being in-dependence. Cultural imperialism in post-colonial Malaysia, which is hegemonic and ambivalent, is attributed to the dilemmas of developing a national identity to navigate multiculturalism in the social and cultural reconstructions of its citizenry. This is in spite of their seemingly contrasting dichotomies to find middle grounds to breed social cultural-religious tolerance, dialogues and discourses in the arts and culture (Mohd Anis, 2012, p.313). This country witnesses a harmonic co-mingling and existence of three distinctive races, namely the Malays, Chinese and Indians, and some other smaller ethnic groups such as Punjabi, Iban, Kadazan, etc. Historically, the Chinese and Indians were brought in to the British colonies as indentured laborers to work in tin mines and rubber plantations. Many of them lived and developed in small towns such as ‘Taiping’, ‘Ipoh’, ‘Ampang’, ‘Kulai’ etc. The Chinese worked hard, prospered and built their families in this land called Malaya with no intention of returning to China which was in turmoil. Many

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Chinese stayed on and became rooted here. Eventually many of them became citizens of this country. The researcher discusses this historical and geographical migration in chapter two. The researcher now returns to the personal journey within the context of the researcher life. While the close ties the researcher has with family, friends and Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) colleagues have given the researcher a certain sense of being a Malaysian Chinese, the researcher is still torn in between being a Malaysian, a Malaysian Chinese and a Chinese. The reality that we are born into the story of ourselves urges the researcher to look deeper and explore the notion of Malaysian Chinese. In doing so, the researcher is aware of the need to go back historically and look at the scenario diachronically and synchronically. This thesis demonstrates how a journey of self-discovery is juxtaposed onto an academic endeavor. Metaphorically, this is the researcher’s own on-going voyage towards understanding his own identity, as Mohamad Rashidi Pakri has aptly put, “the best way is not simply to go forward, by letting themselves be carried along in the slipstream of other’s progress, but to actively propel themselves forward, to be proactive, it is the best way of present, and the future” (Mohamad Rashidi Pakri, 2014, p. 88). Today, the struggle for political and economic power that was inherent in nationalism helped to increase awareness of Chinese presence in Malaysia and to raise questions about their place therein. The images of the Chinese produced during this period, like their predecessors, were shaped by the historical and discursive contexts in which they were created, reinvented and repeated, mainly by the colonizers. It is an appropriate and just time and context to examine the representation not from the colonial viewpoint, but a current revision from the Malaysian Chinese writers themselves. 1.2 Introduction

There are several scholarly articles which are related to this thesis. Imran Ho’s (2011) paper on dog metaphors in Malay idioms suggests that dog metaphors have negative connotations in Malay cultures due to Islamic teaching. Wei (2011) suggests that lion metaphors are predominantly related to divinity in Chinese cultures. Raihanah et.al. (2014) develop a new method of reading the Muslim diaspora. These researches help in providing an academic background for the researcher to study the concept of Malaysian Chineseness and the usage of biometaphors. The publication of Metaphors We Live By (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003) has revolutionised the discipline of metaphor studies. It is no longer a discipline only for the linguists or cognitive scientists but for all in the academia. In the afterword

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section of this canonical text’s second edition, Lakoff and Johnson (2003) opined that the publication has initiated many interdisciplinary studies such as literary analysis, politics, law and social issues, psychology, mathematics, cognitive linguistics, philosophy, inter alia. The Conceptual Metaphor Theory has provided a new modus operandi in the above mentioned disciplines. In this thesis, the researcher chose to work on one of the areas mentioned, which is literary studies, specifically on the narratives of Malaysian Chinese. Semino and Steen (2008, p. 232) suggest that “metaphor in literature needs to be studied by combining literary approaches with discourse analytic, corpus-linguistic, and psycholinguistic techniques. The researcher adopts this notion of integrating different approaches to dissect the narratives and hence making the metaphors in literary works emerge themselves and ultimately showing the conceptual mechanism. Lakoff and Johnson’s Conceptual Metaphor Theory is not the only approach in literature and metaphor studies. However, for the sake of exposition, the researcher chooses the Conceptual Metaphor Theory as an analytical tool in this study with the assumption that, as highlighted by Semino and Steen, “the vast majority of studies of metaphor in literature is different between metaphor in literature and metaphor elsewhere (2008, p. 233). The primary reason for choosing literary texts is because the study of literature has become much less elitist over the past couple of decades. New literary genres such as young adult literature, chick-lit, inter alia, have been popularised by the media, and hence made the public aware of “literature”. Literature is now more inclusive of many other genres such as media, movies and other popular materials. This links the human being to literary works. According to Freeman (2007), cognitive metaphor theory provides a bridge between the linguistic and literary text construction and the workings of the human mind. The second reason is due to the fact that literature is a mirror of a society. It is believed that literature gives readers a clear picture of a society, its structure, combination, interaction and dwelling. Steen and Gavins (2003, p.1) opined that cognitive reading of literature can tell us more about everyday human experience. It is through this belief that literary texts can link the issue of thought and language and human experience. Khor (2008), in his work on Straits Chinese in Malaysia, also utilised materials from literature which was proven to be one of the best methodologies in line with the inquisitive nature of the research. This is in accordance to Hall (1994, pp.392-401) when he developed the term “street cultures” which can be defined as the culture of everyday life. Matthew Arnold (cited in Bassnett 1993, p. 1) in his Inaugural Lecture at Oxford in 1857 said that,

“Everywhere there is connection, everywhere there is illustration. No single event, no single literature is adequately comprehended except in relation to other events, to other literatures.

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The third reason is due to the fact that the power of poetics is not to be oversimplified. The term poetics here is a generic term which includes all genres of literary production. Confucius in his “Analects” (Translated by A. Charles Muller 1990) once said,

[17-8] 子曰。小子、何莫學夫詩。詩可以興、可以觀、可以群、可以怨。

邇之事父、遠之事君。多識於鳥、獸、草、木之名。

[17-8] The Master said: “My disciples, why not study the Book of Odes? The Odes can uplift you, can make you observant, can help you to get along with people, can help you to use your anger [in a proper way]. Applied near at hand, you can serve your father; applied at a distance, you can serve your ruler. You can learn much about the names of birds, beasts, plants, and trees.”

From the excerpt above, Confucius encouraged his students to study the “Book of Odes” which is sometimes called “The Book of Songs” or “The Book of Poetry”. This book is poetic in nature and covers all aspects of life. Watson (2007) opined that “The Book of Odes” is an embodiment of sentiments and ideals that are relevant to all human society. The excerpt suggests that poetics can be used as a tool for aesthetics value such as creating creativity. It can also be used to develop a nation, a country and a community. The researcher can reaffirm that poetics has many functions and one of them is to build or destroy a nation. Historically, in ancient China, poetics and politics had very intimate relationships where some ostracised politicians used poetic materials to express their frustrations, opinions and feelings. The fourth reason for choosing literary text is, according to Mukherjee (2010, p.187) that “a specific environment of historical condition, as it manifests itself in former colonies and the new postcolonial nations, enabling a complex and rich representative act that we call the postcolonial form. What we call the environment enters it as a theme, in its compulsive recording of the symbiosis between humans and nonhumans, their physical surroundings and the various movements and expressions of the historical capital”. Hence, literary texts can serve as a kaleidoscope for Malaysian Chinese history. Goh and Yeoh (2003, p.1) argue that “any attempt to analyse the Southeast Asian City (apart from the most purely synchronic account) must inevitably encounter the notion of the post-colonial”. It is important to emphasize that the postcolonial backdrop provides an arena for the Malaysian Chinese to grow and prosper. Hence, research on the socio-cultural features of the Malaysian Chinese is then a more cognizant study with the historical factors and contestations. The fifth reason in choosing literary texts for this study has its foundation in I.A. Richards’s Darwinism. I.A. Richards in his Principles of Literary Criticism (1924/2001) claims that literature is inseparable from human beings in terms of emotions, psychology and social needs, behaviours and attitudes. West (2013,

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p.33) has an even stronger claim about literature when he says that “literature is placed at the very central of human life”. Richards bridges the link between Darwinism and literature and this posits the place of literature in this study. The researcher has placed literature in Malaysian Chinese community within the ever changing dynamics of the ecology and the doctrines of natural selection. This foundation suits the niche of this thesis in terms of scope and philosophical beliefs. 1.3 Research method: Conceptual Metaphor Analysis in Literary Studies

The method which will be employed in this research is conceptual metaphor analysis. This methodology involves close and careful reading of the selected texts to extract the biometaphors. This will be followed by content analysis of the texts using biophilia hypothesis to examine the relationship between Malaysian Chineseness and the biological environment in the selected texts. The reason of using metaphor analysis in Malaysian literary texts is to fill in the gap between literary studies and linguistics. As Fludernik puts astutely;

Cognitive metaphor theory has had a tremendous impact, displacing almost all other theoretical approaches to metaphor, and has resulted in what could be described as a paradigm shift in the Kuhnian sense. However, the paradigm shift preponderantly affected linguistics rather than literary studies (2011, p.6).

The lacuna in bridging literary studies and linguistics is first filled in by Lakoff and Turner (1989) using the concepts developed by Lakoff and Johnson in 1990. Lakoff and Johnson (2003, p.3) define metaphor as “for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish – a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language. Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our daily conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.” The operational definition of this term is adopted from Lakoff and Turner (1989, p.xi) which explains that metaphor is an integral part of our ordinary everyday thought and language. And it is irreplaceable: metaphors allow us to understand ourselves and our world in ways that no other modes of thought can. Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003) is the methodological framework as it is believed that metaphor is rife in our thought and everyday language. This theory claims that a large part of our ordinary language describing everyday experience is expressed metaphorically. The researcher will discuss this in detail in chapter three. Metaphor, according to Cortazzi and Jin (1999, p.149), “links and comprises the known and the unknown, the tangible and the less intangible, the familiar and the new.” This can be diagrammatised as below;

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Worldview Metaphor

Figure 1.1 Metaphor and Worldview (Adapted from Cortazzi & Jin 1999, p.149)

There are many approaches to the studies of metaphor emerging from various schools of thought, with different philosophical insights. However, this section focuses on the locus of Conceptual Metaphor Theory in literary studies. In More than Cool Reason (1989), Lakoff and Turner have demonstrated the role of metaphor in literary analysis. Based on seminars taught by Lakoff and Turner in 1987 at the University of California at Berkeley and the University of Chicago, the book is subtitled a “field guide” because it identifies and characterises metaphors in terms of the taxonomic distinction between genus and species. This book details the use of Conceptual Metaphor Theory as an analytical tool in the humanistic studies of literature. According to Lakoff and Turner (1989, p.214), it is vital that we understand our own worldviews and the processes that guide both our everyday understanding and our imagination. Hence, the Malaysian Chinese worldview is the main focus in this thesis with the premise that race is not a category in itself, it is “a prism through which broader social structures, processes and possibilities, and also problems, can be explored” (Gabriel 2015, p. 2). Freeman (2007, p.403) believes that because cognitive poetics studies the cognitive processes and creates literature as the semblance of felt life, it thus contributes to our understanding of the embodied mind. Gibbs illustrates that scholars have argued that the construction of reality is based on a collection of symbolic forms which are figurative in nature (1994, p.17). There are many other scholars who have presented their views in this similar orientation such as the 18th century rhetorician Giambattista Vico, the 18th century philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the 19th century philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, the 20th century philosophers Ernest Cassirer and Suzanne Langer, and the 20th century literary theorists Kenneth Burke and Hayden White (Gibbs 1994, p. 17).

unknown Known

Tangible Less tangible

Familiar New

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Gibbs 1994, p. 17) describes that “in recent years, Lakoff, Sweetser, Turner and Johnson have argued that metaphor is the main mechanism through which we understand abstract concepts and perform abstract reasoning”. Metaphor is a method for our reasoning. It is then crucial to acknowledge the interaction between metaphorical narrative and cognitive processes. Metaphorical narrative here is specifically referring to literary works by contemporary Malaysian Chinese writers. Metaphor, then, is not “merely a matter of words but is rather a fundamental mode of cognition affecting all human thought and action, including everyday language and poetic language” (Turner 2000, p.9). In this research, a primary focus is on linking human and the non-human world, which include animals, plants and ecological components. The categorization of these components is based on Lakoff and Turner’s idea, “The Great Chain”. The study on human and non-human is further illustrated by the idea of “The Great Chain”. Lakoff and Turner (1989, p.167) suggest that “the Great Chain is a scale of forms of being-human, animal, plant, inanimate object”. This idea attempts to unearth the multidimensional relationships between;

(1) Human and animals (2) Human and plants (3) Human and inanimate objects

To understand these relationships, the researcher first examines the definition of metaphor. The Oxford English Dictionary defines metaphor as both transfer and analogy: “the figure of speech in which a name or descriptive term is transferred to some object different from, but analogous to, that to which it is properly applicable.” This definition illustrates the general view on metaphor. Conceptual metaphor, according to Lakoff and Johnson (2003, p.3), is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. This definition suggests that metaphor is not merely a device in rhetoric or literature, but is in everyday usage. It is the way the researcher perceives the world and expresses the researcher’s feelings and emotions. Kovecses defines metaphor as “a figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another by saying that one is the other” (2010, p.vii). In order to do this, human being often understands an abstract concept using a concrete abstract and mappings link these two domains. However, in many instances, this is not the case. Human being does not always understand an abstract concept using a concrete concept. Zalina Mohd Kasim (2007, p.322) found that abstract concepts that function as source domains are not necessarily unfamiliar, and vice versa. Some writers tend to use metaphor in a more complicated way such as Tan Twan Eng, when he wrote;

The light was fading and the scent of wet grass wove through the air like threads entwining with the perfume of the flowers, creating an intricate tapestry (TTE).

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His carefully combed white hair seemed like part of the glare of the cloudless sky. 'He was very good-looking,' she said (TTE).

The target domain for the first example is “the scent of grass” and the source domain is “threads entwining with the perfumes of the flowers”. Meanwhile, the target domain for the second example is the “hair” and the source domain is the “sky”. It is crucial to note that biological elements are used both in the target and source domains such as “sky”, “scent of grass”, and “threads with flower perfume”. The question of mappings, target domains and source domains and how all these are conceptualised by the Malaysian Chinese worldview is the key set of inquiries in this thesis. Before the researcher moves on to examine a more theoretical and philosophical question on the mapping of abstract and concept concepts, it is deemed important to first look at the relationship of mappings in Conceptual Metaphor Theory. Conceptual metaphors (Knowles & Moon 2006, p.33) equate two concept areas, as in ARGUMENT IS WAR. Examples of metaphorical linguistic expressions provided by Lakoff and Johnson (2003) include the following; Your claims are indefensible. He attacked every weak point in my argument. His criticisms were right on target. I demolished his argument. I've never won an argument with him. These metaphorical linguistic expressions from Lakoff and Johnson (2003) suggest the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR. This can be represented in Figure 1.2 as below:

Figure 1.2: Mapping for ARGUMENT IS WAR Metaphor The figure illustrates the mapping between argument and war. Conceptual Metaphor Theory suggests that the researcher conceptualise the concept of ARGUMENT in a more concrete idea, WAR. Kovecses (2010, p.6) explains that “our experiences with the physical world serve as a natural and logical foundation for the comprehension of more abstract domains”.

Target Domain

ARGUMENT

Source Domain

WAR

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1.4 Biophilia Hypothesis As Theoretical Framework The definition above, given by Kovecses (2010, p.6), contains an important key word which is “physical world”. It sets the ground for the researcher’s research questions as the researcher is interested to examine the relation between human and non-human, and their relationships to the biological environment. The biological environment consists of the animal kingdom, the plant kingdom and the non-living things. The relationship between human and non-human things is crucial in sustaining ecological balance. As Wilson projected, “each new phase of synthesis emerges from biological inquiry, the humanities will expand their reach and capability. In symmetric fashion, with each redirection of the humanities, science will add dimensions to human biology” (Wilson 1996, p.135). In this thesis, biophilia hypothesis serves as a theoretical framework. Maxwell (2005, p.33) proposes that a theoretical framework is “the system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that supports or informs the research”. Merriam (2009) further explains that it is the underlying and the scaffolding of the research. In this research, the theoretical framework has several functions. In accordance to Creswell (2009, p.64), theoretical framework, in this thesis, acts as an up-front explanation as well as an end point. The biophilia hypothesis (Wilson1984; Kellert 1993) puts literary texts set in the Malaysian landscape, and the interactions between human and non-human elements into perspective. This hypothesis hypothesizes that there is a fundamental, genetically based human need and propensity to interact with the physical environment, animals and plants. This hypothesis was developed by Wilson (1984), a socio-biology professor at Harvard who studied ants. Kellert (1993) from Yale then further developed this hypothesis and carried out experiments in the fields of psychology and more recently, architecture and building. The link between human and non-human is best described by biophilia hypothesis. Biophilia hypothesis can be defined as “the innately emotional affiliation of human beings to other living organisms” (Wilson 1993, p.31). Kellert (1993, p.42) further suggests that human identity and personal fulfilment somehow depend on our relationship with nature. Kellert later developed a typology of human attitudes towards nature as stipulated below.

Table 1.1: A Typology of Values of Nature (Kellert 1993, p. 42) Values Definition 1 Aesthetic Physical attraction and appeal of nature 2 Dominionistic Mastery and control of nature 3 Humanistic Emotional bonding with nature 4 Moralistic Ethical and spiritual relation to nature 5 Naturalistic Exploration and discovery of nature

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6 Negativistic Fear and aversion of nature 7 Scientific Knowledge and understanding of nature 8 Symbolic Nature as a source of language and imagination 9 Utilitarian Nature as a source of material and physical reward

This typology explains the interaction between human and non-human things in this biological world. Ecology, then, is the scientific study of the interactions of living organisms and the biological environment. These interactions between living and non-living things and every component of an environment cannot exist as a separate entity. They are living in a dynamic ecosystem. A detailed description of this typology will be provided in chapter two. The roles and functions of the nine values in Biophilia hypothesis serve as instruments in the research. These values are used to locate the entailment and embodiment of cognition through biometaphors. They can justify the equally resilient in the lives of the Malaysian Chinese of the environment and its ethos. Then, the Malaysian Chineseness with its perceived moral ethos can be proved to be a fertile catalyst for identity construction within a larger terrain of nationhood and citizenship. 1.5 Statement of the Problem George Eliot in her infamous book Middlemarch (1871-1872), says that “every limit is a beginning as well as an ending”. Similarly, like any other research endeavors, the researcher’s MA research raises more issues than it settles, especially in terms of the personal discovery journey. In his MA research, the researcher has examined metaphors in Chinese idioms. The research has shown that the Chinese use a great number of human physiology metaphors to express their emotions. For instance, GRIEF IS TEARFUL FACE, ANGER IS BURNING EYES (Chong, 2007), inter alia. The question that arises is, besides human physiology, does biophilia, or the surrounding biological environment also influences the cognitive conceptual systems of the Chinese? If so, in what ways and to what extent? It was from here that the researcher’s interest in conceptual metaphors and human-environment deepened, and the researcher would like to further explore the complexities and connections between Chinese thoughts and biometaphors. Lakoff and Turner (1989, p. 166) also worked on proverbs and suggested “proverbs as offering us ways of comprehending the complex faculties of human beings in terms of these other things’. They also philosophize that the idea of the Great Chain of Being is a cultural model that concerns kinds of beings and their properties, and places them on a vertical scale with “higher” beings and properties above “lower” beings and properties. In Malaysia, Zalina Mohd Kasim (2007) has also worked on similes in Malay Poetry. It is from here that the

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researcher has developed an interest in examining biometaphors in Malaysian Chinese literature in English. The dearth of related research prompted the researcher to research on this area. There are, however, one doctoral thesis on metaphors and Malay literature by Zalina Mohd Kasim (2007). The thesis specifically worked on metaphor and Malay poetry. Most Malaysian literary scholars chose to work on metaphors in English poetry such as Jayem (2006) on poems by Philip Larkin. Other works on metaphors are mainly in linguistics. While work in the field of Malaysian literature in English studies has begun to engage with metaphor studies, Malaysian literature in English studies are largely dominated by thinking from the perspective of a rigid and traditional literary criticism. This thesis challenges homogenising notions of biophilia to the invention of Malaysian Chineseness, and develops a dynamic concept of Malaysian Chineseness through an understanding of the way in which human crafting processes engage with the fluidity of constant interactions with the biological environment. Simultaneously, it opens lines and modes of enquiry which differs in their philosophical background and view, but engages with evaluating such perspective in dialogue with its own lines of strategies of inquiries. The researcher has contacted Stephen Kellert, who is the mastermind behind this biophilia hypothesis to confirm the usage of biophilia hypothesis in other fields. Stephen Kellert (personal communication, April 18, 2015) concluded that to the best of his knowledge, no other researcher has linked biophilia to language and literary studies apart from a PhD researcher, Michael Podzuweit. (See appendix F for this personal communication). Michael Podzuweit, (personal communication, May 31, 2015) who is based in German, is the only person currently working on biophilia and the literature of Cape Cod. Love (2003, p. 34) expresses his idea on animal presence in major canonical works such as Dante’s Divine Comedy, Shakespeare’s Hamlet and Orwell’s Animal Farm. George Eliot, in Scenes of Clerical Life (1857), writes that “animals are such agreeable friends - they ask no questions, they pass no criticisms”. However, in the Malaysian context, there is no scholarship on the presence of animals in the local literary works. This thesis, then, serves as the first to this research niche. This is further extended to the plant kingdom and the ecological components in order to have a clearer picture of the research terrain. In conclusion, to answer the research questions that were raised previously, Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) developed by Lakoff and Johnson (2003) is utilised as the research method. Meanwhile, biology-based theoretical framework, biophilia hypothesis is used as the theory to locate the relationship between Malaysian Chinese metaphorical thought and the biological environment.

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1.6 Research Questions In the previous section, the researcher has determined the objectives of this research and now, the researcher will move on to our research questions. These can help achieve the objectives of this research. The research questions are as below:

1. What are the dominant source domains for the biosimiles found in the selected Malaysian Chinese literature in English?

2. What are the roles and functions of biometaphors in the construction of the Malaysian Chinese worldview? a. What is the construction of the typology of biophilia values between the Malaysian Chinese community and the animal metaphors? b. What is the construction of the typology of biophilia values between the Malaysian Chinese community and the plant metaphors? c. What is the construction of the typology of biophilia values between the Malaysian Chinese community and the ecological components metaphors?

3. To what extent does the Malaysian Chinese religion influence and shape the way the Malaysian Chinese use biometaphors to express their worldview?

In order to answer the research questions, text selection is a key criterion. Due to the prodigious number of books by Malaysian Chinese writers in the market, the researcher’s selection of texts for discussion is necessarily limited so that the focus can be achieved, as any research in Malaysian Literature in English would be. Hence, the researcher intends to study several texts namely, Tash Aw’s The Harmony Silk Factory (2005), Chong Seck Chim’s Once Upon a Time in Malaya (2005), Ho Thean Fook’s God of the Earth (2003), Tan Twan Eng’s The Gift of Rain (2007) and Khoo Keng-Hor’s Nanyang (2007). Texts are selected in terms of traits and commonalities. One of the commonalities is that the authors are all Malaysian-born Chinese authors. Some authors are currently residing abroad. Tan Twan Eng lives in Cape Town, South Africa while Tash Aw resides in London. The different worlds they came from or they are currently living in, cannot be taken as a demarcation but rather, as described succinctly by Fadillah Merican et.al. (2004, p.12) “the voices of these various worlds are….the teeming, colourful, sad, joyous, harmonious and fractured individuals of the fictional world they create”. It is important to note that these writers claim that they are truly Malaysian at heart. The question of where they are physically located is a peripheral question. It is the sense of belonging that they have in their heart that represents the centrality of ‘Malaysianness’ that appeared rather pertinently in the narrative they

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produced. In an interview conducted by the researcher with Khoo Kheng Hor in the year 2010, the writer Khoo Kheng Hor firmly said that he strives to create awareness by sharing with the world at large in order to further an understanding of the Chinese people, their culture, morals, and philosophy. Another Malaysian writer, Kee Thuan Chye also said that his “imagination is stirred by issues like what it means to be Malaysian” (Mohammad A. Quayum 2007, p. 131). A Slovenian philosopher, Renata Salecl (2011), in her book “The Tyranny of Choice” mentioned that “the idea of choice has deeply penetrated our perception of feelings, as though we can ‘choose’ whether or not to have them”. Indeed, it is sometimes not a choice to choose, especially when it comes to some innate feelings such as the idea of belonging. It can be concluded that it is a subconscious choice for one to be a Malaysian. Similarly, this applies to the authors, albeit living abroad for years. 1.7 Significance of the study Given the lacuna of interdisciplinary research on linguistics, literature and biology, this research will be a great contribution to the current body of knowledge on these academic areas. It will also serve to encourage more interdisciplinary studies integrating different schools of thought. Batsaki, Mukherji and Schramm’s Fiction of Knowledge (2011) suggests that interdisciplinary and diachronic research can register the way in which imaginative literature responds to the pressures of particular historical moments. Interdisciplinary studies can then “chart a larger history of the relation between literary thinking and epistemic practices in other fields” (2011, p.1). Garrard (2004, p.136) pointed out that in the humanities, the study of the relationship between animals and humans is usually split between the philosophical consideration of animal rights and the cultural analysis of the representation of animals. This thesis is one example of the mentioned studies. What distinguishes this thesis from the other studies is that this thesis focuses on Malaysian Chinese and the biological worlds. The researcher’s work is the only thesis-length study of its kind. The researcher’s focus on using biological framework in the reading of Malaysian Chinese works in English distinguishes this thesis within the field of existing studies concentrated on Malaysian Chinese writers. There is one recent example of work on Malaysian Chinese writers; a UPM thesis by Tan Chye Sing (2010). His study focused on political and economic studies on Malaysian Chinese writers. The reading was also slanted towards a postcolonial perspective. Hence, this current research is aimed to fill several research gaps.

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1.7.1 Significance on Malaysian Chinese studies Studies on Malaysian Chineseness were primarily on discourse written in the Chinese language. It is however, important to note that the notion of Malaysian Chineseness is not only limited within writings in Chinese but also in writings in other languages. Language here, is a medium for communication. Khor (2008) worked on Anglophone Straits Chinese literature at the University of Cambridge and in his thesis, he mentioned that “academic studies about the Straits Chinese have been primarily undertaken by historians, anthropologists and linguists” (2008, p.1). Similarly, the phenomenon is the same with regards to studies on Malaysian Chineseness. 1.7.2 Significance on metaphor studies in literature Lakoff and Turner’s More than Cool Reason (1989) becomes a classic in cognitive poetics. However, it is very important to note that none of this approach has been used in the genre of Malaysian Chinese literature in English. In the Malaysian context, literature in English has a role especially in the education domain. Literature is seen necessary since it allows students to expand their minds to the world and this will equip them to compete and thrive in the increasingly networked world (Hishammuddin Tun Hussein 2004). 1.7.3 Significance on Malaysian literary studies Malaysian literature in English is an emerging area of study. However, many researchers tend to slant towards the postcolonial perspectives. Hence, studies on Malaysian Chinese authors are rare. Chong (2006) in her master’s thesis, focused on diaspora in Tash Aw’s work. This thesis will also feature his work but mainly on major characters in The Harmony Silk Factory. Meanwhile, Subramaniam and Pillai (2008) worked on Malaysian poetry written by Chinese authors and its relation to nationhood. They (Subramaniam & Pillai) provide an insight into the way towards reconciling Malaysian Chinese Identity and spaces for the inquiry into the various angles of the confrontation of Malaysian nationhood. Similarly, Gabriel (2014) discusses the conceptualisation of Malaysian Chinese especially in terms of otherness found in Tash Aw’s The Harmony Silk Factory. 1.8.4 Significance on interdisciplinary studies In promoting interdisciplinary studies, it is rare to cross examine with a theory from the sciences. There are however, some to cite. One of them is by Beer (2009) in her book Darwin’s Plots: Evolutionary Narrative in Darwin, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Fiction. In this book, she draws concepts from Darwin’s Origin of Species such as natural selection and evolution. Her work focused on

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Victorian literature with authors such as George Eliot, Thomas Hardy and Charles Dickens. Connor (2013) in his paper titled “Quantum Writing: Literature and the World of Numbers” written for a lecture given at the Institute of Continuing Education, Cambridge, on 13th June 2013, spelt out the illustration of mathematics in literature. He also suggested that mathematics has indeed changed the ways of writing for some authors, especially the Kantian mathematical sublime haunts liberal-authoritarian modernists such as Virginia Woolf and G.K. Chesterton. This thesis is to fill the gap of a biological reading of Malaysian Chinese literature in English since there is no published work on this subject area. Ideally, this work falls midway between metaphor studies, literature and biological science and presents a productive place for literary scholars, cognitive scientists and biologists to work, and thus fostering future interdisciplinary research. 1.8 Research Designs The theories and research methods mentioned above will be incorporated into a workable research design. This methodology, explained in depth in chapter three, will be used to explain procedures and protocols of the step by step analysis of this research. The research design here shows the interconnection of philosophical worldviews, strategies of inquiry, and research methods.

Figure 1.3: Research Design

Figure 1.3 shows the research design which is the spine of this research, from developing research questions to data analysis. It also links three major components in a research design namely, research method, strategy of inquiry and philosophical worldview. Firstly, this interdisciplinary qualitative research employs conceptual metaphor analysis as a research method. More specifically,

Philosophical worldview

Social construction

Strategies of Quantitative/Qualitative

Inquiry

Quantitative Content Analysis

Qualitative Literary Criticism

Methods

Critical Metaphor Analysis

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Lakoff and Turner’s poetic metaphor (1989) and Charteris-Black’s critical metaphor analysis (2004) are used in this research. Secondly, Wolcott (2009, p.84) suggested nineteen qualitative strategies of inquiry (see chapter three) in qualitative studies. The strategies of inquiry used in this research are qualitative literary criticism and quantitative content analysis. In content analysis, concordance analysis using WordSmith tool is utilised in searching for the metaphors. Since this research relies on literary data, literary criticism is another strategy to invoke the metaphorical meaning and the construction of Malaysian Chineseness. Thirdly, the philosophical worldview underpinning this research is social construction. It focuses on a specific context; the Malaysian Chinese context. The researcher has developed three propositions based on Crotty (1998);

1. Metaphorical meanings are constructed by the Malaysian Chinese as they engage with the Malaysian biological environment they are interpreting. Hence, this thesis is an insider reading of the insider’s community.

2. Malaysian Chinese engage with their world and make sense of it based on their historical and social perspectives. This research tries to understand and construct the context of Malaysian Chinese and interpretation is then shaped by the researcher’s own experiences and background due to the fact that the researcher is a part of the Malaysian Chinese community.

3. The generation of meaning is largely inductive, based on the literary data

by Malaysian Chinese writers. The construction of meaning is always social from the interaction of the community and the biological environment.

1.9 Research Scope and Limitations The scope of research in this study is biometaphors and Malaysian Chineseness in Malaysian Chinese Literature in English. Therefore, this research will only study biometaphors used by Malaysian Chinese Literature in English. It does not include other types of metaphors such as event structure, time and embodiment. It does not intend to generalise but hopes to shed light on the studies of metaphors in the conceptual system. This research utilises a theory from the biological sciences as a tool in bridging Malaysian Chineseness and conceptual metaphor, making it an interdisciplinary study. This biological theory has never been tested in literary studies. Therefore, it can only provide a specific perspective on Malaysian Chineseness.

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This research uses a limited corpus of five literary texts, all contemporary, and written in the twenty-first century by Malaysian Chinese. There are many more authors who wrote scantily, or whom the researcher labelled as minor writers as such Hsu-Ming Teo and Yang May Ooi. Hence, it is not the aim of this research to generalise the notion of Malaysian Chineseness. However, it is hoped that this research can provide the researcher a platform to understand and have a clearer picture of such notion and ideology. There many types of written discourses which can be used to illustrate the notion of Malaysian Chineseness such as newspapers, historical documents, and Chinese literature. However, this study focuses on literature by Malaysian Chinese writers who wrote in English. Gender issues might be important as in how the Malaysian Chinese use certain biometaphors. This study however, does not focus on gender studies. It is meant to be a study on Malaysian Chineseness, discounting gender issues. 1.10 Operational Definitions Several definitions adopted by the researcher are listed below to help establish positions and boundaries taken in the present study. 1. Conceptual Metaphor Theory Conceptual metaphor, according to Kovecses (2010) is “when one conceptual domain is understood in terms of another conceptual domain”. This is achieved by seeing a set of systemic correspondences, or mappings, between two domains. It can be represented by the formula A is B or A as B, where A and B indicate different conceptual domains. Lakoff and Johnson (2003, p.3) define metaphor as “pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature”. 2. Malaysian Chinese Huang, Zhuang and Tanaka (2000) state that “the definitions of “overseas Chinese”, “Chinese overseas” and “Chinese Diaspora” have been frequently debated in the past debates. Scholars from different disciplines use the terms according to their research agendas. Huang (2010) has stated that there are many terms which can be used interchangeably such as “huaren”, “huayi”, “huaqiao” etc. Wang Gungwu (1999), a very prominent scholar, he had to do some heart-searching about the definition of Chinese, and he had long advocated that the Chinese overseas be studied in the context of their respective national environments, and taken out of a dominant China reference point which coincides with Wang and Wang (2003). Wang (1999) has pointed out that he is not comfortable with the term “Chinese Diaspora”. This is mainly due to the fact

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that this term could not include all types of “Chinese” around the world. Wang prefers to use the term “Chinese overseas” to cover both the Chinese of China nationality who are residing overseas, and foreign nationals of Chinese descent who are commonly referred to as ethnic Chinese. Therefore, in this research, the researcher uses the term “Malaysian Chinese” to specifically refer to the Chinese descents (biologically) who have lived or currently living in Malaysia. 3. Malaysian Chinese literature in English Malaysian literature in English is a literary genre which focuses on “Malaysia” and “Malaya”. Vethamani (2001; 2004; 2005) describes Malaysian literature in English as “literary works by Malaysians”. Hence, Malaysian Chinese literature in Englsih refers to literary works (in English) produced by Malaysian Chinese. 4. Nature The Oxford Dictionary defines nature as “the phenomena of the physical world collectively, including plants, animals, the landscape, and other features and products of the earth”. Clayton (2003, p.6) define nature as the environments, the living components and the inanimate natural environmental features such as the ocean shore. 5. Biophilia Hypothesis Biophilia is defined here as the inherent human inclination to affiliate with natural systems and processes, most particularly life and life-like features of the nonhuman environment (Kellert 2012, p.462). 6. Malaysian Chinese Religion Malaysian Chinese Religion can be defined as “a complex set of beliefs and practices which Malaysian Chinese have inherited from the religious traditions of China as well as their local innovations and the incorporation of some local religious beliefs and practices into their religious system” (Tan 2000, p.283). Tan also articulates that Chinese religion is part and parcel of their daily life (Tan 1983, p.217). Generally, the Malaysian Chinese religion has influences from Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism (Tan 1983, p.221). 7. Ecology Odum (2005) defines the study of ecology as the structure and function of nature. Pickett, Kolasa and Jones (2007, p.12) define ecology as “the study of ecological systems, and their relationship with each other and with their environment, where ecological system is defined as any natural or arbitrary unit at or above the organismal level of complexity”. The operational definition for ecology is the relationship between human, plants, animals and the other ecological components.

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8. Biometaphors Semino (2008, p.1) defines metaphor as the phenomena whereby we talk and, potentially, think about something in terms of something else. Kovecses (2010, p.324) opines that conceptual metaphor is understood in terms of another conceptual domain. He further elaborates that “this understanding is achieved by seeing a set of systematic correspondences, or mappings, between the two domains. Conceptual metaphors can be given by means of the formula A is B or A as B, where A and B indicate different conceptual domains”. Biometaphors, in this thesis, is defined as having a biological elements in either A and/or B domains. The biological elements covers all biotic and abiotic elements in the ecology such as animals, plants and ecological components. 9. Ecologically oriented literary criticism Ecological criticism is “the imaginative acts of cultural beings proffer valuable insights into how and why cultural and natural phenomena have interrelated and could more advantageously interrelate” (Kroeber 1994, p.140). This method acts as an interdisciplinary strategy “between humanistic and scientific modes of understanding humankind, the earth we inhabit, and their reciprocal interdependencies” (1994, p.140). 10. Similes The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (Baldick 2008, p.309) defines simile as “an explicit comparison between two different things, actions, or feelings, using the words “as” or “like,” as in Wordsworth’s line, “I wandered lonely as a cloud.” The similarity and differences between simile and metaphor has been discussed in linguistic, philosophy, psychology, literature and rhetoric. This research adopt the definition of simile as the reduced forms of simile as both of them are variants of a unique (or very similar) conceptual process of analogy (Aristotle 1954; Gentner 1983; Gentner & Bowdle 2001; Chiappe & Kennedy 2000). In other words, simile is considered as a subset to metaphor. 11. Kingdom The word kingdom refers to the term used in biology. Kingdom is a taxonomy category. The five-kingdom system of classification was introduced by R.H. Whittaker in 1969. These are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. Each kingdom is further divided into phyla or divisions. (Campbell & Reece 2005). The taxonomy is the science of classifying organisms in this world. The biologists generally use the Linnaean taxonomy system developed by Swedish biologist, Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778). 12. Ecological Component Ecological component refers to the abiotic components which are the non-living factors of the climate, geology and atmosphere that interact with one another and with the biotic components to form a natural balance system. (Campbell & Reece 2015). The term refers to a wide coverage of abiotic existence such as mountain, sea, rain, weather, river, inter alia. The abiotic components consist of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and the lithosphere.

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13. Typology of Values Typology of values refers to the nine biophilia values developed by Kellert (1993). The values identify the interaction between human beings and the environment which is inclusive of the animals, plants and the ecological components. 14. Chinese New Villages

New Villages (Kampong Baru Cina/ 华人新村) refers to the Chinese settlements in Malaysia (Loh 2004). There are 452 Chinese New villages in Malaysian with almost 2 million residents. The Malaysian government has later defined New Villages to just Villages in 1990. However, due to the fact that this thesis describes the Malaysian Chinese community in the olden days, the term New Villages is adopted. 15. Conceptual Domain A conceptual domain is the conceptual representation, or knowledge, of any coherent segment of experience. Such representation is often called as “concept”. This knowledge involves both the knowledge of basic elements that constitute a domain and knowledge that is rich in detail. This detailed rich knowledge about a domain is often made use of in metaphorical entailments (Kovecses 2010, p.324). 1.11 Conclusion of Chapter One In this research, metaphorical meaning should be given a new paradigm, especially in the way the researcher views metaphorical meaning in Malaysian literary texts, as well as the way the Chinese conceptualise their cognition using biometaphors. It is believed that such study in the Malaysian context where Malaysian literature in English is concerned should be given a high priority because this can help promote Malaysian literature in English in the international arena by giving it more attention. It is hoped that through this study, the researcher will be exposed to new ways of studying literature. In conclusion, at the heart of this thesis is an attempt to reconceive the work of Malaysian Chineseness within the frameworks of Conceptual Metaphor Theory and biophilia hypothesis in light of contemporary concerns. This thesis attends closely to Malaysian literature in English of Chinese Origins, presenting new accounts of this group of writers. 1.12 Overview of the Following Chapters There are two major sections in chapter two. The first part will deal with Malaysian Chinese. In this section, the researcher will describe the history of Chinese settlements in their pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial contexts. This covers Chinese diaspora in Malaysia and specifically focuses on Malaysian Chinese literature in English its development. The second section will discuss the theoretical framework. This will detail the historical development of biophilia hypothesis and the premises.

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In chapter three, the researcher will review Conceptual Metaphor Theory as the methodological framework. This demonstrates the close relationship that exists between literature and cultural identity. In this case, it specifically refers to the notion of Malaysian Chineseness. The researcher will illustrate the methodology used in this research. This includes the methodology developed by Charteris-Black (2004) and Stefanowitsch (2006). Chapter four is devoted to the analysis of five novels published by Malaysian authors. This places particular emphasis on the relationship between the Chinese communities and their biological environment within a framework of biophilia hypothesis development. Utilising materials from the novels, it is possible to see how the Chinese actually construct and construe their cultures through the lenses of biometaphors. This also provides insights into how the Chinese reacted to geographical modernity and urbanisation, and at the same time, preserved their cultures. Chapter five concludes the research and proposes future research and its significance to the advancement of knowledge in the areas of linguistics, literature, cultural studies and social biological studies.

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