THE EFECTS OF COMPLEX TRAINING PROGRAMS ON JUMPING HEIGHT IN NOVICE VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS

NOOR AIWA BINTI ROSMAN

KOD PENYELIDIKAN: 09-09-06-07 DAPENA

UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN SULTAN IDRIS

2008

ii

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contain no material previously published except where due acknowledgement is made in the acknowledgements.

4.4.2008 Signature

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Research Management Centre (RMC) University

Pendidikan Sultan Idris for funding this research project. I would also like to thank En

Asmadi Ishak who allowed me to conduct this study on his students, and for the

guidance in conducting the training sessions. Without these students this project

would never have been accomplished.

My sincere appreciation to all colleagues in FSS who were very helpful and

concern with the progression of this research. Thank you also to all FSS staff for

providing me with all the support needed during this project.

IV

ABSTRAK

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk melihat kesan latihan yang berbeza terhadap ketinggian lompatan. Subjek terdiri dari pelajar Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (15 perempuan dan 13 lelaki). Subjek secara rawak telah di bahagikan kepada 3 kumpulan iaitu kumpulan pliometrik (PT), kumpulan latihan bebanan (WT) dan kumpulan latihan kompleks atau balistik (CT). Kesemua kumpulan latihan ini telah di berikan program latihan untuk tempoh 8 minggu untuk meningkatkan kuasa otot kaki. Kemahiran motor yang telah di ukur adalah ketinggian lompatan dengan menggunakan Kistler Quattro Jump sebelum dan selepas tamat menjalani latihan. Ujian ANOVA satu hala telah di gunakan untuk analisa data. Keputusan menunjukkan tiada perbezaan yang signifikan untuk kuasa kaki bagi ketiga-tiga kumpulan latihan, juga tiada perbezaan yang signifikan pada subjek perempuan.

V

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of different training program on jumping height. Subjects were selected from students enrolled in the first semester in Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (15 females and 13 males). These subjects were randomly assigned to three training groups. The plyometric group (PT)? weight training group (WT) and complex or ballistic training group (PT). All three groups undertook an 8-weeks training program designed to develop explosive power in the lower extremities. Motor ability that was measured was jumping height using the Kistler Quattro Jump apparatus before and after the training program ended. A one-way ANOVA was used to compare the jumping heights of the subjects. There were no significant differences found in jumping heights among the males for all the training methods practiced for absolute jump height (p> 0.05) and neither there were any significant difference between the female groups.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

ABSTRAK iv

ABSTRACT v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Historical Background of Volleyball 1

1.2 Statement of Problem 4

1.3 Purpose of the Study 4

1.4 Hypothesis of the Study 5

1.5 Delimitations of the Study 5

1.6 Significance of the Study 5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Plyometric Training 6

2.2 Weight Training and Resistance Training 8

2.3 Complex Training 10

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

Introduction

Design of the Study

Subjects

Protocol

3.4.1 Anthropometric Assessment

3.4.2 Vertical Jump

Statistical Analysis

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

4.1

4.2

Bio-demographics

Vertical Jump

12

12

12

13

14

14

15

16

18

vii

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Bio-demographics and Explosive Power 19

5.2 Conclusion 22

REFERENCES 23

APPENDIX

Appendix A 8 Weeks Training Program Schedule

Vlll

LIST OF TABLES

4.1.1 Means and standard deviations of age (years), height (cm) 16 and body mass (kg) in young novice male volleyball players

4.1.2 Means and standard deviations of age (years), height (cm) 16 and body mass (kg) in young novice female volleyball players

4.2.1 Descriptive statistics for vertical jump (cm) in young male 17 novice volleyball players.

4.2.2 Descriptive statistics for vertical jump (cm) in young male 17 novice volleyball players.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Historical Background of Volleyball

Volleyball is not only played for competition but also for recreation. This

sport can be played anywhere including open area such as park or on the

beach. It is a team non-contact sport that will reduce the chances of getting

injury and fun to play. It was first introduced in a year of 1895 at Springfield,

Massachusetts by Professor William J. Morgan a YMCA physical educator as

a recreational sport. The game was called Mintonnette when it was initially

invented which took some of characteristic from tennis and handball. Later in

1896 the game became known as volleyball and the game became spread

around the country to various YMCAs.

Canada was the first country outside the United States that adopted

volleyball in 1900. The first World Championship was held in 1949 for men

and later for women in 1952. Now the. sport is popular in Europe and Brazil,

Russia together with China in addition to United States.

Dick (2002) stated that tactical, psychological and physical

preparations are the top priority in order to improve performance in prestigious

sports. The quality of movement, mastery of skills and reduced chances of

getting injured can be improved by having an optimum physical fitness. This

cannot be achieved without proper continuous training. Generally physical

2

fitness can be divided into two components: health based physical fitness and

motor control. Health based physical fitness comprised of cardiovascular

endurance, muscular endurance, muscular strength, flexibility and body

composition whilst motor skill involved power, agility, balance, coordination,

reaction time and speed. Systematic, planned, and efficient training program

will help to enhance an individual physical fitness.

Ability to jump is one of the vital criterions in volleyball to return the

ball to the opponent's side of the net or spike the ball so it will move quickly

down to the ground on the opponent's side. Jumping either laterally or

vertically is two different movements whereby it must be trained and acquired

by a volleyball player (Puhl, Casa, Fleck & Van Handel, 1982).

Due to some changes in the rules especially in the scoring system and

the function of the libera, it offers new scope of research among the coaches to

consider new techniques that can be applied during the match (OSJ, 2001).

One of the most prominent was the strategy of attacking and defending which

requires muscles of the lower limb to produce explosive power. Puhl et al.

(1982) and Kroon (2000) found out that the average number the players jump

during the match of 5 sets is between 80-120 times either during offending or

defending.

Ercolessi (1999) stated that in modern volleyball, anthropometric

profile is an advantage and having the players to jump high is the principal part

that needs to be emphasised. Jump height for a server is between 34.5-35.5 cm

while for the blocker is between 32.0-33.5 cm. The action of serving and

blocking are dominated by explosive movement in relation to the ability of the

players to jump vertically.

Wilmore and Costill (1988) expressed that strength is a vital factor in

every movement that involves muscle utilization. In any physical activity,

muscle strength function is to perform tasks such as jumping, throwing,

kicking and also sprinting.

3

Fox and Mathews (1981) explained that strength is the ability of the

muscle or groups of muscle to overcome resistance to produce force or work.

On the other hand Bompa (1999) stated that strength is the capacity of the

muscle to produce force contrary to resistance. Therefore muscle strength

should be one of the priorities for coaches to arrange a training program in

order to achieve maximum performance.

Selye (1956) stated, General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) enlightened

about the three phases in which the body will react towards stimulus. Firstly

after the body received stimulus, it will bring about lethargy and temporary

deterioration of performance. This is due to the recognition and identification

of a threat following stress. The perception of being pressured will trigger the

brain to send biochemical messages to certain body parts. As a result,

physiological responses such as hyperventilation, hypertension and increased

muscular contraction will be affected. The second phase is resistance whereby

the body adapts to the stimulus (training). In this stage, the individuals'

potential to modify themselves towards environmental demands will intensify

above normal requirements. Adjustment to this stimulus will have an effect on

performance. Exhaustion is the third stage in GAS in which the body systems

are able to adjust in a proper way to any stimulus exposed in the future.

Power is important in volleyball. Power can be built either through

increasing speed of movement while moving an object or increasing your

strength or a mixture of both techniques. Training for power includes doing

exercises that build up fast-twitch muscle fibers (Smith, 1987). Strength in

fast-twitch muscles can be developed by putting greater stress on the muscle

than it is used to.

The stretch reflex works in response to muscles being stretched prior to

a movement in which muscles that are stretched at a greater and faster rate will

generate greater potential for enormous contraction (Seeley, Stephens and

Tate, 2007). Overload is carried out either by lifting heavy weights with low

repetitions or by lifting heavy weights at a high speed of implementation

4

(Smith, 1987). Alternatively in plyometric training, overload of a fast twitch

muscle can be achieved by the speedy elongation of the muscle as a result of a

change of direction. This will engage more muscle fibres thus greater tension

of muscle contraction.

Volleyball as an Olympic sport is known around the world. Although it

is played professionally in many countries, some coaches still agree to

traditional methodology in resistance training program either plyometric

training solely or weightlifting. Experimental studies in elite team sport

athletes are very hard to carry out due to ethical issue that might influence their

potential of the players selected (Kraemer, 1997).

Training approach to improve working capacity of explosive muscle in

the lower limb can be achieved through scientific and systematic training

program. A combination between speed and muscular strength produce power

whilst explosive power can be obtained through working muscle against speed

of resistance (Bompa, 1999). Effective training program can develop explosive

power efficiently.

1.2 Statement of Problem

The problem of the research was to ascertain whether or not a complex training

regimen alone has a more significant result on leg power compared to the

plyometric and strength training separately over 8 weeks time period.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to compare three training methods on jump

height in novice volleyball players.

5

1.4 Hypothesis of the Study

There is no significant difference in jump height of novice volleyball players

following 8-weeks of different training methods.

1.5 Delimitations of the Study

Within the framework of this study, the influence of the trainers on the

implementation of the training program could not be controlled logistically.

Nevertheless, the training program was monitored closely in every training

session. No attempt was made to control for the food intake of the subjects

during the period of the study. No effort was also made to control for any

psychological, socio-cultural or other correlates believed to play a role in the

relationship between training and motor abilities. Any result concerning this

study shall not be generalised to any population.

1.6 Significance of the Study

In certain sports it is very important to be faster or more powerful In today's

set up, coaches are required to search for an efficient and successful method in

the least amount of time to optimize physical improvement. This study may

help the coaches to implement a time-efficient training regime since no one

training method can be distinguished as the best one. The development of a

new form of training may assist in recognizing modifications in program

patterns for developing power in individuals and due to the lack of a scientific

basis of training programs in Malaysia, this study is a beginning to change this

situation.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Scientific research on plyometrics and weight training has been well established in the

world. The techniques and procedures were also being practiced by most of the

sportsmen to increase performance. Recently the theory of ballistic or complex

training came about and people are still interested to search for the best part of that

system.

2.1 Plyometric Training

Plyometrics can be classified as exercise that trains the fast muscle fibres and the

nerves that trigger them and reflexes with a diversity of movements, such as jumping,

hopping and bouncing which preferably are arranged into a solid training program

(Ebben, 2007). On top of this, the main problems in implementing a plyometric

program are perhaps choosing the correct exercises and advancement of intensity.

Extensive data are available on the effects of plyometrics training on explosive

power. Stojanovic and Kostic (2002) conducted a study on 33 volleyball players who

have been training between 4 to 6 years. This research was carried out for 8 weeks.

The purpose of training was to develop power for the vertical jump in the

experimental group by using a plyometric training model. As for the control group,

they completed the technical-tactical training. The results revealed that there was a

7

statistically relevant difference in the increase of the vertical jump in the experimental

as compared to the control group.

Weighted and unweighted plyometric training was studied in 14 strength

trained females by Durham, Shimp-Bowermen, Adams, Berning, Kipp & Fabian

(2001). Four weeks of training was performed by both control and experimental

groups. Over the four weeks the weighted group increased added resistance from 20-

40% 1 repetition maximum (RM). Depth jumps, split squats and double-leg hops were

performed. They found that both groups increased in number of jumps, average jump

height and also peak jump height. No change was found in power output and fatigue

index. No significant difference was found in any variables between the two groups

studied.

The effects of four weeks of plyometric versus weighted plyometric training

on vertical jump in 14 strength trained females were investigated. Two groups of

seven were formed with the plyometric group performing depth jumps, split squads

and double leg hops with body weight twice a week. The weighted plyometric group

performed the same exercises with the attachment of a weight equal to 20% of 1 RM

in the first week and 40% of 1 RM in the fourth week. Both groups performed 3 x 6

squads (85% 1 RM) one day per week after plyometric training. However, the results

showed no significant difference though both groups improved vertical jump (Adams,

Shimp-Bowerman, Berning, Durham, Sevene-Adams & Curtin, 2001).

In another study, young male soccer players aged between 12-13 years were

divided into two groups that is jump training and control groups in which the jump

training consisted of specific plyometric training, including jumping, hurdling, and

skipping. They trained three times per week for 10 weeks. The results showed

improvement in the squad jump, countermovement jump, repeated bound jump and

standing long jump in the experimental group (Diallo, Dore and Van Praagh, 2000).

Female division 1 volleyball players participated in a post-season plyometric

training program study done by Messner, Guyer, Holder & Skelton (1999), The

training was conducted twice a week for eight weeks. No changes were found in the

8

number of strength factors for the quadriceps or hamstrings muscle groups and no

improvements in vertical jumps were recorded either. The only improvement found

was increased in range of motion for dorsiflexion in both legs.

2.2 Weight Training and Resistance Training

Many resistance training programs aimed at increasing muscular power classically

show a high proportion of weightlifting or plyometric exercises (Baker, 1994). In a

study by Baker (2005), 7 combinations of methods to execute power were used

depending on distance covered and speed of movement. Power exercises are those that

require acceleration for full range of movement thus producing high velocities and

power outputs. On the other hand, strength exercises are not only workouts that

involve heavy resistance and high force but it also includes explicit phases of

deceleration. A change in upper body power over a 4-year period in a group of 12

professional rugby league players showed improvement.

The effects of a short-term plyometric and resistance training program on

fitness performance in boys aged between 12-15 years old was done by Faigenbaum et

al. (2007). A 6-week training program of combined resistance training and

plyometrics or resistance training alone was conducted. The resistance training group

performed stretching exercises followed by resistance training while the other group

carried out plyometric exercises apart from the same resistance training program. A

training duration of 90 minutes was provided to each group to complete the task.

Participants were tested on the vertical jump, long jump, medicine ball toss, 9.1 meter

sprint, pro-agility shuttle run and flexibility. There were significantly greater

improvements in the long jump, medicine ball toss, and pro-agility shuttle run time

following training. This led to the recommendation that adding a plyometric training

component into a resistance training program would be helpful to increase

performance.

Heavy resistance training together with vertical jump training is a well-

documented practice (Tricoli, Lamas, Carnevale and Ugrinowitsch (2005); Caruso et

al. (2008); Mihalik, Libby, Battaglini and Murray, (2008); Stanganelli, Dourado,

9

Oncken, Mancan and da Costa, (2008). But information regarding its combination

with Olympic Weighthfting exercises is still scarce. For that reason Tricoli, Lamas,

Carvenale and Ugrinowitsch (2005) carried out a study which was done on thirty-two

young men. They were divided into three groups which consisted of 12 subjects in the

weighthfting group, 12 subjects in the vertical jump group and 8 of them as controls.

The training program for weightliftmg included 3 x 6 RM high pull, 4 x 4 RM power

clean and 4 x 4 clean and jerk. The vertical jump training program comprised 6 x 4

double-leg hops, 4 x 4 alternated single-leg hurdle hops, 4 x 4 single-leg hurdle hops

and 4 x 4 40-m drop jumps. As supplementary exercise, both groups performed 4 x 6

RM half-squats. Training volume was increased after 4 weeks and with the total of 8-

week training program. The findings showed that the weighthfting group improved

significantly in 10-m sprint speed, countermovement jump, and in squad jump

compared to the vertical jump group. No significant changes in the control group were

found. It can be concluded that the Olympic weighthfting training program appeared

to lead to more improvement in the performance of physically active subjects.

The effects of 5 weeks of eccentrically loaded and unloaded jump squat

training in experienced resistance-trained footballers during the strength-power phase

of a 15-week periodized off-season resistance training program was studied. Forty-

seven male college football players were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups. Jump

squat exercise using both concentric and eccentric phases of contraction were done in

one group (CE), while the other group carried out squat jump exercise using the

concentric phase only. The third group comprised the controls (CT). Between the

groups, no significant differences were found in power, vertical jump height, and 40-

yard sprint agility. However, significant differences between the CE and CT groups

were observed in Delta 1 RM squats and Delta .1 RM power clean.

Contradictory to the research mentioned earlier, Weiss, Fry, Wood & Melton

(1998) found that vertical jumps were not improved by machine-based heavy

resistance training either in the deep squats or shallow squats training regime which

was conducted in novice lifters over eight weeks of training.

10

Likewise, Young, Wilson & Byrne (1999) compared the effects of vertical

jumping performance and leg extensors qualities in males. Three groups were formed,

namely a control group, a maximum rebound height group (DJ) and a maximum

rebound and minimum ground contact group (DJCT). The drop jump training was

conducted at heights of 30, 45, 60, and 75 cm. 72-90 drop jumps per week were

performed for six weeks. The DJCT group showed greater improvement by 20% in

reactive strength. However, this difference did not translate into vertical jump

performance. No significant difference was found in the DJ group.

2.3 Complex Training

Complex training interchanges resistance training and plyometric exercises that are

biomechanically similar in nature to sports movements and contained in the same

training session (Libby, 2006).

Newton, Kraemer and Hakkinen (1999) investigated the effects of ballistic

training on the vertical jump in highly trained elite volleyball players during pre­

season preparation. Sixteen male players participated in the study. They were

randomly divided into control and experimental group after completing a series of

tests which consisted of the standing vertical jump and reach, and jump and reach

from a three-step approach. The vertical jump test was performed on a Plyometric

Power System and force plate to measure power, force and velocity during jumping.

Athletes were required to complete volleyball on-court training together with a

resistance training program. The treatment group needed to accomplish 8 weeks of

squat jump training on top of the training program mentioned earlier. The control

group carried out squat and leg press exercises at 6 RM. The results illustrated a

significant improvement by 3.1% in the standing vertical jump and reach and 5.1% in

the jump and reach in the three-step approach. It was also concluded that an increase

in overall force output during jumping and increase in rate of force development were

resulted in increased jump height.

Ebben (2002) examined the effect of a warm-up on the upper squat, back

squat, loaded jumps and truck jumps on the performance of the countermovement

11

jump. He found that no significance effect was seen when all the subjects were

combined. However, when the males were analysed separately, jump distance was

greater after performing the snatch as a weightlifting warm-up. This suggested that

specific exercises may have an effect on subsequent jumps.

The effects of a complex training and detraining program on selected strength

and power variables in early pubertal boys were examined. The boys were randomly

assigned to experimental and control groups. Training was planned three times per

week for twelve weeks, consisting of dynamics constant external resistance and

plyometrics. Complex training was related to minor improvements in peak and mean

power during training. No significant increase was observed in the control group.

There was an increase in dynamic strength by 24.3-71.4% but a slight improvement in

40-m sprint running, basketball chest pass and vertical jump test performance was

observed in the experimental group (Ingle, Sleap & Tolfrey, 2006).

Fagan (2000) conducted research to differentiate the effectiveness of

maximum power in ballistic training from maximum strength training on physical

performance. A two-phase periodized training program progressing from strength into

power improvement for ten weeks was designed. Subjects were tested at pre-, mid-

and post-training in which both groups carried out plyometrics during the second

phase of training. Both groups showed improvement in stair climbing power and squat

strength. The ballistic training group was also observed to increase in the static jump

and peak cycle power compared to a prior training program. This implies that ballistic

and strength training merged with plyometrics was helpful in improving lower body

power and strength in trained subjects.

Summary

The principal thought that has inspired this study is based on the findings of power

development. There are many studies which compare resistance and plyometric

training separately to ballistic training but few compare different types of combination

training designs.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter contains procedures and means that will be used to gather information,

facts and figures regarding height, weight and explosive power of novice volleyball

players. All the data gathered will be used to analyze and discussed further in the next

chapter.

3.2 Design of the Study

The design of the study was experimental. All subjects were randomly assigned into

three training programs. ANOVA was used to determine any significant differences

between consecutive squat jump performances. Result will be statistically significant

at the 0.05 level.

3.3 Subjects

Subjects (15 females, 20-25 years; 13 males, 21-30 years) were selected from

members of weight training classes enrolled in semester one at the Universiti

Pendidikan Sultan Idris. They were randomly assigned to three groups, namely weight

training group (WT), plyometric training group (PT) and ballistic training group (BT).

Each group was given a program designed for an intervention period of 8 weeks with

three sessions of three hours per week. The training programs were closely monitored

13

throughout the eight weeks by he instructor. Informed consent was obtained from the

students prior to conducting the research.

3.4 Protocol

Each group was given a program divided into three parts. Pre-test was done before

they started the training program. 8 weeks training program was designed before

conducted the post-test. The conditioning phase introduced specific fitness

components and also the adaptation process to the program that was being done. The

students had undergone a general conditioning phase prior to the specific training

program, such as muscular strength and endurance, flexibility and cardiorespiratory

endurance. The program was progressive in its set-up. Each week was characterized

by an increase in sets or repetitions to produce low ground contact (<80) to develop

leg strength. Intensity of weight training group was manipulated by varying the

percentage of individual repetitions maximum conducted during the pre-test. As for

plyometrics, the height of the box was increased every two weeks by 15 cm (6 inches).

They started the training with a low intensity for 2 weeks. Work-rest intervals were

also manipulated throughout the training regime. As the training intensity increased,

the work-rest interval will be increased as well. 3-5 minutes work-rest interval were

given throughout the training program. All the training methods used were based on

training principles described by Earle and Baechle (2004).

During the second phase of the training session (week 4), the intensity was

increased to moderate intensity whereby the students had to complete this exercise for

two weeks and the third phase with the higher intensity.

The weight training group had to perform the clean and jerk, half squat, dead

lifts and power clean. The plyometric group performed the combination of the depth

jump, box jump lateral box push offs and also jump in place. While for ballistic

training, the exercise comprised the depth jump, box jump, half squat and power

clean.

14

The weight training group started with 45% of individual repetition maximum

for all the exercises that they performed. The intensity then increased 5 % each week

to 50% in week 2, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75% and 80% as the training progressed

every week. For plyometrics, the height of the jump box was set according to the

manufacture's standard height. They started with 30 cm (12 inches) and then

proceeded to 45 cm (18 inches), 60 cm (24 inches) and 75 cm (30 inches). As for the

ballistic training group, a combination of both training regimes (moderate and high)

were used as a transitional period before they underwent high intensity training,

according to the intensity mentioned earlier on.

3.4.1 Anthropometric Assessment

Height (m) was measured by using a Lafayette stadiometer (Lafayette Instrument Co.

USA, Lafayette, IN, USA) weight (kg) was recorded by using a digital weighing scale,

OMRON Body Fat Analyzer Scale (Model HBF-356). Subjects stood bare-footed on

the weighing scale with sports attire. Height and weight were taken three times (unless

the first two measurements were the same) and the median used for statistical analysis.

3.4.2 Vertical Jump

The vertical jump was measured using a Kistler Quattro Jump (Type 9290 AD),

CH8408 Wintherthur, Schweiz. After a sufficient warm-up, the subject stood on the

center of the force plate with the feet flat, the body straight and hands on the waist.

From a stationary position, the subject took off with two feet with no

preliminary steps or shuffling. As they jump, the angle of the knees was not

controlled. The subject then leaped up before take off as high possible and the height

of the jump was recorded automatically using the software specifically for that

machine. Two attempts were allowed with 1-minute break before the next jump to

obtain the best performance. The best height of the jump was used for statistical

analysis.

15

3.5 Statistical Analysis

Before treatment of the data, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to determine

normality of the distribution of the dependent variables. Skewness and kurtosis were

also assessed.

One way ANOVA was used to analyse subject's age, height and weight and to

determine the differences in jumping height between and within groups over time.

Equality of error variance was assessed by the Levene's Test. The level of

significance for the analysis was set at 0.05.

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

4.1 Bio-demographics

Tables 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 display the descriptive statistics for age, height and body mass

in the plyometric, weight training and the complex training groups for both males and

females. The distributions for age was normal (p > 0.05) and not skewed or kurtotic

for all groups. The error variance for age was equal across groups (p=0.519).

Table 4.1.1

Means and standard deviations of age (years), height (cm) and body mass (kg) in young novice male volleyball players.

Age (years)

Height (cm)

Weight (kg)

Plyometric Training

25.33 ±1.52

169.67 ±5.86

61.53 ±7.00

Weight Training

24.25 ±3.94

168.13 ±1.31

63.25 ±9.77

Complex Training

24.17 ±3.06

170.83 ±7.89

67.03 ± 8.71