SISTEM TENAGA

Manusia, sama ada semasa aktif atau berehat, sentiasa menukar tenaga

dari satu bentuk kepada bentuk yang lain. Umpamanya di dalam

permainan badminton, tenaga digunakan untuk mengekalkan aktiviti

otot. Begitu juga di dalam aktiviti berlari dan melompat dan pergerakan

yang memerlukan koordinasi dan imbangan dimana tenaga diperlukan

berterusan.

Energy is required for all kinds of bodily processes including growth

and development, repair, the transport of various substances

between cells and of course, muscle contraction.

An ATP molecule consists of adenosine and three (tri) inorganic

phosphate groups. When a molecule of ATP is combined with water

(a process called hydrolysis), the last phosphate group splits away

and releases energy. The molecule of adenosine triphosphate now

becomes adenosine diphosphate or ADP (2).

To replenish the limited stores of ATP, chemical reactions add a

phosphate group back to ADP to create ATP. This process is called

phosphorylation. If this occurs in the presence of oxygen it is

labelled aerobic metabolism or oxidative phosphorylation. If it

occurs without oxygen it is labelled anaerobic metabolism

Tenaga dibebaskan bila bahan kimia yang kaya dengan tenaga yang

dipanggil adenosine triphosphate (ATP) dipecahkan kepada yang

lebih kecil yang dipanggil adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Sel-sel di

dalam badan tidak akan mengambil nutriet yang terdapat di dalam

makanan untuk mendapat bekalan tenaga dengan serta-merta.

Sebaliknya, ATP yang tersimpan di dalam sel-sel otot, merupakan bahan

bakar yang digunakan untuk mengeluarkan tenaga segera.

Walaupun ATP merupakan pembekal tenaga kepada semua sel,

bekalannya adalah terhad dan hendaklah dibina secara berterusan untuk

memberi bekalan yang berpanjangan. Terdapat tiga sistem asas di mana

atp boleh dibekalkan ke sel-sel otot untuk menghasilkan penguncupan

dan pergerakan. Dua daripadanya tidak memerlukan oksigen dan

dipanggil sistem anaerobik. Sistem yang ketiga memerlukan oksigen dan

dipanggil sistem aerobik. Sistem anaerobik dipecahkan kepada dua iaitu

sistem atp-pc dan sistem asid laktik.

Sistem ATP-PC

ATP di dalam otot dan satu lagi bahan kimia yang kaya dengan tenaga yang dipanggil

phosphocreatine (PC) bersama-sama membekalkan tenaga yang cukup untuk usaha

maksima antara 5-10 saat. Hanya sebahagian kecil ATP disimpan di dalam sel-sel otot dan ia

perlu dibina semula untuk mengelakkan daripada kehabisan. PC yang juga tersimpan di

dalam sel-sel otot membantu membina semula ATP.

Simpanan PC di dalam sel-sel hanya dapat bertahan beberapa saat sahaja

di dalam latihan yang berintensiti tinggi dan merupakan sumber utama

bekalan ATP semasa beberapa saat pertama larian pecutan. Dengan

latihan yang rapi keupayaan sistem ini boleh ditingkatkan.

Sistem Asid Laktik

Apabila simpanan PC di dalam sel-sel otot kehabisan, glikogen di dalam otot yang terdiri

daripada unit-unit glukosa yang dikumpul bersama dan merupakan simpanan karbohidrat di

dalam badan, melalui proses yang dipanggil glikosos berpecah menjadi asid pyruvic dan

menukar menjadi asid laktik dengan ketiadaan oksigen. Pengumpulan asid laktik di dalam

otot akan menganggu peroses penguncupan dan melambatkan pergerakan dan akhirnya

menyebabkan kelesuan .Aktiviti yang berintensiti tinggi seperti larian 400m dan renang 100m

yang mengambil masa 45-60 saat akan membawa kepada kelesuan.

Sistem Aerobik

Sumber tenaga panjang melibatkan pengeluaran ATP daripada berbagai bahan bakar dengan

penggunaan oksigen. Sumber utama ialah karbohidrat dan lemak. Pengeluaran ATP melalui

sistem ini agak perlahan berbanding dengan sistem yang lain dan memakan masa 2-3 minit

kerana oksigen perlu disalurkan ke otot melalui saluran darah. Dengan kehadiran oksigen

asid pyruvic berpecah menjadi karbon dioksida dan air dan membebaskan ATP yang

banyak, lebih daripada sistem yang lain.

Di dalam acara sukan yang memakan masa yang panjang seperti marathon seseorang pelari

mungkin terpaksa melambatkan larian ataupun berhenti kerana kehabisan bahan bakar

glikogen dan terpaksa menggunakan bahan bakar yang lain seperti protin untuk menamatkan

larian.

Sumbangan Sistem Tenaga Kepada Sukan

Sebenarnya sistem tenaga anaerobik dan aerobik menyumbang kepada persembahan sukan

cuma persoalannya ialah yang mana satu mendominasinya. Umpamanya, di dalam sukan

olahraga, acara larian pecut jarak dekat mendapat sebahagian besar bekalan tenaga daripada

sistem anaerobik iaitu, ATP-PC dan Asid Laktik manakala acara larian jarak jauh yang

memerlukan dayatahan kardiovaskular mendapatkan sebahagian besar bekalan tenaga

daripada sistem aerobik. Maka sistem ATP-PC masih beroperasi semasa badan kita berehat

dan sistem aerobik beroperasi semasa larian pecut jarak dekat.

Di dalam permainan seperti bola sepak, ketiga-tiga sistem tenaga sentiasa bertukar-ganti

penguasaan mereka. Begitu juga semasa permainan badminton rally pendek, ia mendapat

bekalan tenaga daripada sistem ATP-PC dan Asid Laktik manakala perlawanan yang

berpanjangan mendapatkan bekalan tenaga daripada sistem aerobik. Di dalam permainan bola

sepak dan hoki, larian pecut mengejar bola atau mengekori pemain lawan yang sedang

menyerang mendapat bekalan tenaga daripada sistem ATP-PC dan Asid Laktik.

Energy Sources to Replenish ATP

Several energy sources or substrates are available which can be used to power the production of ATP. One of these substrates, like existing ATP, is stored inside the cell and is called creatine phosphate.

Creatine PhosphateCreatine phosphate is readily available to the cells and rapidly produces ATP. It also exists in limited concentrations and it is estimated that there is only about 100g of ATP and about 120g of creatine phosphate stored in the body, mostly within the muscles. Together ATP and creatine phosphate are called the high-energy phosphogens (1).

FatThe other substrates that can the body can use to produce ATP include fat, carbohydrate and protein. Fat is stored predominantly as adipose tissue throughout the body and is a substantial energy reservoir. Fat is less accessible for cellular metabolism as it must first be reduced from its complex form, triglyceride, to the simpler components of glycerol and free fatty acids. So although fat acts as a vast stockpile of fuel, energy release is too slow for very intense activity (5).

CarbohydrateUnlike fat, carbohydrate is not stored in peripheral deposits throughout the body. At rest, carbohydrate is taken up by the muscles and liver and converted into glycogen. Glycogen can be used to form ATP and in the liver it can be converted into

glucose and transported to the muscles via the blood. A heavy training session can deplete carbohydrate stores in the muscles and liver, as can a restriction in dietary intake. Carbohydrate can release energy much more quickly than fat (5).

ProteinProtein is used as a source of energy, particularly during prolonged activity, however it must first be broken down into amino acids before then being converted into glucose. As with, fat, protein cannot supply energy at the same rate as carbohydrate. The rate at which is energy is released from the substrates is determined by a number of factors. For example, if there are large amounts of one type of fuel available, the body may rely more on this source than on others. The mass action effect is used to describe this phenomenon (5).

The Three Energy Systems

There are three separate energy systems through which ATP can be produced. A number of factors determine which of these energy systems is chosen, such as exercise intensity for example.

The ATP-PCr System

ATP and creatine phosphate (also called phosphocreatine or PCr for short) make up the ATP-PCr system. PCr is broken down releasing a phosphate and energy, which is then used to rebuild ATP. Recall, that ATP is rebuilt by adding a phosphate to ADP in a process called phosphorylation. The enzyme that controls the break down of PCr is called creatine kinase (5).

The ATP-PCr energy system can operate with or without oxygen but because it doesnt rely on the presence of oxygen it said to be anaerobic. During the first 5 seconds of exercise regardless of intensity, the ATP-PCr is relied on almost

exclusively. ATP concentrations last only a few seconds with PCr buffering the drop in ATP for another 5-8 seconds or so. Combined, the ATP-PCr system can sustain all-out exercise for 3-15 seconds and it is during this time that the potential rate for power output is at its greatest (1).

If activity continues beyond this immediate period, the body must rely on another energy system to produce ATP

The Glycolytic System

Glycolysis literally means the breakdown (lysis) of glucose and consists of a series of enzymatic reactions. Remember that the carbohydrates we eat supply the body with glucose, which can be stored as glycogen in the muscles or liver for later use.

The end product of glycolysis is pyruvic acid. Pyruvic acid can then be either funnelled through a process called the Krebs cycle (see the Oxidative System below) or converted into lactic acid. Traditionally, if the final product was lactic acid, the process was labelled anaerobic glycolysis and if the final product remained as pyruvate the process was labelled aerobic glycolysis.

However, oxygen availability only determines the fate of the end product and is not required for the actual process of glycolysis itself. In fact, oxygen availability has been shown to have little to do with which of the two end products, lactate or pyruvate is produced. Hence the terms aerobic meaning with oxygen and anaerobic meaning without oxygen become a bit misleading (5).

Alternative terms that are often used are fast glycolysis if the final product is lactic acid and slow glycolysis for the process that leads to pyruvate being funnelled through the Krebs cycle. As its name would suggest the fast glycolitic system can produce energy at a greater rate than slow glycolysis. However, because the end product of fast glycolysis is lactic acid, it can quickly accumulate and is thought to lead to muscular fatigue (1).

The contribution of the fast glycolytic system increases rapidly after the initial 10 seconds of exercise. This also coincides with a drop in maximal power output as the immediately available phosphogens, ATP and PCr, begin to run out. By about 30 seconds of sustained activity the majority of energy comes from fast glycolysis (2).

At 45 seconds of sustained activity there is a second decline in power output (the first decline being after about 10 seconds). Activity beyond this point corresponds with a growing reliance on the

Energy Systems & Training

Each of the three energy systems can generate power to different capacities and varies within individuals. Best estimates suggest that the ATP-PCR systme can generate energy at a rate of roughly 36 kcal per minute. Glycolysis can generate energy only half as quickly at about 16 kcal per minute. The oxidative system has the lowest rate of power output at about 10 kcal per minute (4).

The capacity to generate power of each the three energy systems can vary with training. The ATP-PCr and glycolytic pathways may change by only 10-20% with training. The oxidative system seems to be far more trainable although genetics play a limiting role here too. VO2max, or aerobic power can be increased by as much as 50% but this is usually in untrained, sedentary individuals (4).

Energy Systems Used in Sports

The three energy systems do not work independently of one another. From very short, very intense exercise, to very light, prolonged activity, all three energy systems make a contribution however, one or two will usually predominate (5).

Two factors of any activity carried out affect energy systems more than any other variable they are the intensity and duration of exercise. Here is a list of sports and approximately how the each of the energy systems contributes to meet the physical demands:

ANAEROBIC TRAINING

Anaerobic training is shorter than aerobic training in duration (less than two minutes), in which oxygen is not a limiting factor in performance, and requires energy from anaerobic sources. These energy sources involve the utilization of phosphagen and lactic acid by the athlete’s body; and enables them to perform brief, near maximal muscular activity (<2 min). Events, or activity that lasts up to 30 seconds in length, rely almost exclusively on the phosphagen system.

Activity that lasts from 30 seconds to 2 minutes, begin to rely on lactic acid (again, any activity beyond two minutes becomes aerobic training). These energy systems are effectively developed using an interval training system. It is important note that although one energy system may be predominate for a given activity, all systems are in use to some degree during anaerobic, or interval training.

Interval training uses, as named, intervals that can consist of running, swimming, calisthenic exercises, or resistance training. Work intervals, which also include rest intervals, vary depending on the athletes mode of training, or need (need analysis). For example; work intervals of less than 30 seconds (phosphagen system), are typically performed with rest intervals of approximately three times this duration.

This type of training does not allow for full recovery between bouts of work and is often done during the middle, to later part of the athlete’s preseason training period.

As the competition phase approaches, preseason interval training consists of longer rest intervals to accommodate the near-maximal intensity. Exercising involving the lactic acid energy source generally has an exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:2 (one second of activity, to two seconds of rest).

Full recovery is not achieved, but as athletes perform more of this type of training, they will be better able to tolerate and utilize increased concentrations of lactic acid. Most athletes involved in strength and power activities, such as football, baseball, basketball, volleyball, running events under 800 m, and swimming events under 100 m, utilize both of the anaerobic energy sources to supply the majority of required energy.

Interval training should comprise the bulk of their metabolic training. Each stage in an athlete’s training requires modification of the various modes and methods of training according to the goals set by the athlete, skill coach, and conditioning specialist. The basic programs design is to meet the critical needs of the athlete. Modification of the program, or some variation in these guidelines may be appropriate for different age groups and fitness levels.

The most important principle of conditioning (sequencing) may be listening to your body. The successful athlete has an optimal blend of training modes and methods. The successful athlete has an optimal blend of training modes and methods. And just as with any other type of fitness, the intensity and duration of training must be increased gradually over time in a logical progression that allows the athlete to peak for the most important competitions.

To understand what an athlete’s program will consist of, a needs analysis should be a priority. A needs analysis is when the professional (strength coach, skills coach, parent, head coach, assistant coach, advisor, et al) analyzes the fitness needs of both the activity and the

individual athlete involved in the sport. To develop a needs analysis first analyze the physiological and biomechanical requirements of each sport.

A physiological analysis will allow you to devise a program that addresses the aspects of strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, cardiorespriatory endurance, power, and speed required for success in the sport. A biomechanical analysis will allow you to choose training activities that develop the athlete in the manner most specific to the sport and also to determine the areas of critical stress in the sport. Strength and weaknesses in each athlete need to be assessed by the chosen professional. As stated, different sports require various levels of fitness and all athletes should be tested, or analyzed for strength, flexibility, endurance, power and speed. Also needed by a medical professional, is an injury profile on each participating athlete to determine specific needs with regard to injury prevention, or adaptation.

Aerobic exercise and fitness can be contrasted with anaerobic exercise, of which strength training and short-distance running are the most salient examples. The two types of exercise differ by the duration and intensity of muscular contractions involved, as well as by how energy is generated within the muscle.

In most conditions, anaerobic exercise occurs simultaneously with aerobic exercises because the less efficient anaerobic metabolism must supplement the aerobic system due to energy demands that exceed the aerobic system's capacity. What is generally called aerobic exercise might be better termed "solely aerobic", because it is designed to be low-intensity enough not to generate lactate via pyruvate fermentation, so that all carbohydrate is aerobically turned into energy.

Initially during increased exertion, muscle glycogen is broken down to produce glucose, which undergoes glycolysis producing pyruvate which then reacts with oxygen (Krebs cycle) to produce carbon dioxide and water and releasing energy. If there is a shortage of oxygen (anaerobic exercise, explosive movements), carbohydrate is consumed more rapidly because the pyruvate ferments into lactate.

As carbohydrates deplete, fat metabolism is increased so that it can fuel the aerobic pathways. The latter is a slow process, and is accompanied by a decline in performance level. This gradual switch to fat as fuel is a major cause of what marathon runners call "hitting the wall". Anaerobic exercise, in contrast, refers to the initial phase of exercise, or to any short burst of intense exertion, in which the glycogen or sugar is respired without oxygen, and is a far less efficient process. Operating anaerobically, an untrained 400 meter sprinter may "hit the wall" short of the full distance.

Aerobic exercise comprises innumerable forms. In general, it is performed at a moderate level of intensity over a relatively long period of time. For example, running a long distance at a moderate pace is an aerobic exercise, but sprinting is not. Playing singles tennis, with near-continuous motion, is generally considered aerobic activity, while golf or two person team tennis, with brief bursts of activity punctuated by more frequent breaks, may not be predominantly aerobic. Some sports are thus inherently "aerobic", while other aerobic

exercises, such as fartlek training or aerobic dance classes, are designed specifically to improve aerobic capacity and fitness.

Among the recognized benefits of doing regular aerobic exercise are:

Strengthening the muscles involved in respiration, to facilitate the flow of air in and out of the lungs

Strengthening and enlarging the heart muscle, to improve its pumping efficiency and reduce the resting heart rate, known as aerobic conditioning

Strengthening muscles throughout the body Improving circulation efficiency and reducing blood pressure Increasing the total number of red blood cells in the body, facilitating transport of

oxygen Improved mental health, including reducing stress and lowering the incidence of

depression Reducing the risk for diabetes.

As a result, aerobic exercise can reduce the risk of death due to cardiovascular problems. In addition, high-impact aerobic activities (such as jogging or jumping rope) can stimulate bone growth, as well as reduce the risk of osteoporosis for both men and women.

In addition to the health benefits of aerobic exercise, there are numerous performance benefits:

Increased storage of energy molecules such as fats and carbohydrates within the muscles, allowing for increased endurance

Neovascularization of the muscle sarcomeres to increase blood flow through the muscles

Increasing speed at which aerobic metabolism is activated within muscles, allowing a greater portion of energy for intense exercise to be generated aerobically

Improving the ability of muscles to use fats during exercise, preserving intramuscular glycogen

Enhancing the speed at which muscles recover from high intensity exercise

Both the health benefits and the performance benefits, or "training effect", require a minimum duration and frequency of exercise. Most authorities suggest at least twenty minutes performed at least three times per week.[2]

[ E D I T ] A E R O B I C C A P A C I T Y

Main article: VO2 max

Aerobic capacity describes the functional capacity of the cardiorespiratory system, (the heart, lungs and blood vessels). Aerobic capacity is defined as the maximum amount of oxygen the body can use during a specified period, usually during intense exercise.[3] It is a function both of cardiorespiratory performance and the maximum ability to remove and utilize oxygen from circulating blood. To measure maximal aerobic capacity, an exercise physiologist or physician will perform a VO2 max test, in which a subject will undergo progressively more strenuous exercise on a treadmill, from an easy walk through to exhaustion. The individual is typically connected to a respirometer to measure oxygen consumption, and the speed is

increased incrementally over a fixed duration of time. The higher the measured cardiorespiratory endurance level, the more oxygen has been transported to and used by exercising muscles, and the higher the level of intensity at which the individual can exercise. More simply stated, the higher the aerobic capacity, the higher the level of aerobic fitness. The Cooper and multi-stage fitness tests can also be used to assess functional aerobic capacity for particular jobs or activities.

The degree to which aerobic capacity can be improved by exercise varies very widely in the human population: while the average response to training is an approximately 17% increase in VO2max, in any population there are "high responders" who may as much as double their capacity, and "low responders" who will see little or no benefit from training.[4] Studies indicate that approximately 10% of otherwise healthy individuals cannot improve their aerobic capacity with exercise at all.[5] The degree of an individual's responsiveness is highly heritable, suggesting that this trait is genetically determined.[4]

[ E D I T ] C R I T I C I S M S

When overall fitness is an occupational requirement, as it is for athletes, soldiers, and police and fire personnel, aerobic exercise alone may not provide a well balanced exercise program. In particular, muscular strength, especially upper-body muscular strength, may be neglected. Also, the metabolic pathways involved in anaerobic metabolism (glycolysis and lactic acid fermentation) that generate energy during high intensity, low duration tasks, such as sprinting, are not exercised at peak aerobic exercise levels. Aerobic exercise remains however a valuable component of a balanced exercise program and is good for cardiovascular health.

Some persons suffer repetitive stress injuries with some forms of aerobics, and then must choose less injurious, "low-impact" forms of aerobics, or lengthen the gap between bouts of exercise to allow for greater recovery.

Higher intensity exercise, such as High-intensity interval training (HIIT), increases the resting metabolic rate (RMR) in the 24 hours following high intensity exercise,[6] ultimately burning more calories than lower intensity exercise; low intensity exercise burns more calories during the exercise, due to the increased duration, but fewer afterwards.

Aerobic activity is also used by individuals with anorexia nervosa as a means of suppressing appetite, since aerobic exercise increases sugar and fatty acid transport in the blood by stimulating tissues to release their energy stores.[citation needed] While there is some support for exercising while hungry as a means of tapping into fat stores, most evidence is equivocal.[citation needed]In addition, performance can be impaired by lack of nutrients, which will reduce training effects.[citation needed]

[ E D I T ] C O M M E R C I A L S U C C E S S

Aerobic exercise has long been a popular form of weight loss and physical fitness, often taking a commercial form.

Judi Sheppard Missett largely helped create the market for commercial aerobics with her Jazzercise program in the 1970s

Richard Simmons hosted an aerobic exercise show on television, beginning in the 1980s, and continued with a variety of exercise videos.

Billy Blanks' Tae Bo helped popularize cardio-boxing, workouts that used martial arts movements in the 1990s

[ E D I T ] V A R I E T I E S O F A E R O B I C ( C A R D I O V A S C U L A R )

E X E R C I S E

[edit] Indoor

Stair climbing Elliptical trainer Indoor rower Stairmaster Stationary bicycle Treadmill

[edit] Outdoor

Cross-country skiing Cycling Inline skating Jogging Running Nordic walking Parkour

[edit] Indoor or outdoor

Kickboxing Swimming Jumping rope Circuit Training StreetStrider

Exercise Physiology

Exercise physiology is "the identification of physiological mechanisms underlying physical

activity, the comprehensive delivery of treatment services concerned with the analysis,

improvement, and maintenance of health and fitness, rehabilitation of heart disease and other

chronic diseases and/or disabilities, and the professional guidance and counsel of athletes and

others interested in athletics, sports training, and human adaptability to acute and chronic

exercise." [1] Exercise physiologists use exercise to model or define physiological concepts,

that is, the how's and why's of the function of the human body or, how the body works. An

example of this is the study of the heart as being analogous to the study of an automobile. A

car enthusiast can look at a parked and non-moving automobile and marvel at its design. A

physiologist wants to know how this design works. Under this description an automobile

must be driven to determine its true qualities. Likewise, exercise must be undertaken to

determine not only how the heart works but skeletal muscle as well. Moreover, a persons

responses to exercise can be used to determine the potential extent of certain diseases as well

as being used to rehabilitate certain disease states. Exercise and health are inextricably

linked!

Ligamen Terputus

LIGAMEN kruciate hadapan (ACL) terputus adalah sejenis kecederaan

sendi lutut di mana ACL terkoyak atau tercedera. ACL adalah salah satu

dari empat ligamen penting yang memberi kestabilan kepada sendi lutut.

Ligamen lain adalah ligamen kruciate belakang (PCL), ligamen kolateral

medial (MCL) dan ligamen kolateral lateral (LCL). ACL terlekat antara

hujung bawah tulang paha (femur) dan hujung atas tulang kering (tibia)

dalam sendi lutut.

Ia menyilang di dalam sendi lutut dalam arah pepenjuru dan di sisinya,

PCL pula menyilang dalam arah bertentangan dengan membentuk

palang di antara satu sama lain, itulah sebabnya kedua-dua ligamen ini

dipanggil 'cruciate' atau 'genting' sempena bentuk mereka di dalam

sendi lutut itu.

Fungsi utama ACL adalah untuk menghalang pergerakan tulang kering

daripada bergerak ke hadapan dari tulang paha. Sementara PCL pula

untuk menghalang tulang kering daripada bergerak ke belakang tulang

paha.

Sebab itulah kedua dua ligamen kruciate ini sangat penting dalam

memberi kestabilan pada sendi lutut, terutama semasa aktiviti sukan

yang banyak membabitkan sentuhan badan dan juga pertukaran arah

pergerakan dan pergerakan berputar. Sebab itulah kecederaan ACL akan

memberikan implikasi yang serius kepada kestabilan dan fungsi sendi

lutut.

Selalunya atlit yang mengalami kecederaan ACL akan mengalami

kemerosotan dalam prestasinya kerana kesukaran yang dihadapi

disebabkan lututnya yang tidak stabil.

Bagaimanakah ACL boleh tercedera?

ACL terputus atau terkoyak sebenarnya adalah kecederaan lutut yang

sangat kerap berlaku dikalangan ahli sukan. Selalunya ACL tercedera

apabila sendi lutut terpusing dengan kaki terpacak kaku ke tanah atau

ketika terjatuh dengan kaki terlipat keluar ketika mendarat selepas

melompat.

ACL juga boleh tercedera sekiranya lutut ditendang dengan kuat dari

arah luar sebagaimana boleh berlaku ketika bermain bola sepak atau

ketika terkena terjahan semasa bermain rugbi. Kecederaan ACL ini

kadang-kadang berlaku secara kombinasi dengan kecederaan meniskus

dan MCL.

Kecederaan ACL lebih kerap berlaku di kalangan wanita berbanding

lelaki dengan nisbah dua hingga lapan kali. Alasan kepada perbezaan ini

masih tidak dapat dipastikan dengan jelas tetapi berdasarkan kajian

terkini, andaiannya adalah disebabkan oleh bentuk anatomi wanita yang

berbeza, kesan hormon estrogen ke atas ACL dan kerana terdapat

perbezaan dalam imbangan otot di kalangan lelaki dan perempuan.

Simptom kecederaan ACL

Semasa berlaku kecederaan bunyi “POP” atau bunyi benda direntap

boleh didengar dari sendi lutut tersebut.

Lutut terasa longgar dan hilang kawalan, kemudian lutut boleh

membengkak.

ACL terputus selalunya menyebabkan sakit yang teramat sangat dan

serta merta selepas berlakunya kecederaan.

Lutut membengkak selalunya berlaku serta merta dan nyata, tetapi

boleh juga bengkak terjadi perlahan-lahan dan sedikit saja.

Lutut yang tercedera selalunya mempunyai pergerakan yang terhad

terutama bila hendak meluruskan kaki kerana sendi lutut tidak dapat

diluruskan sepenuhnya.

Lutut yang tercedera selalunya berasa sakit bila sekeliling sendi

ditekan dengan jari.

Tanda positif bila dilakukan pemeriksaan klinikal ujian “Anterior

Drawer” dan ujian "Lachman’s”.

Sekiranya terdapat kecederaan tulang rawan dan meniskus selalunya

permukaan sendi berasa sakit bila ditekan.

Rawatan untuk ACL terputus

Apa yang para atlit boleh lakukan?

Segera berhenti bermain atau bersukan

Memberi rawatan kecemasan R.I.C.E. (Rest, Ice, Compression,

Elevation) dengan segera kepada lutut yang tercedera.

Dapatkan rawatan pakar perubatan dengan segera.

Apa yang para doktor boleh lakukan?

Seorang doktor atau pakar kecederaan sukan boleh melakukan

pemeriksaan ke atas sendi tersebut dan memberi kepastian sama ada

ligamen ACL terputus atau tidak.

Mendiagnos kecederaan sampingan pada sendi yang tercedera.

Melakukan pemeriksaan sinar-x dan imbasan MRI pada lutut yang

tercedera

Merujuk kepada pakar sekiranya rawatan pembedahan diperlukan.

Memberikan program rehabilitasi pra pembedahan untuk menguatkan

otot-otot lutut dan mengurangkan bengkak pada lutut dalam penyediaan

untuk pembedahan. Ini dapat membantu dalam mendapatkan keputusan

terbaik selepas pembedahan.

Apakah Pembedahan yang biasa dilakukan?

Pembedahan yang biasa dilakukan adalah secara artroskopik iaitu

pembedahan yang menggunakan teropong kamera yang dimasukkan ke

dalam sendi lutut menerusi tebukan kecil pada kulit.

Sekiranya kecederaan ACL adalah jenis yang membabitkan tulang

tempat perlekatan ACL terkopak dari tulang Kering (Tibia) dan fiber ACL

masih utuh, doktor akan meletakkan kembali serpihan tulang berkenaan

ke tempat asalnya dengan menggunakan skrew atau jahitan.

Sekiranya fiber ACL tersebut putus, fiber berkenaan dibuang dan

ligamen ACL baru akan dibentuk dengan menggunakan graf yang

diambil dari tendon paha atau Hamstring iaitu tendon Semitendinosus

dan tendon Gracillis atau menggunakan gabungan tendon Patella dan

sebahagian tulang tempurung dan tulang Kering (BTB graft).

Bilakah pembedahan diperlukan?

Rawatan secara pembedahan adalah lebih kerap dilakukan berbanding

secara tanpa pembedahan (konservatif) untuk kecederaan ACL.

Keputusan sama ada perlu dirawat secara pembedahan adalah

berdasarkan kepada beberapa faktor termasuk umur atlit, gaya hidup,

pembabitan dalam aktiviti sukan, jenis pekerjaan, tahap ketidakstabilan

sendi lutut dan kecederaan sampingan sekiranya ada.

Pesakit yang sudah berusia dan tidak lagi aktif melakukan aktiviti luar

sekiranya terputus ligamen ACL kerana terjatuh selalunya tidak akan

menjalani pembedahan sebaliknya hanya dirawat dengan fisioterapi dan

rehabilitasi. Kadang-kadang pesakit dipakaikan penyokong lutut kerana

ia mampu memberi sedikit kestabilan kepada lutut yang tanpa ACL ini.

Pesakit yang lebih muda dan aktif melakukan aktiviti sukan dan

berkemungkinan mampu mengikuti program rehabilitasi yang kompleks

dengan baik pesakit ini biasanya dirawat secara pembedahan.

Sejarah kecederaan ACL menunjukkan lutut yang mempunyai

kecederaan ACL dan tidak dirawat secara pembedahan mempunyai

kadar pembentukan sakit sendi yang kronik, seperti osteoartritis, lebih

cepat berbanding lutut yang normal atau dirawat secara pembedahan.

Bagi mereka yang masih muda dan aktif pula, mempunyai lutut yang

longgar kerana ketiadaan ACL memaksa mereka menukar aktiviti sukan

kepada jenis yang tidak membabitkan sentuhan badan dan pergerakan

berpusing seperti joging.

Berapa lamakah atlit perlu berehat daripada aktiviti sukan?

Ini sangat bergantung kepada cara pendekatan pakar bedah dan pakar

fisioterapi terhadap proses rehabilitasi. Sesetengahnya memilih program

pemulihan yang dipercepatkan di mana atlit boleh kembali bersukan dan

bermain dalam pertandingan yang kompetitif dalam masa enam bulan

selepas pembedahan. Ada juga memilih tempoh pemulihan yang lebih

lama iaitu sembilan bulan sebelum seseorang atlit itu dibenarkan

bermain secara kompetitif.

Apakah Jenis-jenis sokongan lutut yang biasa dipakai?

Sokongan lutut atau brace boleh memberi perlindungan dan sokongan

pada lutut yang tidak stabil. Ia menghalang kecederaan kepada lutut

yang sihat dan menyokong lutut yang tidak stabil.

Brace lutut berengsel - Ia mempunyai lapisan penguat pada kedua-dua

sisi lutut yang dibuat daripada besi dan boleh dibengkokkan pada

engselnya. Jenis ini mampu memberi sokongan yang baik kepada lutut.

Sesetengah brace menggunakan engsel boleh laras yang mana titik

putaran berubah mengikut pergerakan lutut dengan itu sokongan yang

diberikan adalah lebih sempurna. Bagaimanapun tidak ada sokongan

yang mampu memberi perlindungan seratus peratus kepada ACL yang

mana ia hanya memerlukan beberapa darjah putaran sahaja untuk

mencederakannya.

Penyokong lutut yang distabilkan - Jenis ini mempunyai panel sisi yang

diperkuatkan untuk memberi sokongan tambahan berbanding sokongan

lutut yang standard. Ia memberi sokongan dari tekanan sisi kepada lutut.

Selalunya terdapat plat besi yang fleksibel atau tali anjal yang dijahit

pada kedua-dua sisi penyokong lutut berkenaan. Jenis ini memberikan

sokongan sisi yang kurang tetapi mempunyai bentuk yang lebih nipis

berbanding brace lutut berengsel.

Penyokong lutut asas - Penyokong lutut jenis asas ini tidak mempunyai

bahan sokongan tambahan pada sisinya dan selalunya dibuat daripada

bahan neoprene yang boleh simpan haba. Jenis ini hanya memberikan

sokongan yang sederhana kepada lutut.

Continuous trainingContinuous training is a type of physical training that involves activity without rest. This type of training may be of high intensity, of moderate intensity with an extended duration, or fartlek training.[1]

Continuous training means the person training uses 60-80% of their maxium heart rate for at least 30-60 minutes at least four or five times a week. This method suits long distance runners as well as tennis players etc, because it means that their endurance levels will increase, and it is the way which they would normally compete. Continuous training is a good way for an athlete to build up their cardio-vascular endurance levels. Continuous forms the basis for all other training methods both anaerobic and aerobic.

Continuous training can be broken down into the following sub-divisions that have slightly different effects upon the energy pathways.

Running at 50 to 60% of max. Heart rate or 20 to 36% of VO2 max. Very easy pace - metabolises fat - aerobic - duration 60 minutes plus. Useful for joggers & ultra-distance runners.

Running at 60 to 70% of max. Heart rate or 36 to 52% of V02 max. Slightly faster pace - burns glycogen and fat - aerobic - duration 45 to 90 minutes. Useful for marathon runners. Improves cardiovascular system - capillarisation

• Running at 70 to 80% of max. Heart rate or 52 to 68% of V02 max. 10 km pace - burns glycogen - aerobic - duration 30 to 45 minutes - 10 km and marathon runners. Improves cardiovascular system - capillarisation - glycogen burning

• Running at 80 to 90% of max. Heart rate or 68 to 83% of V02 max. 5 km pace - burns glycogen - anaerobic - duration 10 to 20 minutes. Useful for 5 km to marathon. Improves cardiovascular system - capillarisation - glycogen burning - lactate tolerance and removal.

• Running at 90 to 100% of max. Heart rate or 83 to 99% of V02 max. 800/1500m pace - burns glycogen - anaerobic - duration 1 to 5 minutes. Useful for 800 to 5 km. Improves glycogen burning - lactate tolerance and removal''

Heart rate training zones (e.g. 70%MHR) are calculated by taking into consideration your Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) and your Resting Heart Rate (RHR).

High-Intensity Continuous Training

Continuous training performed at work intensities can vary but are usually equivalent to 85-95% of a person's maximal heart rate. High intensity continuous training is an effective way of developing endurance and, if performed at a sufficiently high intensity, will help develop the appropriate leg speed for competition. However, slower paced training (e.g. LSD or fartlek) should be incorporated into the training programme at least once or twice a week as a relief from the stress of exhaustive, high-intensity continuous training. This is highly untrue for many sports and training in such a way should be closely monitored as the athlete will soon become exhausted.

Aerobic Continuous Training

Start by developing an aerobic base. Aerobic continuous training is recommended to improve the central transport capacity through stimulation of adaptive changes in the heart muscle itself. Studies have shown that continuous training (compared to interval training) results in greater heart rate reduction during performance of sub-maximal exercise.

Training should be at an intensity of approximately 75% of V02 max (volume of oxygen uptake) and involve as large a muscle mass as possible. Cross-country skiing, running, cycling, tennis, jogging and swimming are good examples. The mode of training is not critical in terms of specificity to fencing since the training effect on the heart function is, for the most part, transferable to the use of different muscle groups. There is a belief that due to the fine neuromuscular co-ordination required with the fencing specific reflexes, swimming, with the water acting as a form of resistance, can detrimentally effect this co-ordination and the timing of reflexes. If the athlete does decide to use swimming to develop their aerobic base, it would be recommended not to schedule this training prior to a dodgeball session. After a dodgeball training session would be more appropriate, or on alternate days to your dodgeball specific training.

Circuit Training

Circuit training is a form of conditioning combining resistance training and high-intensity aerobics. It is designed to be easy to follow and target strength building as well as muscular endurance. An exercise "circuit" is one completion of all prescribed exercises in the program. When one circuit is complete, one begins the first exercise again for another circuit. Traditionally, the time between exercises in circuit training is short, often with rapid movement to the next exercise.

Strength Training

Strength training is the use of resistance to muscular contraction to build the strength, anaerobic endurance, and size of skeletal muscles. There are many different methods of strength training, the most common being the use of gravity or elastic/hydraulic forces to oppose muscle contraction. See the resistance training article for information about elastic/hydraulic training, but note that the terms "strength training" and "resistance training" are often used interchangeably.

When properly performed, strength training can provide significant functional benefits and improvement in overall health and well-being, including increased bone, muscle, tendon and ligament strength and toughness, improved joint function, reduced potential for injury, increased bone density, a temporary increase in metabolism, improved cardiac function, and

elevated HDL (good) cholesterol. Training commonly uses the technique of progressively increasing the force output of the muscle through incremental increases of weight, elastic tension or other resistance, and uses a variety of exercises and types of equipment to target specific muscle groups. Strength training is primarily an anaerobic activity, although some proponents have adapted it to provide the benefits of aerobic exercise through circuit training.

Strength training differs from bodybuilding, weightlifting, powerlifting, and strongman, which are sports rather than forms of exercise, although training for them is inherently interconnected with strength training, as it is for shotput, discus, and Highland games. Many other sports use strength training as part of their training regimen, notably football, rugby, lacrosse, basketball, hockey, and track and field.

T Y P E S O F S T R E N G T H T R A I N I N G

Weight training

Main article: Weight trainingSee also: Bodyweight exercise

Weight and resistance training are popular methods of strength training that use gravity (through weight stacks, plates or dumbbells) or elastic/hydraulic resistance to oppose muscle contraction. Each method provides a different challenge to the muscle relating to the position where the resistance to muscle contraction peaks. Weight training provides the majority of the resistance at the initiating joint angle when the movement begins, when the muscle must overcome the inertia of the weight's mass (however, if repetitions are performed extremely slowly, inertia is never overcome and resistance remains constant). In contrast, elastic resistance provides the greatest opposition to contraction at the end of the movement when the material experiences the greatest tension while hydraulic resistance varies depending on the speed of the submerged limb, with greater resistance at higher speeds. In addition to the equipment used, joint angles can alter the force output of the muscles due to leverage.

Resistance training

Main article: Resistance training

Resistance training is a form of strength training in which each effort is performed against a specific opposing force generated by resistance (i.e. resistance to being pushed, squeezed, stretched or bent). Exercises are isotonic if a body part is moving against the force. Exercises are isometric if a body part is holding still against the force. Resistance exercise is used to

develop the strength and size of skeletal muscles. Properly performed, resistance training can provide significant functional benefits and improvement in overall health and well-being.

The goal of resistance training, according to the American Sports Medicine Institute (ASMI), is to "gradually and progressively overload the musculoskeletal system so it gets stronger." Research shows that regular resistance training will strengthen muscle and increase bone mass

Isometric training

Main article: Isometric exercise

Isometric exercise, or "isometrics", is a type of strength training in which the joint angle and muscle length do not change during contraction. Isometric exercises are opposed by a force equal to the force output of the muscle and there is no net movement. This mainly strengthens the muscle at the specific joint angle at which the isometric exercise occurs, with some increases in strength at joint angles up to 20° in either direction depending on the joint trained.[3] In comparison, isotonic exercises strengthen the muscle throughout the entire range of motion of the exercise used.

B A S I C P R I N C I P L E S

The basic principles of strength training involve a manipulation of the number of repetitions (reps), sets, tempo, exercises and force to cause desired changes in strength, endurance, size or shape by overloading of a group of muscles. The specific combinations of reps, sets, exercises, resistance and force depend on the purpose of the individual performing the exercise: sets with fewer reps can be performed using more force, but have a reduced impact on endurance.

Strength training also requires the use of 'good form', performing the movements with the appropriate muscle group(s), and not transferring the weight to different body parts in order to move greater weight/resistance (called 'cheating'). Typically failure to use good form during a training set can result in injury or an inability to meet training goals - since the desired muscle group is not challenged sufficiently, the threshold of overload is never reached and the muscle does not gain in strength. There are cases when cheating is beneficial, as is the case where weaker groups become the weak link in the chain and the target muscles are never fully exercised as a result.

The benefits of strength training include increased muscle, tendon and ligament strength, bone density, flexibility, tone, metabolic rate and postural support.

Terminology

Strength training has a variety of specialized terms used to describe parameters of strength training:

Exercise - different exercises involve moving joints in specific patterns to challenge muscles in different ways

Form - each exercise has a specific form, a topography of movement designed to maximize safety and muscle strength gains

Rep - short for repetition, a rep is a single cycle of lifting and lowering a weight in a controlled manner, moving through the form of the exercise

Set - a set consists of several repetitions performed one after another with no break between them with the number of reps per set and sets per exercise depending on the goal of the individual. The number of repetitions one can perform at a certain weight is called the Rep Maximum (RM). For example, if one could perform ten reps at 75 lbs, then their RM for that weight would be 10RM. 1RM is therefore the maximum weight that someone can lift in a given exercise - i.e. a weight that they can only lift once without a break.

Tempo - the speed with which an exercise is performed; the tempo of a movement has implications for the weight that can be moved and the effects on the muscle.

Realization of training goals

According to popular theory:

Sets of one to five repetitions primarily develop strength, with more impact on muscle size and none on endurance.

Sets of six to twelve repetitions develop a balance of strength, muscle size and endurance.

Sets of thirteen to twenty repetitions develop endurance, with some increases to muscle size and limited impact on strength.[4]

Sets of more than twenty repetitions are considered to be focused on aerobic exercise. They do still use the anaerobic system, but usually at a rate through which it can consistently remove the lactic acid generated from it.

Individuals typically perform one to six sets per exercise, and one to three exercises per muscle group, with short breaks between each set - the specific combinations of reps, exercises, sets and break duration depends on the goals of the individual program. The duration of these breaks determines which energy system the body utilizes. Performing a series of exercises with little or no rest between them, referred to as "circuit training", will draw energy mostly from the aerobic energy system. Brief bursts of exercise, separated by breaks, are fueled by anaerobic systems, which use either phosphagens or glycolysis.

For developing endurance, gradual increases in volume and gradual decreases in intensity is the most effective program.[5]

It has been shown that for beginners, multiple-set training offers minimal benefits over single-set training with respect to either strength gain or muscle mass increase, but for the experienced athlete multiple-set systems are required for optimal progress.[4][6][7] However, one study shows that for leg muscles, three sets are more effective than one set.[8]

Beginning weight-trainers are in the process of training the neurological aspects of strength[citation needed], the ability of the brain to generate a rate of neuronal action potentials that will produce a muscular contraction that is close to the maximum of the muscle's potential.

VariableTraining goal

Strength Power Hypertrophy EnduranceLoad (% of 1RM) 80-90 45-55 60-80 40-60Reps per set 1-5 1-5 6-12 15-60Sets per exercise 4-7 3-5 4-8 2-4Rest between sets (mins) 2-6 2-6 2-5 1-2Duration (seconds per set) 5-10 4-8 20-60 80-150Speed per rep (% of max) 60-100 90-100 60-90 60-80Training sessions per week 3-6 3-6 5-7 8-14Table reproduced from Siff, 2003[9]

Weights for each exercise should be chosen so that the desired number of repetitions can just be achieved.

Progressive overload

In one common method, weight training uses the principle of progressive overload, in which the muscles are overloaded by attempting to lift at least as much weight as they are capable of. They respond by growing larger and stronger.[10] This procedure is repeated with progressively heavier weights as the practitioner gains strength and endurance.

However, performing exercises at the absolute limit of one's strength (known as one rep max lifts) is considered too risky for all but the most experienced practitioners. Moreover, most individuals wish to develop a combination of strength, endurance and muscle size. One repetition sets are not well suited to these aims. Practitioners therefore lift lighter (sub-maximal) weights, with more repetitions, to fatigue the muscle and all fibres within that muscle as required by the progressive overload principle.

Commonly, each exercise is continued to the point of momentary muscular failure. Contrary to widespread belief, this is not the point at which the individual thinks they cannot complete any more repetitions, but rather the first repetition that fails due to inadequate muscular strength. Training to failure is a controversial topic with some advocating training to failure on all sets while others believe that this will lead to overtraining, and suggest training to failure only on the last set of an exercise.[11] Some practitioners recommend finishing a set of repetitions just before the point of failure; e.g. if you can do a maximum of 12 reps with a given weight, only perform 11. Adrenaline and other hormones may promote additional intensity by stimulating the body to lift additional weight (as well as the neuro-muscular stimulations that happen when in “fight-or-flight” mode, as the body activates more muscle fibres), so getting "psyched up" before a workout can increase the maximum weight lifted.

Weight training can be a very effective form of strength training because exercises can be chosen, and weights precisely adjusted, to safely exhaust each individual muscle group after the specific numbers of sets and repetitions that have been found to be the most effective for the individual. Other strength training exercises lack the flexibility and precision that weights offer.

Split training

Split training involves working no more than three muscle groups or body parts per day, instead spreading the training of specific body parts throughout a training cycle of several days. It is commonly used by more advanced practitioners due to the logistics involved in training all muscle groups maximally. Training all the muscles in the body individually through their full range of motion in a single day is generally not considered possible due to caloric and time constraints. Split training involves fully exhausting individual muscle groups during a workout, then allowing several days for the muscle to fully recover. Muscles are worked roughly twice per week and allowed roughly 72 hours to recover. Recovery of certain muscle groups is usually achieved on days while training other groups. I.e. a 7 day week can consist of a practitioner training trapezius, side shoulders and upper shoulders to exhaustion on one day, the following day the arms to exhaustion, the day after that the rear, front shoulders and back, the day after that the chest. In this way all mentioned muscle groups are allowed the necessary recovery.[12]

Intensity, volume, and frequency

Three important variables of strength training are intensity, volume and frequency. Intensity refers to the amount of work required to achieve the activity, and is proportional to the mass of the weights being lifted. Volume refers to the number of muscles worked, exercises, sets and reps during a single session. Frequency refers to how many training sessions are performed per week.

These variables are important because they are all mutually conflicting, as the muscle only has so much strength and endurance, and takes time to recover due to microtrauma. Increasing one by any significant amount necessitates the decrease of the other two, e.g. increasing weight means a reduction of reps, and will require more recovery time and therefore fewer workouts per week. Trying to push too much intensity, volume and frequency will result in overtraining, and eventually lead to injury and other health issues such as chronic soreness and general lethargy, illness or even acute trauma such as avulsion fractures. A high-medium-low formula can be used to avoid overtraining, with either intensity, volume, or frequency being high, one of the others being medium, and the other being low. One example of this training strategy can be found in the following chart:

Type High Med LowIntensity (% of 1RM) 80-100% 50-70% 10-40%Volume (per muscle) 1 exercise 2 exercises 3+ exercisesSets 1 set 2-3 sets 4+ setsReps 1-6 reps 8-15 reps 20+ repsSession Frequency 1 p/w 2-3 p/w 4+ p/w

A common training strategy is to set the volume and frequency the same each week (e.g. training 3 times per week, with 2 sets of 12 reps each workout), and steadily increase the intensity (weight) on a weekly basis. However, to maximize progress to specific goals, individual programs may require different manipulations, such as decreasing the weight, and increase volume or frequency.[13]

Making program alterations on a daily basis (daily undulating periodization) seems to be more efficient in eliciting strength gains than doing so every 4 weeks (linear periodization),[14]

but for beginners there are no differences between different periodization models.[15]

Periodization

There are many complicated definitions for periodization, but the term simply means the division of the overall training program into periods which accomplish different goals.

Periodization is the modulating of volume, intensity, and frequency over time, to both stimulate gains and allow recovery.

In some programs for example; volume is decreased during a training cycle while intensity is increased. In this template, a lifter would begin a training cycle with a higher rep range than he will finish with.

For this example, the lifter has a 1 rep max of 225 lb:

Week Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 Set 4 Set 5Volume

Lbs.

Peak Intensity(Last

Set)

% of 1 Rep Max(Last

Set)

195 lb x 8reps

100 lb x 8reps

110 lb x 8reps

115 lb x 8reps

120 lb x 8reps

4,320 73% 52.5%

2105 lb x 8reps

110 lb x 7reps

115 lb x 7reps

125 lb x 7reps

130 lb x 7reps

4,200 79% 57.75%

3110 lb x 7reps

120 lb x 7reps

125 lb x 6reps

135 lb x 6reps

140 lb x 6reps

4,010 84% 63%

4125 lb x 6reps

130 lb x 6reps

140 lb x 6reps

145 lb x 5reps

155 lb x 5reps

3,870 88% 68.25%

5130 lb x 5reps

140 lb x 5reps

150 lb x 5reps

155 lb x 5reps

165 lb x 4reps

3,535 94% 73.5%

6140 lb x 4reps

150 lb x 4reps

160 lb x 4reps

165 lb x 4reps

175 lb x 4reps

3,160 99% 79%

This is an example of periodization where the number of repetitions decreases while the weight increases.

Strength training exercises

Quadriceps (front of legs)

Squat · Leg press (c) · Lunge (c) · Leg raise (c) · Leg extension

Hamstrings (back of legs)

Deadlift (c) · Leg curl (i)

Calves Calf raise (i)

Pectorals (chest) Bench press (c) · Fly (i) · Machine fly (i) · Press-up/Push-up (c)

Lats and trapezius (upper back)

Bent-over row (c) · Chin-up (c) · Pulldown (c) · Pullup (c) · Shoulder shrug (c)

Deltoids (shoulders)Front raise (i) · Handstand push-up (c) · Lateral raise (i) · Military press (c) · Shoulder press (c) · Upright row (c) · Rear delt raise (i)

Biceps (front of arms) Biceps curl (i)

Triceps (back of arms) Dip (c) · Pushdown (i) · Triceps extension (i)

Abdomen and obliques (belly)

Crunch , Sit-up ,· Leg raise , (any rotational movement will engage the obliques)

Lower back Back extension , Deadlift , · Good-morning ,Hyperextension

Sport Psychology

Sport psychology (or sports psychology) is a branch of psychology. It is the study of the psychological factors that affect participation and performance in sports. It is also a specialization within the brain psychology and kinesiology that seeks to understand psychological/mental factors that affect performance in sports, physical activity, and exercise and apply these to enhance individual and team performance. It deals with increasing performance by managing emotions and minimizing the psychological effects of injury and poor performance. Some of the most important skills taught are goal setting, relaxation, visualization, self-talk, awareness and control, concentration, confidence, using rituals, attribution training, and periodization.