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Hoo Sze Yen Form 4 Experiments Physics SPM 2008

Chapter 1: Introduction to Physics Page 1 of 52

CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS1.1

PENDULUM

Hypothesis:

The longer the length of a simple pendulum, the longer the period of oscillation.

Aim of the experiment:

To investigate how the period of a simple pendulum varies with its length.

Variables:Manipulated: The length of the pendulum, l

Responding: The period of the pendulum, T

Constant: The mass of the pendulum bob, gravitational acceleration

Apparatus/Materials:

Pendulum bob, length of thread about 100 cm long, retort stand, stopwatch

Setup:

Procedure:1. The thread is tied to the pendulum bob. The other end of the thread is tied around the

arm of the retort stand so that it can swing freely. The length of the pendulum, l is

measured to 80 cm as per the diagram.

Retort stand

Pendulum

Len th l

Thread


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Chapter 1: Introduction to Physics Page 2 of 52

2. With the thread taut and the bob at rest, the bob is lifted at a small amplitude (of not

more than 10°). Ensure that the pendulum swings in a single plane.

3. The time for ten complete oscillations of the pendulum is measured using the

stopwatch.4. Step 3 is repeated, and the average of both readings are calculated.

5. The period of oscillation, T is calculated using the average reading divided by the

number of oscillations, i.e. 10.6. T

2 is calculated by squaring the value of T .

7. Steps 1 to 6 are repeated using l = 70 cm, 60 cm, 50 cm, and 40 cm.

8. A graph T 2 versus l is plotted.

Recording of data:

Time of oscillations, t (s) Period of oscillation, TLength of

pendulum, l

(cm)

t 1 t 2 Average T = t /10 (s) T 2 (s

2)

80

70

60

50

40

Graph of T 2 vs l

Discussion:

The graph of T 2 versus l shows a straight line passing through the origin. This means that

the period of oscillation increases with the length of the pendulum, with T 2 directly

proportional to l .

Conclusion:The longer the length of the pendulum, the longer the period of oscillation. The

hypothesis is proven valid.

Length of pendulum, l

T 2


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Chapter 2: Forces and Motion Page 3 of 52

CHAPTER 2:

FORCES AND MOTION2.1

INCLINED PLANES

Hypothesis:

The larger the angle of incline, the higher the velocity just before reaching the end

of the runway


To study the relationship between the velocity of motion and the angle of inclination

Variables:

Manipulated: Angle of incline

Responding: Velocity just before reaching the end of the runway

Constant: Length of runway

Apparatus/Materials: Trolley, protractor, wooden blocks, cellophane tape, ticker-

timer, ticker tape, power supply, friction-compensated runway

Setup:

Procedure:

1. The apparatus is set up as per the diagram, and the inclined angle of the plane is

measured using a protractor. An initial angle of 5° is used.2. The ticker-timer is started up and at the same time the trolley is released to slide down

the plane.3. The final velocity when the trolley reaches the end of the plane is calculated using the

distance of 10 ticks on the ticker tape.

4. The procedure is repeated by changing the angle of incline to 10°, 15°, 20° and 25°.


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Results:

Angle of incline (˚) Final velocity (m s-1

)

5

10

15

20

25

Analysis:A graph of the velocity of the trolley against the angle of incline is plotted as follows:

Conclusion:

A higher angle of incline will have a higher velocity at the end of the runway.

Hypothesis accepted.

Note: The experiment can be modified by making the angle constant and varying the

height and length of the runway. Changes must be made accordingly: hypothesis,

variable list, procedure, table, analysis, conclusion.

Angle of incline (°)

Velocity (m s-1

)


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2.2

INERTIA

Option 1: Using a saw blade

Hypothesis:

The larger the mass, the larger the inertia


To study the effect of mass on the inertia of an object

Variables:

Manipulated: Mass, m

Responding: Period of oscillation, TConstant: Stiffness of blade, distance of the centre of the plasticine from the clamp

Apparatus/Materials: Jigsaw blade, G-clamp, stopwatch, and plasticine spheres of

mass 20 g, 40 g, 60 g, 80 g, and 100 g

Setup:

Procedure:

1. One end of the jigsaw blade is clamped to the leg of a table with a G-clamp as per the

diagram drawn.2. A 20 g plasticine ball is fixed at the free end of the blade.

3. The free end of the blade is displaced horizontally and released so that it oscillates.

The time for 10 complete oscillations is measured using a stopwatch. This step isrepeated. The average of 10 oscillations is calculated. Then, the period of oscillation

is determined.

4. Steps 2 and 3 are repeated using plasticine balls with masses 40 g, 60 g, 80 g, and 100g.

5. A graph of T 2 versus mass of load, m is drawn.


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Results:

Time of oscillations, t (s) Period of oscillation, TMass of

load, m (g) t 1 t 2 Average T = t /10 (s) T 2 (s

2)

20

40

60

80

100

Graph of T 2 versus m:

Discussion:

The graph of T 2 versus m shows a straight line passing through the origin. This means

that the period of oscillation increases with the mass of the load; that is, an object with a

large mass has a large inertia.

Conclusion:

Objects with a large mass have a large inertia. This is the reason why it is difficult to setan object of large mass in motion or to stop it. The hypothesis is valid.

Option 2: Using an inertia balance

Hypothesis:

The larger the mass, the bigger the inertia


To study the effect of mass on the inertia of an object

Variables:Manipulated: Mass, m

Responding: Period of oscillation, TConstant: Stiffness of the inertia balance

Apparatus/Materials: Inertia balance, masses for the inertia balance, G-clamp,

stopwatch


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Setup:

Procedure:1. The inertia balance is set up by clamping it onto one end of the table as shown in the

figure above.2. One mass is placed into the inertia balance. The inertia balance is displaced to one

side so that it oscillates in a horizontal plane.

3. The time for 10 complete oscillations is measured using a stopwatch. This step is

repeated. The average of 10 oscillations is calculated. Then, the period of oscillationis determined.

4. Steps 2 and 3 are repeated using two and three masses on the inertia balance.

5. A graph of T 2 versus number of masses, n is drawn.

Results:

Time of oscillations, t (s) Period of oscillation, TNumber of

masses, n t 1 t 2 Average T = t /10 (s) T 2 (s2)1

2

3

Graph of T 2 versus m:

Discussion:

The graph of T 2 versus m shows a straight line passing through the origin. This means

that the period of oscillation increases with the mass of the load; that is, an object with a

large mass has a large inertia.

Conclusion:

Objects with a large mass have a large inertia. This is the reason why it is difficult to set

an object of large mass in motion or to stop it. The hypothesis is valid.


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2.3

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

Experiment 1: Elastic collisions

Hypothesis:

The total momentum before collision is equal to the total momentum after collision,

provided there are no external forces acting on the system


To demonstrate conservation of momentum for two trolleys colliding with each

other elastically

Variables:Manipulated: Mass of trolleys

Responding: Final velocities of the trolleys / Momentum of the trolleys

Constant: Surface of ramp used

Apparatus/Materials: Friction-compensated runway, ticker-timer, A.C. power supply,

trolleys, wooden block, ticker tape, cellophane tape

Setup:

Procedure:

1. The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.

2. The runway is adjusted so that it is friction-compensated.

3.

Two trolleys of equal mass are selected. A spring-loaded piston is fixed to the frontend of trolley A.

4. Two pieces of ticker tape are attached to trolleys A and B respectively with

cellophane tape. The ticker tapes are separately passed through the same ticker-timer.5. The ticker-timer is switched on and trolley A is given a slight push so that it moves

down the runway at uniform velocity and collides with trolley B which is stationary.

6. The ticker-timer is switched off when both trolleys reach the end of the runway.7. From the ticker tapes of trolleys A and B, the final velocities are determined.

8. Momentum is calculated using the formula p = mv.

9. The experiment is repeated using different masses of trolleys.


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Recording of data:

Before collision After collisionm A m B

u A Initial total momentum,

m Au A

v A v B Final total momentum,

m Av A + m Bv Bm m

m 2m

2 m m

2 m 2 m

Analysis:

From the above table, it is found that:

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

Conclusion:

Hypothesis proven.

Experiment 2: Inelastic collisions

Hypothesis:




To demonstrate conservation of momentum for two trolleys colliding with eachother inelastically

Variables:

Manipulated: Mass of trolleys

Responding: Final velocities of the trolleys / Momentum of the trolleys Constant: Surface of ramp used

Apparatus/Materials: Friction-compensated runway, ticker-timer, A.C. power supply,

trolleys, wooden block, ticker tape, cellophane tape, plasticine / Velcro

Setup:


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Procedure:


2. The runway is adjusted so that it is friction-compensated.

3.

Two trolleys of equal mass are selected. Plasticine is fixed to the front end of trolley A. (Alternatively, use Velcro pads)

4. A ticker tape is attached to trolley A with cellophane tape. The ticker tape is passed

through the ticker-timer.5. The ticker-timer is switched on and trolley A is given a slight push so that it moves

down the runway at uniform velocity and collides with trolley B which is stationary.

6. The ticker-timer is switched off when both trolleys reach the end of the runway.7. The final velocity is determined from the ticker tape.

8. Momentum is calculated using the formula p = mv.

9. The experiment is repeated using different masses of trolleys.

Results:Before collision After collisionm A m B

u Initial total momentum,

m Au A

v Final total momentum,

(m A + m B) v m m

m 2m

2 m m

2 m 2 m

Analysis:

From the above table, it is found that:Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

Conclusion:Hypothesis proven.

Experiment 3: Explosion

Hypothesis:




To demonstrate conservation of momentum for two trolleys moving away from each

other from an initial stationary position

Variables:

Manipulated: Mass of trolleys

Responding: Final velocities of the trolleys / Momentum of the trolleys

Constant: Surface used


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Apparatus/Materials: Trolleys, wooden blocks, ticker tape, cellophane tape

Setup:

Before explosion After explosion

Procedure:


2. Two trolleys A and B of equal mass are placed in contact with each other on an even

and smooth surface. Two wooden blocks are placed on the same row at the end ofeach trolley respectively.

3. The vertical trigger on trolley B is given a light tap to release the spring-loaded pistonwhich then pushes the trolleys apart. The trolleys collide with the wooden blocks.

4. The positions of the wooden blocks are adjusted so that both the trolleys collide with

them at the same time.5. The distances, d A and d B are measured and recorded.

6. The experiment is repeated with different masses of trolleys.

Results:

Before

explosion

After explosion

Initial total

momentum

Mass of

trolley

A, m A

Mass of

trolley

B, m B

Distance

traveled by

trolley A, d A

Distance

traveled by

trolley B, d B

Final total

momentum,

m Ad A + m B(-d B)

0 m m

0 m 2m

0 2 m m

0 2m 2m

Analysis:

Because both trolleys hit the wooden blocks at the same time, the velocity of the trolleys

can be represented by the distance traveled by the trolleys.From the above table, it is found that:

Initial total momentum = 0

Final total momentum = 0

∴ Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

Conclusion:Hypothesis proven.


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2.4

FORCE, MASS AND ACCELERATION

Experiment 1: Relationship between acceleration and masswhen force is constant

Hypothesis:

When the force applied is constant, the acceleration of an object decreases when its

mass increases


To study the effect of mass of an object on its acceleration if the applied force is

constant

Variables:Manipulated: Mass, m

Responding: Acceleration, a

Constant: Applied force, F

Apparatus/Materials: Ticker-timer, A.C. power supply, trolleys, elastic band, runway,

wooden block, ticker tape, cellophane tape

Setup:

Procedure:1. Apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.

2. A ticker-tape is attached to the trolley and passed through the ticker-timer.

3. The ticker-timer is switched on and the trolley is pulled down the inclined runway

with an elastic band attached to the hind post of the trolley.4. The elastic band must be stretched to a fix length that is maintained throughout the

motion down the runway.5. When the trolley reaches the end of the runway, the ticker-timer is switched off and

the ticker tape is removed.

6. Starting from a clearly printed dot, the ticker tape is divided into strips with each strip

containing 10 ticks.7. A ticker tape chart is constructed, and from the chart, the acceleration of the trolley is

calculated.

8. The experiment is repeated using 2 and 3 trolleys. The elastic band must be stretchedto the same fixed length as in step 4.


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Results:

Mass of trolley, m (kg)

m

1

Acceleration, a (m s-2

)

1 trolley

2 trolleys

3 trolleys

Analysis:

A graph of a againstm

1 is drawn.

From the graph, it shows thatm

a1

α

Conclusion:

The acceleration of an object decreases when the mass increases. Hypothesis proven.

Experiment 2: Relationship between acceleration and force

when mass is constant

Hypothesis:

When the mass is constant, the acceleration of an object increases when the applied

force increases

Aim of the experiment:To study the effect of force on an object’s acceleration if its mass is constant

Variables:

Manipulated: Applied force, F

Responding: Acceleration, a

Constant: Mass, m

Apparatus/Materials: Ticker-timer, A.C. power supply, trolleys, elastic band, runway,

wooden block, ticker tape, cellophane tape

m

1

a


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Setup:

Procedure:

1. Apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.

2. A ticker-tape is attached to the trolley and passed through the ticker-timer.3. The ticker-timer is switched on and the trolley is pulled down the inclined runway

with an elastic band attached to the hind post of the trolley.

4.

The elastic band must be stretched to a fix length that is maintained throughout themotion down the runway.

5. When the trolley reaches the end of the runway, the ticker-timer is switched off and

the ticker tape is removed.6.

Starting from a clearly printed dot, the ticker tape is divided into strips with each strip

containing 10 ticks.

7. A ticker tape chart is constructed, and from the chart, the acceleration of the trolley iscalculated.

8. The experiment is repeated using 2 and 3 elastic bands. The elastic bands must be

stretched to the same fixed length as in step 4.

Results:Force applied, F Acceleration, a (m s

-2)

1 unit

2 units

3 units

Analysis:A graph of a against F is drawn.

From the graph, it shows that a α F

Conclusion:

The acceleration of an object increases when the applied force increases. Hypothesis

proven.

a


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2.5

GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION

Hypothesis:

Gravitational acceleration does not depend on an object’s mass


To measure the acceleration due to gravity

Variables:


Responding: Gravitational acceleration, g

Apparatus/Materials: Ticker-timer, ticker tape, A.C. power supply, retort stand,weights (50 g – 250 g), G-clamp, cellophane tape, soft board

Setup:

Procedure:1. Apparatus is setup as shown in the diagram above.

2. One end of the ticker tape is attached to a 50 g weight with cellophane tape, and the

other end is passed through the ticker timer.3. The ticker-timer is switched on and the weight is released so that it falls onto the soft

board.

4. The ticker-timer is switched off when the weight lands on the soft board.5. Gravitational acceleration is calculated from the middle portion of the ticker tape.

6. The experiment is repeated with weights of mass 100 g, 150 g, 200 g, and 250 g.


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Results:

Mass of weights (g) Free fall acceleration (m s-2

)

50

100

150

200

250

Analysis:From the table above, it is found that the gravitational acceleration for all the weights of

different masses are the same.

Discussion:

•

The value of the gravitational acceleration, g obtained is less than the standard valueof 9.81 m s-2

• This is because the weight is not falling freely. It is affected by:

o Air resistance

o Friction between ticker tape and ticker-timer

Conclusion

Gravitational acceleration is not dependent on the mass of the object. Hypothesis proven.

2.6

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Hypothesis:

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only change form.


To investigate the conversion of gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy.

Variables:


Responding: Final velocity, v

Constant: Height, h

Apparatus/Materials: Ticker-timer, ticker tape, A.C. power supply, trolley, thread,

weights, smooth pulley, friction-compensated runway, soft board, cellophane tape


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Setup:

Procedure:

1. Apparatus is setup as shown in the diagram above.

2.

One end of the ticker tape is attached to the back of the trolley with cellophane tapeand the other end is passed through the ticker-timer.

3. The ticker-timer is switched on, and the trolley is released.

4. The final velocity of the trolley and the weight is determined from the ticker tapeobtained.

5. The experiment is repeated with different masses of trolleys and weights.

Results:

Mass of trolley = M kg

Mass of weight = m kg

Height of weight before release = h m

Final velocity of trolley and weight = v m s-1

Loss of potential energy of the weight = mgh Final kinetic energy of the trolley and the weight = ½ ( M + m) v

2

It is found that ½ ( M + m) v2 = mgh

Conclusion

The loss of potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. Hypothesis proven.

Note: The experiment can be modified by making the mass constant and changing the

height of the weight’s release. Changes must be made to the variables list and to the

last step of the procedure.


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2.7

HOOKE’S LAW

Hypothesis:

The bigger the weight, the longer the spring extension


To determine the relationship between the weight and the spring extension

Variables:

Manipulated: Weight of the load

Responding: Spring extensionConstant: Spring constant

Apparatus and Materials: Spring, pin, weights, plasticine, retort stand, metre rule

Setup:

Procedure:1. The apparatus is setup as shown in the diagram.

2. The length of the spring without any weights, l 0 is measured using the metre rule with

the pin as reference.

3.

A 50 g weight is hung from the bottom of the spring. The new length of the spring, l is measured. The spring extension is l – l 0.

4. Step 4 is repeated with weights 100 g, 150 g, 200 g, and 250 g.


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Results:

Original length of spring = l 0 = __________ cm

Load mass

(g)

Load weight

(N)

Spring length, l

(cm)

Spring extension, x = l – l 0

(cm)

50 g 0.5 N

100 g 1.0 N

150 g 1.5 N

200 g 2.0 N

250 g 2.5 N

Analysis:A graph of spring extension, x against weight, F is plotted.

The x-F graph is a linear graph which passes through the origin. This shows that the

extension of the spring is directly proportional to the stretching force.

Conclusion:

Hypothesis proven.


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Chapter 3: Forces and Pressure Page 20 of 52

CHAPTER 3:

FORCES AND PRESSURE3.1

PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS

Experiment 1: Water pressure and depth

Hypothesis:

Water pressure increases with depth


To find the relationship between the pressure in a liquid according to its depth

Variables:Manipulated: Depth of liquid

Responding: Pressure in liquid

Constant: Density of liquid

Apparatus and Materials: Measuring cylinder, thistle funnel, rubber tube,

manometer, metre rule

Setup:

Procedure:

1. Apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.

2. The measuring cylinder is completely filled with water.3. The thistle funnel is lowered into the water to a depth of 10.0 cm. The manometer

reading is measured. The difference in the liquid heights in the manometer represent

the pressure reading.4. Step 3 is repeated with values of depth 20.0 cm, 30.0 cm, 40.0 cm and 50.0 cm.


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Results:

Depth (cm) Manometer reading (cm)

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

Analysis:A graph of pressure against depth is drawn.

Conclusion:

It is observed that the manometer reading increases as the depth of the thistle funnel

increases. This shows that the pressure increases with the depth of the liquid.Hypothesis proven.

Experiment 2: Water pressure and density

Hypothesis:

Pressure in liquid increases with its density


To find the relationship between the pressure in a liquid and its density

Variables:Manipulated: Density of liquid

Responding: Pressure in liquidConstant: Depth of liquid

Apparatus and Materials: Measuring cylinder, thistle funnel, rubber tube,

manometer, metre rule, water, glycerin, alcohol

Depth

Pressure


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Setup:

Procedure:

1.

Apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.

2. The measuring cylinder is completely filled with water.3. The thistle funnel is lowered into the water to a depth of 50.0 cm. The manometer

reading is measured. The difference in the liquid heights in the manometer represent

the pressure reading.4. The experiment is repeated by replacing the water with glycerin (density = 1300 kg

m-3

) and alcohol (density = 800 kg m-3

).

Results:

Depth within liquid = 50.0 cm

Liquid Density (kg m-3) Manometer reading (cm)

Water 1000

Glycerin 1300

Alcohol 800

Conclusion:

It is observed that the manometer reading increases as the density of the liquid increases.

This shows that the pressure increases with the density of the liquid.Hypothesis proven.


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3.2

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

Hypothesis:

The buoyant force on an object in a liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid

displaced


To find the relationship between the buoyant force acting upon an object in a liquid

and the weight of the liquid displaced

Variables:Manipulated: Weight of the object

Responding: Buoyant force / Weight of liquid displacedConstant: Density of liquid used

Apparatus and Materials: Eureka tin, spring balance, stone, thread, beaker, triple

beam balance

Setup:

Procedure:

1. A beaker is weighed with the triple beam balance and its mass, m1 is recorded.2. The Eureka tin is filled with water right up to the level of the overflow hole. The

beaker is placed beneath the spout to catch any water that flows out.3. A stone is suspended from the spring balance with thread and its weight in air, W 1 is

read from the spring balance.


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4. The stone is lowered into the Eureka tin until it is completely immersed in water

without touching the bottom of the Eureka tin. The water will overflow into the

beaker.

5.

The spring balance reading, W 2 is recorded.6. The beaker with water is weighed with the triple beam balance, and the mass, m2 is

recorded.

Results:

Weight of stone in air = W 1Weight of stone in water = W 2Buoyant force acting on the stone = W 2 – W 1Weight of the empty beaker = m1 g

Weight of the beaker and displaced water = m2 gWeight of the displaced water = (m2 – m1) g

It is found that W 2 – W 1 = (m2 – m1) g

Discussion:

The loss of weight of the stone immersed in water is due to the buoyant force of the water

acting upon it.From the results, it is found that the loss in weight of the stone is equal to the weight of

water displaced.

Conclusion:

Buoyant force on the stone = Weight of the water displaced by the stone

Hypothesis proven.

Note: Experiment can be modified to compare the weight of different sized stones and the

values of buoyant force

3.3 PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE

Hypothesis:

The liquid pressure exerted on a small surface is equal to the liquid pressure exerted

on a large surface in a closed system


To find the relationship between the pressure in a small syringe and a large syringe

in a closed system

Variables:Manipulated: Pressure acting on the small syringeResponding: Pressure acting on the large syringe

Constant: Density of liquid within the system


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Apparatus and Materials: 5 ml syringe, 10 ml syringe, several weights, rubber tube,

two retort stands

Setup:

Procedure:

1. The diameters of the piston of both syringes are measured and their cross-sectionalareas are calculated.

2. The two syringes are each mounted on a retort stand.

3. The syringes are filled with water and are securely connected to each other with arubber tube as shown in the diagram.

4. A weight is placed on the piston of the small syringe.

5. Weights are added to the piston of the large syringe until the water levels in the two

syringes are the same (i.e. syringes are in equilibrium).6.

The forces, F 1 and F 2 on the syringes are calculated.

7. The pressure, P 1 and P 2 exerted on the syringes are compared.

Results:

Syringe

size

Cross-sectional

area, A

Mass of the

weight, m

Force exerted on the

syringe, F = mg

Pressure, P

= A

F

Small A1 m1 F 1 P 1

Large A2 m2 F 2 P 2

Discussion:It is found that the pressure, P 1 exerted on the piston of the small syringe is equal to the

pressure, P 2 exerted on the piston of the large syringe.

Conclusion:

The water pressure exerted on the piston of the small syringe is equal to the water

pressure exerted on the piston of the large syringe. This shows that the pressure applied tothe piston of the small syringe is transmitted to the piston of the large syringe.

Hypothesis proven.


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3.4

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE

Hypothesis:

When the velocity of water increases, its pressure decreases and vice versa.


To find the effects of movement on the pressure exerted by a fluid

Variables:

Manipulated: Velocity of the water

Responding: Pressure of the waterConstant: Density of the water

Apparatus and Materials: Uniform glass tube, Venturi tube, rubber hose, water from

a tap

Procedure:1. A uniform glass tube is connected to a tap with a rubber hose. The other end of the

tube is closed up with a stopper.

2. The tap is opened slowly so that water flows into it.3. The levels of the vertical tubes are observed.

4. The stopper is then removed. The tap is adjusted so that the water flows through the

tube at a uniform rate.

5.

The levels of the vertical tubes are observed.6. The experiment is repeated by replacing the uniform glass tube with a Venturi tube.

Results:

Uniform glass tube:

With the stopper Without the stopper


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Venturi tube:

With the stopper Without the stopper

Discussion:

• The height of the water in the vertical tube represents the pressure at that point.

• When water is not flowing, the pressure along the entire tube is the same, therefore

the water levels in all three vertical tubes are the same.• For the uniform glass tube:

o Water flows from high pressure to low pressure.o

Therefore, the water levels are decreasing because the pressure is decreasing.

• For the Venturi tube:o The velocity at Y is higher because of the smaller cross-sectional area.

o Therefore, the pressure at Y is the lowest.

o Pressure still decreases from X to Z because water flows from high pressure tolow pressure.

Conclusion:

The higher the water velocity, the lower the pressure at that point. Hypothesis proven.


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Chapter 4: Heat and Energy Page 28 of 52

CHAPTER 4:

HEAT AND ENERGY4.1

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Experiment 1: Rise in temperature – varying mass, fixed amount

of heat

Hypothesis:

The bigger the mass of water, the smaller the rise in temperature when supplied

with the same amount of heat


To determine the rise in temperature of water with varying masses

Variables:Manipulated: Mass of water, m

Responding: Rise in temperature, θ

Constant: Amount of heat supplied, Q

Apparatus and Materials: Beaker, electric heater, thermometer, stopwatch, triple

beam balance, stirrer, polystyrene sheet, felt cloth

Set up:

Procedure:

1. With the help of a triple beam balance, fill a beaker with water of mass 0.40 kg.2.

The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.

3. The initial temperature of the water, θ 1 is measured using a thermometer and is

recorded.

4. The electric heater is placed into the water and is switched on for 1 minute. The wateris continuously stirred.

5. The water is continuously stirred even after the heater has been switched off. The


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6. The highest temperature the water reaches, θ 2 is measured and recorded. The rise in

temperature, θ = θ 2 – θ 1 is calculated.

7. The experiment is repeated with water of mass 0.50 kg, 0.60 kg, 0.70 kg, and 0.80 kg.

8. A graph of θ against m and a graph of θ againstm

1 are plotted.

Results:

Mass of water,

m (kg)

Initial

temperature,

θ 1 (°C)

Final

temperature,

θ 2 (°C)

Rise in

temperature, θ

= θ 2 – θ 1 (°C) m

1 (kg

-1)

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

Analysis:

• The amount of heat supplied is made constant by using the same heater for the same

period of time.

• The following graphs are obtained:

Conclusion:

The rise in temperature is inversely proportional to the mass when a constant amount of

heat is supplied. Hypothesis proven.

Experiment 2: Rise in temperature – fixed mass, varying amountof heat

Hypothesis:

When more heat is supplied to water of fixed mass, the rise in temperature isgreater


To determine the rise in temperature of water with varying amounts of heat

Variables:

Manipulated: Amount of heat supplied, Q Responding: Rise in temperature, θ

Constant: Mass of water, m


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Apparatus and Materials: Beaker, electric heater, thermometer, stopwatch, triple

beam balance, stirrer, polystyrene sheet, felt cloth

Set up:

Procedure:

1. With the help of a triple beam balance, fill a beaker with water of mass 0.50 kg.2. The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.

3. The initial temperature of the water, θ 1 is measured using a thermometer and is

recorded.4. The electric heater is placed into the water and is switched on for 1 minute. The water

is continuously stirred.

5. The water is continuously stirred even after the heater has been switched off.6.

The highest temperature the water reaches, θ 2 is measured and recorded. The rise in

temperature, θ = θ 2 – θ 1 is calculated.

7. The experiment is repeated with water of the same mass but with heating time of 2

minutes, 3 minutes, and 4 minutes.8. A graph of θ against t is plotted.

Results:

Heating time

(minute)

Initial

temperature,

θ 1 (°C)

Final

temperature,

θ 2 (°C)

Rise in

temperature, θ

= θ 2 – θ 1 (°C)

1

2

3

4

Analysis:

• Because the same heater with fixed power is used, the heating time, t is definedoperationally as the heat quantity.

• The following graph is obtained:


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Conclusion:When an object of fixed mass is heated, the rise in temperature changes proportionally to

the amount of heat supplied. Hypothesis proven.

Experiment 3: Determining the specific heat capacity ofaluminium


To determine the specific heat capacity of aluminium

Apparatus and Materials: Aluminium cylinder, weighing scale, electric heater,

thermometer, power supply, felt cloth, polystyrene sheet, stopwatch, lubricating oil

Set up:

Procedure:1. An aluminium cylinder with two cavities is weighed and its mass, m is recorded.

2. The electrical power of the heater, P is recorded.

3.

The electrical heater is then placed inside the large cavity in the centre of the cylinder.4. The thermometer is then placed in the small cavity of the aluminium cylinder.

5. A few drops of lubricating oil are added to both cavities to ensure good thermal

contact (better heat transfer).6. The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram above.

7. The initial temperature of the aluminium cylinder, θ 1 is recorded.

8. The electric heater is switched on and the stopwatch is started simultaneously.9. After heating for t seconds, the heater is switched off. The highest reading on the

thermometer, θ 2 is recorded.

10. The experiment is repeated and an average value of c is calculated.


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Results:

Electric power of heater = P Watt

Heating time = t secondsMass of aluminium cylinder = m kg

Initial temperature of the aluminium cylinder = θ 1Final temperature of the aluminium cylinder = θ 2Temperature rise = θ 2 – θ 1Electrical energy supplied by the heater = Pt

Heat energy absorbed by the aluminium cylinder = mcθ

On the assumption that there is no heat loss to the surroundings:

Heat supplied = Heat absorbed Pt = mcθ

Specific heat capacity, c =θ m

Pt

Discussion:

• The aluminium cylinder is wrapped with a felt cloth to reduce the heat loss to the

surroundings and the polystyrene sheet acts as a heat insulator to avoid heat loss to

the surface of the table.

• The value of the specific heat capacity of aluminium, c determined in the experimentis larger than the standard value. This is because there will be some heat lost to the

surrounding.

•

The temperature of the aluminium cylinder will continue to rise after the electricalheater has been switched off because there is still some heat transfer from the heater

to the cylinder.

Conclusion:

The specific heat capacity of aluminium is a constant.

4.2 SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT

Experiment 1: Heating of naphthaleneHypothesis:

During the change of state of naphthalene from solid to liquid, there is no change in

temperature when heat is continuously supplied


To observe the change in temperature when naphthalene is melting

Apparatus and Materials: Boiling tube, naphthalene powder, beaker, thermometer,

Bunsen burner, stopwatch, retort stand, tripod stand, wire gauze


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Set up:

Procedure:1. The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.

2. The initial temperature of the naphthalene is recorded.

3. The Bunsen burner is lighted and the stopwatch started.4.

The temperature of the naphthalene is recorded at 1 minute intervals until the

temperature reaches 100°C.

5. The state of the naphthalene is observed and tabulated throughout the heating process.6.

A graph of temperature against time is drawn.

Results:

Time, t (minute) Temperature of naphthalene, θ (°C)

01

2

3

…

Graph of temperature against time:

Discussion:

• The temperature-time graph shows that the temperature of naphthalene rises until thenaphthalene starts to melt.

• The naphthalene starts to melt at 80°C. The temperature remains constant at this value

for several minutes while the naphthalene continues to melt with the heat.


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• After the naphthalene has completely melted, the temperature begins to rise withcontinued heating.

Conclusion:The temperature of the naphthalene remains constant during a change of state from solid

to liquid.

Experiment 2: Cooling of naphthalene

Hypothesis:

During the change of state of naphthalene from liquid to solid, there is no change in

temperature


To observe the change in temperature when naphthalene is freezing

Apparatus and Materials: Boiling tube, naphthalene powder, beaker, thermometer,

Bunsen burner, stopwatch, retort stand, tripod stand, wire gauze

Set up:

Procedure:

1. The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.2. The naphthalene is heated until the temperature reaches 95°C.

3.

The boiling tube is then removed from the water bath and the outer part of the tube isdried.

4.

The temperature of the naphthalene is recorded every minute until the temperature

drops to about 60°C.

5. A graph of temperature against time is drawn.


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Results:

Time, t (minute) Temperature of naphthalene, θ (°C)

0

1

2

3

…

Graph of temperature against time:

Discussion:

• The temperature-time graph shows that the temperature of naphthalene drops until

80°C where it stays constant for several minutes as it freezes.

• After the naphthalene has completely frozen, the temperature continues to drop.

Conclusion:

The temperature of the naphthalene remains constant during a change of state from liquidto solid.

Experiment 3: Latent heat of fusion (ice)


To determine the latent heat of fusion of ice

Apparatus and Materials: Pure ice, electric immersion heater, filter funnel, beaker,

stopwatch, weighing balance, power supply, retort stand, clamp


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Discussion:

•

The purpose of Set A, the control experiment, is to determine the mass of ice melted

by the surrounding heat.

• The immersion heater must be fully immersed in the ice cubes to avoid or reduce heat

loss.

• The stopwatch is not started simultaneously when the immersion heater is switchedon because the immersion heater requires a time period before reaching a steady

temperature. At this point, the rate of melting of ice will be steady.

• The value of the specific latent heat of fusion of ice, L obtained in this experiment ishigher than the standard value because part of the heat supplied by the heater is lost to

the surroundings.

Conclusion:

The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is a constant.

Experiment 4: Latent heat of vapourisation (water)


To determine the latent heat of vapourisation of water

Apparatus and Materials: Pure water, electric immersion heater, filter funnel, beaker,

stopwatch, weighing balance, power supply, retort stand, clamp

Set up:

Procedure:1.

The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram above.

2. A beaker is placed on the platform of the electronic weighing balance.

3. The electric heater is fully immersed in the water and held in this position by being

clamped to a retort stand.4. The electric heater is switched on to heat the water to its boiling point.

5. When the water starts to boil at a steady rate, the stopwatch is started and the reading

on the electronic balance, m1 is recorded.6.

The water is allowed to boil for a period of t seconds.

7. At the end of the period of t seconds, the reading on the electronic balance, m2 is

recorded.


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Results:

Electrical power of heater = P Watt

Time period of boiling = t secondsElectrical energy supplied by the electrical immersion heater, E = Pt

Mass of water vapourised = m2 – m1Heat energy absorbed by the water during vapourisation, Q = mL

Assuming there is no heat loss to the surroundings:

Electrical energy supplied = Heat energy absorbed by the vapourized water

Pt = mL

Specific latent heat of vapourization of water, L =m

Pt

Discussion:

• The immersion heater must be fully immersed in the water to avoid or reduce heat

loss.

• The stopwatch is not started simultaneously when the immersion heater is switchedon because the immersion heater requires a time period before reaching a steady

temperature. At this point, the rate of heating of water will be steady.

•

The value of the specific latent heat of vapourization of water, L obtained in thisexperiment is higher than the standard value because part of the heat supplied by the

heater is lost to the surroundings.

Conclusion:The specific latent heat of vapourization of water is a constant.

4.3

BOYLE’S LAW

Option 1: Changing the volume of air to measure pressure

Hypothesis:

When the volume of air decreases, the pressure increases when its mass and

temperature is constant

Aim:

To investigate the relationship between the pressure and volume of air

Variables:

Manipulated: Volume of air within syringe

Responding: Pressure of airConstant: Mass, temperature of air

Apparatus and Materials: Rubber hose, Bordon gauge, 100 cm3 syringe


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Set up:

Procedure:1. Apparatus is set up as per the diagram.

2. The nose of the syringe is fitted with a rubber hose and the piston is adjusted so that

air volume of 100 cm3 at atmospheric pressure is trapped in the syringe.3. The rubber hose is connected to a Bourdon gauge and air pressure is read from the

gauge.

4. The piston of the syringe is pushed in until the trapped air volume becomes 90 cm3

and the air pressure is read from the Bourdon gauge.

5. Step 4 is repeated for air volume values 80, 70, and 60 cm3.

Results:

Volume, V (cm3)

V

1(cm

-3)

Pressure, P (Pa)

100

90

80

70

60

Analysis:

• A graph of P against

V

1 is plotted.

•

A linear graph going through the origin is obtained.

• This indicates that pressure is inversely proportional to

the volume of gas.

Conclusion:

Gas pressure of fixed mass is inversely proportional to itsvolume.


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Option 2: Changing the pressure of air to measure volume

Hypothesis:When the pressure of air decreases, the volume increases when its mass and

temperature is constant

Aim:

To investigate the relationship between the pressure and volume of air

Variables:

Manipulated: Pressure of air

Responding: Volume of air trapped in the capillary tubeConstant: Mass, temperature of air

Apparatus and Materials: Bicycle pump, ruler, tank with oil, pressure gauge, glass

tube

Set up:

Procedure:1. The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram above.

2. The piston of the bicycle pump is pushed in to compress the air inside the glass tubeuntil the pressure is 10 kPa.

3. When the reading on the pressure gauge is P , the volume of the air column, V is

recorded.4. Steps 1 and 2 are repeated for 5 pressure readings of 20 kPa, 30 kPa and 40 kPa.


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Set up:

Procedure:1. Apparatus is set up as per the diagram.

2. The air to be studied is trapped in a capillary tube by concentrated sulphuric acid.3.

The capillary tube is fitted to a ruler using two rubber bands and the bottom end of

the air column is ensured to match the zero marking on the ruler.

4. Water and ice is poured into the beaker until the whole air column is submerged.Water is then stirred until the temperature rises to 10 °C. The length of the air column

and the temperature of the water are recorded.

5. Water is heated slowly while being stirred continuously. The length of the air column

is recorded every 10 °C until the water temperature reaches 90 °C.

Results:Temperature, θ (°C) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Length of air column, x (cm)

Analysis:

• A graph of x against θ is plotted.

• A linear graph is obtained.

• When extrapolated, length x = 0 occurs when gas temperature, θ = -273 °C

• When the Celsius scale is replaced with the Kelvin scale, a linear graph that goes

through origin is obtained.


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Discussion:

From the graph plotted, it is found that the length of the air column, x is directly

proportional to its temperature, T (K). Because gas volume is directly proportional to thelength of the column, it also indicates that gas volume is directly proportional to its

absolute temperature.

Conclusion:

Gas volume of fixed mass is directly proportional to its absolute temperature

4.5

PRESSURE LAW

Hypothesis:When the temperature of air increases, the pressure increases if the mass and

volume is constant

Aim:

To investigate the relationship between the pressure and the temperature of gas

Variables:Manipulated: Air temperature

Responding: Air pressure

Constant: Mass and volume of the trapped air

Apparatus and Materials: Round-bottomed flask, mercury thermometer, Bourdon

gauge, Bunsen burner, tripod, wire gauze, retort stand, stirrer, ice

Set up:


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Chapter 5: Light and Vision Page 45 of 52

CHAPTER 5:

LIGHT AND VISION5.1

REFLECTION

Hypothesis:

The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence


To study the relationship between the angle of incidence and angle of reflection

Variables:Manipulated: Angle of incidence, i

Responding: Angle of reflection, r

Constant: Plane mirror used

Apparatus/Materials: Light box, plane mirror, plasticine, paper, pencil, protractor

Setup:

Procedure:

9. A straight line, PQ is drawn on a sheet of white paper.

10. The normal line, ON is drawn from a point at the centre of PQ.11.

With the aid of a protractor, lines at angles of incidence 15°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 75° to

the normal line, are drawn to its left.

12. A plane mirror is erected along the line PQ. It is secured in this position with the aid

of plasticine.13. A ray of light from the ray box is directed along the 15° line. Two positions are

marked with a pencil on the line of the reflected ray.

14. Step 5 is repeated for the other angles of incidence.15. The plane mirror is removed. The reflected rays are drawn by joining the respective

marks.

16. The angles of reflection corresponding with all the angle of incidence are measured.The results are tabulated.


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Results:

Incident angle (˚) Reflected angle (˚)

15

30

45

60

75

Conclusion:The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

5.2 CURVED MIRRORS


To study the characteristics of images formed by curved mirrors

Apparatus/Materials: Concave mirror, convex mirror, plasticine, light bulb mounted

on a wooden block, metre rule, white screen

Setup:

Procedure:1.

The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.

2. The focal length, f and the radius of curvature, r of the concave mirror, as supplied,

are recorded.3. The light bulb is positioned at a distance greater than the radius of curvature of the

mirror, i.e. u > 2 f . The white screen is moved between the concave mirror and the

light bulb until an image is clearly focused on the screen. The image distance, v ismeasured by a metre rule and recorded.

4. Step 3 is repeated with the light bulb positioned at C (u = 2 f ), between C and F ( f < u

< 2 f ), at F (u = f ), and between F and P (u


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5. The values of u, v, and the characteristics of the images formed are recorded in a

table.

6. The experiment is repeated by replacing the concave mirror with a convex mirror.

Results:

Concave mirror;

Characteristics of imagePosition of

object

Object

distance, u

(cm)

Image

distance, v

(cm)Real /

Virtual

Upright /

Inverted

Diminished /

Magnified / Same

size

Beyond C(u > 2 f )

At C

(u = 2 f )

Between C

and F ( f < u < 2 f )

At F (u = f )

Between F

and P (u < 2 f )

Convex mirrors:

For all positions, the image characteristics are: __________________________

Conclusion:

• For concave mirrors, images formed can be real or virtual, whereas for convex

mirrors, only virtual images are formed.

• The characteristics of images formed by the concave mirror depend on the position of

the object.

5.3

REFRACTION

Hypothesis:

The refracted light ray obeys Snell’s Law which states that the value ofr

i

sin

sin is a

constant where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction


To study the relationship between the angle of incidence and angle of refraction


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Variables:

Manipulated: Angle of incidence, i

Responding: Angle of refraction, r

Constant: Plane mirror used

Apparatus/Materials: Ray box, glass block, paper, pencil

Setup:

Procedure:

1. The outline of the glass block is traced on a sheet of white paper and labeled.

2. The glass block is removed. Point O is marked on one side of the glass block. With a protractor, lines forming angles of incidence 20°, 30°, 40°, 50° and 60° are drawn and

marked.

3. The glass block is replaced on its outline on the paper.4. A ray of light from the ray box is directed along 20° line. The ray emerging on the

other side of the block is drawn.

5.

Step 4 is repeated for the other angles of incidence.6. The glass slab is removed. The points of incidence and the corresponding points of

emergence are joined. The respective angles of refraction are measured with a

protractor.

7.

The values of sin i, sin r , andr

i

sin

sin are calculated.

Results:

Angle of incidence, i (°) Angle of refraction, r (°) Sin i Sin rn =

r

i

sin

sin

2030

40

50

60

Conclusion:

It is found thatr

i

sin

sin is a constant. Hypothesis valid.


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5.4

ACTUAL DEPTH & APPARENT DEPTH

Hypothesis:

The deeper the actual depth, the deeper the apparent depth


To study the relationship between the actual depth and apparent depth

Variables:

Manipulated: Actual depth, D

Responding: Apparent depth, d Constant: Refractive index of medium (water), n

Apparatus/Materials: Tall beaker, 2 pins, ruler, metre rule, retort stand

Setup:

Procedure:1. Apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.

2. A pin is mounted on a movable clamp on a retort stand.

3. Another pin is placed at the base of the tall beaker. Water is filled as the actual depthto D = 7.0 cm.

4. The object pin O is observed from the top, and pin I is adjusted vertically until itappears to meet pin O. At this point, the position of pin I matches the apparent depth,

d of pin O. The apparent depth is measured from the top of the water level to the position of pin I .

5. Step 4 is repeated by changing the actual depth to 9.0 cm, 11.0 cm, 13.0 cm and 15.0

cm.6.

The results are tabulated and a graph of D against d is plotted.


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Results:

Actual depth, D (cm) Apparent depth, d (cm)

7.0

9.0

11.0

13.0

15.0

Analysis:A linear graph that goes through origin is obtained.

Discussion:

• The gradient of the graph is equal to the index of refraction of water.

Conclusion:

Hypothesis is valid

5.5 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION


To determine the critical angle of glass

Apparatus/Materials: Semicircular glass block, ray box, protractor, white paper,

pencil

Setup:

Procedure:1. A semicircular glass block is placed on a sheet of white paper. The outline of the

glass block is traced onto the paper with a sharp pencil.

d

D


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2. The glass block is put aside. A normal line, NN’ is drawn through the centre point, O

on the diameter.

3. The glass block is replaced on its outline.

4.

A narrow beam of light from the ray box is directed at point O at a small angle ofincidence. The refracted and reflected rays are observed.

5. The angle of incidence, i measured from the normal line is adjusted until the light ray

is refracted along the length of the air-glass boundary. The point of entry of the lightray is marked and measured with a protractor. At this point, the incident angle is

known as the critical angle, c.

6. The angle of incidence is increased and the resultant rays are observed.7. The experiment is repeated by pointing the light ray through the other side of the

semicircle.

Results:

•

When i < c, part of the light ray is refracted to the air, and part of it will be reflected back within the glass block

• When i = c, the light ray will be refracted along the length of the glass-air boundary

• When i > c, no refraction occurs; all the light ray will be totally internally reflected

within the glass block

Analysis:

The critical angle, c is a constant.

Refractive index of glass, n =csin

1

Conclusion:

The refractive index of glass, n =csin

1

5.6 LENSES

Hypothesis:

The image produced by a convex lens is virtual or real depending on the position of

the object. The characteristics of an image produced by a concave lens is notaffected by the object distance.

Variables:

Manipulated: Object distance, u

Responding: Image distance, v Constant: Focal length of lens, f

Apparatus/Materials: Cardboard with a cross-wire in triangular cut-out, light bulb,

lens holder, convex lens, concave lens, white screen


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Setup:

Procedure: 1. The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.

2. The focal length, f of the convex lens supplied is recorded.

3.

The object (triangle with a cross-wire) is placed at a distance greater than 2 f from theconvex lens.

4. The white screen is moved back and forth until a sharp image of the triangle is

formed on the screen. The image distance, v is measured. The characteristics of theimage are observed and recorded in a table.

5. Step 3 is repeated wit the object distances, u = 2 f , f < u < 2 f , u = f , and u 2 f

u = 2 f

f < u < 2 f

u = f

u < 2 f

Concave lens:For all positions, the image characteristics are: __________________________

Conclusion:

• For convex lenses, images formed can be real or virtual, whereas for concave lenses,

only virtual images are formed.

• The characteristics of images formed by the convex lens depend on the position of the

object.

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