POLITIK INTERNASIONAL

POLITIK INTERNASIONALKonflik Dalam Politik InternasionalMahasiswa dapat memahami fenomena konflik sebagai salah satu pola interaksi dalam politik internasionalPOLITIK INTERNASIONALSUBTOPIKSumber konflik internasionalResolusi konflik internasionalInstitusi dan prosedur dalam penyelesaian konflik internasionalTragedi kemanusiaan konflik kekerasanDefinitionThe term conflict in IR generally refers to armed conflict. Conflict itself is ever present in the international system-the condition against which bargaining takes place. Conflict may be conceived as a difference in preferred outcomes in a bargaining situation. In such conflict bargaining, states develop capabilities that give them leverage to obtain more favorable outcomes that they otherwise would achieve. Whether fair or unfair, the ultimate outcome of the bargaining process is a settlement of the particular conflict.TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTSix types of International Conflicts:Ethnic ConflictReligious ConflictIdeological ConflictTerritorial ConflictGovernmental ConflictEconomic Conflict

The first Three are conflicts over ideasThe last Three conflicts over interestsThese six types of conflict are not mutually exclusive, and they overlap considerably in practice.TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTConflict Between Russia and Ukraine after the 1991 Soviet breakup were complex:Experienced ethnic conflictReligious Differences, different form of ChristianityA territorial dispute, the Crimean PeninsulaOver trade and Money after the Soviet Breakup, which created new borders and currencies.

These multiple conflicts did not lead to the use of military forceTYPE OF WARHegemonic WarIs a war over control of the entire world order the rules of the international system as a whole, including the role of world hegemony. This class of wars is also known as world war, global war, general war or systematic war.The last hegemonic war was WW II. Largely because of the power of modern weaponry, this kind of war probably cannot occur any longer without destroying civilization.TYPE OF WARTotal WarIs a warfare by one state waged to conquer and occupy another. The goal is to reach capital city and force surrender of the government, which can then be replaced with one of the victors choosing. The 2003 Iraq War is a clear case. The last total war between great powers was WW II.In total war, with the entire society mobilized for the struggle, the entire society of the enemy is considered a legitimate target.Germany attacked British civilians with V-2 Rocket, while British and US strategic bombing killed 600.000 German civilians.TYPE OF WARLimited WarIncludes military actions carried out to gain some objective short of the surrender and occupation of the enemy. For instance, the US led war against Iraq in 1991 retook the territory of Kuwait but did not go on Baghdad to topple Saddam Husseins government.TYPE OF WARCivil WarRefers to war between factions within a state trying to create or prevent a new government for the entire state or some territorial part of it (the aim may be to change entire system of government, to merely replace the people in it, or to split a region off as a new state).

TYPE OF WARGuerrilla WarWhich include certain kinds of civil wars, is warfare without front lines. Irregular forces operate in the midst of, and often hidden or protected by, civilian populations. The purpose is not to directly confront an enemy army but rather to harass and punish it so as to gradually limit its operation and effectively liberate territory from its control. Definitions and models of conflictJohan Galtung: Conflict Triangle and the Life Cycle of Conflict

Professor Johan Galtung, who is considered as one of the key founding figures of peace and conflict studies as an academic discipline, developed the following model - called Conflict Triangle - describing the architecture of conflict (Johan Galtung, Peace by Peaceful Means. Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization, International Peace Research Institute Oslo, London/Thousand Oaks/New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1996, p. 72):Definitions and models of conflictAccording to Galtung, a conflict consists of behaviour (B), assumptions (cognitions) and attitudes (emotions) (A) and a contradiction (C). While the B-component is manifest (behavior is by definition visible), both A and C are latent. Conflicts take the form of a triangle and there are flows and interactions between the three corners of the triangle which illustrates the dynamic nature of conflicts. Connected to this triangle, Galtung describes conflict as something almost organic, that has its ownlife cycle:

CONTRADICTION refers to the underlying conict situation, which includes the actual or perceived incompatibility of goals between the conict parties generated by what Chris Mitchell calls a mis- match between social values and social structure (1981a: 18). ATTITUDEcovers emotive (feeling), cognitive (belief) and conative (desire, will) elements.Analysts who emphasize these subjective aspects are said to have an expressive view of the sources of conict (for example: a social conict exists when two or more parties believe they have incompatible objectives; Kriesberg 1982: BEHAVIOR It can involve cooperation or coercion, gestures signifying conciliation or hostility. Violent conict behavior is characterized by threats, intimidation and destructive attacks.

STAGES AND PHASES OF CONFLICTThe potential for conflict exists whenever people have different needs, values, or interests; this is the "latent" conflict stage.

The conflict may not become apparent until a "triggering event" leads to the emergence (or beginning) of the obvious conflict.

Emergence may be followed quickly by settlement or resolution, or it may be followed by escalation, which can become very destructive.

STAGES AND PHASES OF CONFLICTEscalation, however, cannot continue indefinitely. De-escalation can be temporary or can be part of a broader trend toward settlement or resolution.

Or escalation may lead to a stalemate, a situation in which neither side can win.

If the pain of continuing the conflict exceeds that of maintaining the confrontation, the parties are in what Zartman calls a "hurting stalemate," which often presents an ideal opportunity for negotiation and a potential settlement.

Finally, if and when an agreement is reached, peace building efforts work to repair damaged relationships with the long-term goal of reconciling former opponents.*(Marie Doucey, 2011)

Indonesias dramatic democratic transition also had an impact on the ways in which conict was (and is) managed:Cont.

These models have been crucial in understanding how the globalized era has impacted conflicts and gained a special resonance in the political sphere.

Many policy-makers have been inspired by this analytical framework, which is reflected in several conflict resolution approaches.

Although valuable, these models fail to provide a comprehensive explanation of the genuine causes of conflicts.

*(Marie Doucey, 2011)Cont.To a very large extent, the US-led invasions andoccupations of Afghanistan and Iraq (especially the latter)seem to be addressing only the symptoms of the conflictsthat have torn these Muslim countries apart; furthermore,those interventions may actually be worsening the causesof 9/11-type terrorism. Such counter productivity is theprice that policy-makers might continue to pay for rejectingor otherwise avoiding conceptual tools that transcendsymptoms and capture the complexity of complexconflicts.

-Dennis Sandole-

*(Marie Doucey, 2011)Cont.According to Kelman, conflicts should be considered as a process driven by collective needs and fears rather than motivated by rational calculation and national interest

-Herbert Kelman-Professor of Social Ethics, Emeritus, at Harvard University*(Marie Doucey, 2011)NEEDSAll human beings have basic needs. Part of these needs are physical, like the need for food, water or shelter, but essential needs go beyond these few elements because they cover the psychological sphere.

John Burton, defined four needs in particular that are universal and nonnegotiable:security or safety, meaning both stability and freedom from fear; Identity, defined by needs theorists as a sense of self in relation to the outside world; recognition, including the recognition of ones identity and recognition from the others;family and community; and personal development, which includes a dimension of personal fulfillment, or in other words the need to reach ones potential in all areas of life. Commonly, these needs are naturally fulfilled through the community, or through the policies, public goods, and services provided by the state.

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*(Marie Doucey, 2011)NEEDSHowever, if these needs are unfulfilled because the state fails to properly address them, or if a group feels that these needs are unmet, or perceives a threat to these needs, violence can emerge.

The perception, rational or not, of any injustice regarding the distributive system can quickly lead to an identity-based struggle. This extends far beyond dialectic greed versus grievances.

Because it is a matter of universal needs, it is similarly a matter of survival, so people will go to great lengths to satisfy them, according to Celia Cook-Huffman, professor of peace studies and*(Marie Doucey, 2011)FEARSHaving raised the question of needs fulfillment, it is relevant to underscore the psychological dimension of conflicts, particularly analyzing the weight of fear in escalating violence.

Fear, in its literal definition, is

an unpleasant emotion caused by the threat of danger, pain, or harm. Fear is a natural and common feeling that allows people to identify a potential danger

However, healthy fear (or fear that has a protective function) can evolve into unhealthy or pathological fear, which can lead to exaggerated and violent behavior.*(Marie Doucey, 2011)NEEDS AND FEARSTherefore, collective fears, which are fueled by the denial of basic needs, can lead to violent reactions, as an ultimate attempt of a people to secure the necessities of life and rectify the perceived injustice.

In addition, violent actions are reinforced by massive mobilization: the larger the group that takes up arms, the more legitimate the violence appears to be to the rest of the population.

This can create a rapid domino effect and provoke large-scale struggles; de-escalating violence then becomes even more challenging.

*(Marie Doucey, 2011)Thank you . . .