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Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah: Perspektif Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama 1-30Berprestasi Tinggi Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani (PhD), Faisol Elham, Ainoor Mahfuzah Ahmad & Maszuria A. Ghani

Pembentukan Akhlak Awal Kanak-Kanak Menerusi Teladan Ibu Bapa 31-42Noraziah Ahmad Nadzim, Mohd Nizam Sahad (PhD) & Mohd Nazri Abdul Rahman (PhD)

Keperluan Nilai Etika Dan Akhlak: Perspektif Pendidikan Kemahiran 43-60Abdul Muqsith Ahmad, Zaharah Husin (PhD), Farazila Yusof, Saedah Siraj (PhD), Siti Syahidah Mohd Rum, Mohd Ridhuan Mohd Jamil & Maisarah A Malik

Penerapan Nilai Moral Dan Akhlak Bagi Menjana Kelestarian Alam Sekitar Dalam Pengajaran Dan Pembelajaran: Satu Perbincangan 61-70Habib Mat Som (PhD) & Syed Kamaruzzaman Syed Ali (PhD)

Problem Solving In Culinary Arts: Pedagogical Issues Faced By Culinary Instructors 71-84At Community Colleges Umawathy Techanamurthy, Norlidah Alias (PhD) & Dorothy DeWitt (PhD)

Art Appreciation Teaching Model For Undergraduate Level 85-96To Gain An Aesthetic Experience Maithreyi Subramaniam, Jaffri Hanafi & Abu Talib Putih (PhD)

Assessment For Learning: Why Promoting Learner Autonomy Is Difficult 97-110Renuka V. Sathasivam (PhD)

Demonstration And Mental Imagery On The Acquisition 111-118Of Motor Skill In Primary SchoolsOlubunmi O.Sodiya & Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali (PhD)

Framework Matrix: A Structured Thematic Analysis In Initial Stage Of Malay TextileDesign Ideation In Universiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia 119-134Rainal Hidayat Wardi, Ruzaika Omar Basaree, Maithreyi Subramaniam & Jaffri Hanafi

Integrating Early Algebraic Thinking In The Malaysian 135-150Primary School Mathematics Curriculum Piriya Somasundram, Sharifah Norul Akmar Syed Zamri (PhD) & Leong Kwan Eu (PhD)

ISSN 0126-5024 Jilid 40, 2016

JURNAL ISU DALAMPENDIDIKANISSUES IN EDUCATION

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JILID 40, 2016

Dicetak oleh Penerbit Universiti Malaya50603 Kuala Lumpur

FAKULTI PENDIDIKAN

ISSN 0126-5024 Jilid 40, 2016

FAKULTI PENDIDIKAN

UNIVERSITIM A L A Y AThe Leader in Research & Innovation


DEKAN / DEAN

Profesor Madya Dr. Mariani Md Nor

TIM. DEKAN (PEMBANGUNAN & PENYELIDIKAN) / DEPUTY DEAN (DEVELOPMENT & RESEARCH)

Dr. Ahmad Zabidi Abdul Razak

KETUA EDITOR / EDITOR IN CHIEF

Profesor Dr. Nik Azis Nik Pa

SIDANG EDITOR / ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Dr. Umi Kalsum Mohd SallehDr. Leong Kwan Eu

En. Mohd Faisal Mohamed

EDITOR TEKNIKAL / TECHNICAL EDITORS

En. Mohd Norazlin MansorPn. Alina Ranee

JURNAL ISU DALAM PENDIDIKAN, 40, 2016ISSUES IN EDUCATION, 40, 2016

SENARAI PENILAI/LIST OF REVIEWERS

YBhg. Datuk Dr. Sufean HussinProfesor Dr. Esther Sarojini Daniel

Profesor Madya Dr. Muhammad Faizal A. GhaniProfesor Madya Dr. Norlidah Alias

Dr. Ahmad Zabidi Abdul RazakDr. Wirdati Mohd Radzi (Pusat Sukan)

Dr. Muhammad Azhar ZailaniDr. Zaharah Hussin

Dr. Umi Kalsum Mohd SallehDr. Selva Ranee Subramaniam

Dr. Dorothy DeWittDr. Siti Hajar Halili

Dr. Rose Amnah Abd Rauf Dr. Zuwati Hasim

Dr. Hamidah SulaimanDr. Hutkemri

Dr. Shanina Sharatol Ahmad ShahDr. Roselina Johari Mohd Khir

JURNAL ISU DALAM PENDIDIKAN, 40, 2016ISSUES IN EDUCATION, 40, 2016

KANDUNGAN/CONTENTS Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah: Perspektif Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama Berprestasi Tinggi 1-30Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani (PhD), Faisol Elham, Ainoor Mahfuzah Ahmad & Maszuria A. Ghani




Problem Solving In Culinary Arts: Pedagogical Issues Faced By Culinary Instructors At Community Colleges 71-84Umawathy Techanamurthy, Norlidah Alias (PhD) & Dorothy DeWitt (PhD)

Art Appreciation Teaching Model For Undergraduate Level To Gain An Aesthetic Experience 85-96Maithreyi Subramaniam, Jaffri Hanafi & Abu Talib Putih (PhD)


Demonstration And Mental Imagery On The Acquisition Of Motor Skill In Primary Schools 111-118Olubunmi O.Sodiya & Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali (PhD)

Framework Matrix: A Structured Thematic Analysis In Initial Stage Of Malay Textile Design Ideation In Universiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia 119-134Rainal Hidayat Wardi, Ruzaika Omar Basaree, Maithreyi Subramaniam & Jaffri Hanafi

Integrating Early Algebraic Thinking In The Malaysian Primary School Mathematics Curriculum 135-150Piriya Somasundram, Sharifah Norul Akmar Syed Zamri (PhD) & Leong Kwan Eu (PhD)

ISSN 0126-5024 Jilid 40, 2016

JURNAL ISU DALAM PENDIDIKANISSUES IN EDUCATION

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Isu Dalam Pendidikan, 40, 2016

CABARAN KEBERKESANAN SEKOLAH: PERSPEKTIF SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEBANGSAAN AGAMA

BERPRESTASI TINGGI

Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani* (PhD)Fakutli PendidikanUniversiti Malaya

[email protected]

Faisol ElhamKolej Perniagaan

Universiti Utara Malaysia

Ainoor Mahfuzah AhmadPoliteknik Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah, Selangor

Maszuria A. GhaniInstitut Pendidikan Guru

Kampus Temenggong Ibrahim, Johor

AbstrakKajian ini dijalankan untuk mengkaji cabaran untuk meningkatkan keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Agama. Seramai 180 guru dari enam buah Sekolah Menengah Agama yang cemerlang mengambil bahagian melalui pengedaran borang soal selidik. Data dianalisis menggunakan perisian SPSS versi 23.0 yang melibatkan kaedah deskriptif statistik (iaitu, min dan sisihan piawai). Kajian mendapati bahawa pelajar Seolah Menengah Agama bersetuju dengan dimensi berikut sebagai faktor yang menyumbang mencabar keberkesanan Menengah Public Schools Agama: konteks, pelajar, guru dan sekolah. Perjanjian ini adalah berdasarkan skor min 2.5 dan ke atas. Kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa terdapat keperluan untuk membina budaya kerjasama di kalangan pembuat dasar, pelajar, guru dan sekolah, khususnya, pemimpin sekolah dan ibu bapa, dalam usaha untuk mewujudkan berkesan Sekolah Menengah Agama.

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PENGENALAN Kajian sekolah berkesan di Amerika Syarikat dan Britain banyak dipengaruhi oleh implikasi penemuan kajian awal keberkesanan sekolah oleh Coleman, Campbell, Hobson, McPartland, Mood, Weinfield, dan York (1966) serta Jencks, Smith, Acland, Bane Cohen, Gintis, Heyns dan Michelson (1972). Mereka menemui faktor sekolah hanya lebih kurang 10 peratus mempengaruhi pencapaian murid dan selebihnya adalah faktor sosio-ekonomi keluarga. Selanjutnya, Firestone (2013) menyatakan implikasi daripada kajian Coleman et al. (1966) dan Jencks et al. (1972), pengkaji sekolah berkesan telah menambahbaik kualiti penyelidikan khususnya metodologi. Implikasinya, mereka menemui faktor sekolah, guru dan murid mempunyai perkaitan signifikan dengan pencapaian murid. Misalnya, pengkaji sekolah berkesan di Amerika Syarikat, Edmonds (1979), meyakini murid miskin di sekolah kawasan bandar berupaya dibantu oleh sekolah dan pihak sekolah seharusnya membantu mereka untuk berjaya.

Di Malaysia, pengkaji tempatan (seperti Ghazali Othman, 2001) meyakini pembangunan kurikulum sekolah berupaya meningkatkan pencapaian murid dan keberkesanan sesebuah sekolah. Pandangan Abdul Shukor Abdullah (2004) selari dengan kenyataan tersebut menerusi usaha kerajaan menggubal Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah (KBSR) pada tahun 1983 dan Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM) pada tahun 1989. Tambah beliau, kedua-dua kurikulum tersebut digubal bagi memastikan murid tidak keciciran dalam menikmati pendidikan negara. Misalnya, KBSR berfokus kepada penguasaan murid terhadap kemahiran asas iaitu membaca, menulis dan mengira. Manakala, KBSM bertujuan bagi memastikan perkembangan potensi murid dapat dicapai untuk melahirkan murid yang berilmu, berakhlak serta berupaya memberikan sumbangan kepada diri, masyarakat dan negara.

Hakikatnya, perdebatan mengenai keberkesanan sekolah telah dibincangkan di pelosok dunia. Leithwood dan Jantzi (2011) menyokong kenyataan tersebut dengan memberikan gambaran bahawa perdebatan mengenai keberkesanan sekolah telah menjadi agenda utama pendidikan negara masing-masing. Hal tersebut disebabkan penanda aras keberkesanan sekolah adalah berdasarkan kejayaan mata pelajaran tertentu yang dipertandingkan di peringkat antarabangsa (Reynolds & Farrell, 1996) dan pertumbuhan ekonomi sesebuah negara kesan daripada usaha kerajaan melabur dalam pendidikan (Robinson, 1998).

Namun, perspektif keberkesanan sekolah tertakluk kepada pendefinisian sesebuah negara. Dengan kata lain, pendefinisian keberkesanan sekolah adalah ditentukan oleh pemerintah atau kerajaan semasa sesebuah negara (Barber,

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2013). Justeru, peranan parti pemerintah atau kerajaan semasa amat penting bagi memastikan keberkesanan sekolah tercapai. Kajian Department of Education and Employment (2014) mendapati campur tangan kerajaan dalam sistem pendidikan berupaya mempengaruhi kejayaan atau penambahbaikan sesebuah sekolah. Menurut Barber (2013), campur tangan kerajaan Britain dalam sistem pendidikan dilakukan untuk memastikan sekolah berjaya. Beliau menambah bahawa sasaran kerajaan pada tahun 2002 mengenai pendidikan adalah seperti berikut: 80 peratus murid berusia 11 tahun berupaya mencapai piawaian kelulusan Bahasa Inggeris di peringkat kebangsaan, 75 peratus murid berusia 11 tahun berupaya mencapai piawaian kelulusan Matematik di peringkat kebangsaan, proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran di bilik darjah bagi murid berusia 7 tahun adalah kurang daripada 30 orang dan 30 peratus kanak-kanak berusia 4 tahun disediakan pendidikan nurseri.

Begitu juga dengan sistem pendidikan di Malaysia; kerajaan semasa telah menetapkan bidang keberhasilan utama negara yang berfokus kepada 4 tumpuan berikut bagi menghasilkan pendidikan berkualiti tinggi: penyertaan kanak-kanak berusia 4 dan 5 tahun dalam pendidikan prasekolah meningkat kepada 72 peratus, 90 peratus kanak-kanak menguasai literasi dan numerasi, 2 peratus pemimpin sekolah menerima ganjaran berasaskan pencapaian dan sasaran 20 buah sekolah berprestasi tinggi yang mempunyai etos, karakter serta identiti tersendiri (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2012).

Namun, terdapat cabaran bagi mencapai hasrat yang telah ditetapkan oleh kerajaan. Misalnya, kajian Slee, Weiner dan Tomlinson (2011) di Britain mendapati campur tangan kerajaan yang keterlaluan menyebabkan penggubalan dan pelaksanaan kurikulum mengikut arahan kerajaan. Implikasinya, wujud penurunan terhadap kualiti pembelajaran murid. Kenyataan tersebut digambarkan oleh Kemmis (2008) apabila kerajaan Britain mengarahkan penggubalan sebahagian kurikulum dengan mengambil kira aspek pendidikan ekonomi. Hal tersebut menyebabkan pelajar tertekan untuk memahami pembelajaran (Barber, 2013). Manakala, cabaran yang dihadapi oleh sekolah di Malaysia lebih berbentuk persekitaran dalaman. Antaranya seperti mana diperkatakan oleh Ketua Sektor Pengurusan Sekolah, Jabatan Pendidikan Negeri Terengganu, Tengku Anuar Tengku Dalam, bahawa sekolah kerajaan khususnya sekolah berprestasi tinggi menghadapi empat cabaran utama iaitu: pemimpin sekolah kurang merujuk sistem pendidikan negara bagi mengharungi perubahan persekitaran, keberkesanan kepimpinan sekolah yang kurang menyerlah, keberkesanan pengurusan sekolah yang kurang cekap dan tindakan warga sekolah yang kurang profesional (Kamal Abdullah, 2010).

Persoalannya kini adakah setiap jenis sekolah mempunyai cabaran yang sama bagi mencapai keberkesanan seperti Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan

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Agama? Justeru, kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti cabaran yang dihadapi oleh Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama berprestasi tinggi. Selanjutnya, pihak sekolah berupaya menggunakan dapatan kajian ini bagi mencapai keberkesanan sekolah.

Penyataan MasalahAntara perubahan persekitaran yang mempengaruhi pembuatan keputusan masa kini adalah perkembangan pesat menerusi pelbagai penemuan dalam sains, perubatan, teknologi termasuk komunikasi teknologi maklumat dan pertambahan saiz populasi dunia. Silins dan Mulford (2015) menyetujui pandangan tersebut dengan menyatakan perubahan persekitaran tersebut bukan hanya memberikan impak kepada seluruh negara di dunia tetapi dalam negara itu sendiri. Tambah beliau lagi, antara impak perubahan tersebut adalah wujudnya jurang antara manusia, kumpulan dan negara serta perubahan pengetahuan dan kuasa tradisional khususnya dalam bidang pendidikan.

Selanjutnya, perubahan persekitaran tersebut membangkitkan beberapa isu di peringkat negara dan antarabangsa. Antaranya, persaingan dalam ekonomi dan pasaran saham, kelestarian amalan, mengenal pasti identiti (melibatkan maklumat, perdagangan, manusia dan budaya), kesamarataan dan peningkatan pengharapan masyarakat terhadap institusi awam termasuk pendidikan (James & Whiting, 2016). Namun, pendidikan berupaya menyelesaikan beberapa isu. Huber (2012) menyokong kenyataan ini dengan menyatakan pendidikan berjaya menagih tumpuan masyarakat daripada agenda politik menerusi penambahbaikan taraf hidup masyarakat dan ekonomi negara.

Penyelesaian tersebut berupaya dilaksanakan di sekolah. Hal ini disebabkan sekolah merupakan institusi yang berupaya melakukan perubahan dan kelestarian amalan terhadap masyarakat melalui pembelajaran sepanjang hayat (Department of Education and Employment, 2014). Akan tetapi, cabaran terkini adalah mewujudkan keberkesanan sekolah sehingga cogan kata berikut berupaya dicapai: schools make a difference.

Lacy (2016) menamakan pemimpin sekolah yang melibatkan pengetua atau guru besar, merupakan faktor penyumbang utama kepada cabaran untuk mencapai keberkesanan sekolah. Justeru, tidak menghairankan sejak 20 tahun lalu gerakan sekolah berkesan memberikan tumpuan utama kepada peranan pemimpin sekolah (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2010, 2013). Pandangan Fullan (2009) menepati kenyataan bahawa pemimpin sekolah yang berkesan memberikan impak positif jangka panjang sehingga berupaya melestarikan perubahan dalam pendidikan.

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Begitu juga dalam konteks Malaysia untuk tumpuan subjek kajian ini, kajian Ahmad Zabidi Abd Razak (2006) menemui persekitaran Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama yang kurang kondusif adalah berpunca daripada pemimpin sekolah. Kajian Mohd Saudi Abdullah dan Abu Bakar Hashim (2006) menjelaskan penemuan bahawa pengetua Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama telah mengamalkan gaya kepimpinan pendayautamaan struktur dan bertimbang rasa pada tahap sederhana.

Persoalannya kini adakah faktor kepimpinan sekolah merupakan faktor penyumbang utama kepada cabaran untuk mencapai keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama? Untuk memberi penjelasan lanjut kepada persoalan ini, kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti cabaran yang dihadapi oleh Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama berprestasi tinggi. Dapatan kajian ini berupaya menyedarkan semua pihak berkepentingan dalam pendidikan bahawa cabaran untuk mencapai keberkesanan sekolah adalah tanggungjawab semua pihak kerana faktor halangan tersebut adalah bukan berfokus kepada satu individu atau kumpulan.

Objektif KajianKajian ini dilaksanakan untuk menganalisis cabaran keberkesanan sekolah menengah kebangsaan agama.

SOROTAN KAJIAN LAMPAUBahagian berikut membincangkan definisi konsep, perkembangan pendidikan Islam di Malaysia dan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.

Definisi Keberkesanan SekolahPengertian mengenai keberkesanan sekolah masih belum disepakati dalam kalangan pengkaji sekolah berkesan. Misalnya, Scheerens (2004) memberikan pendefinisian keberkesanan sekolah dengan merujuk kepada keberkesanan usaha meningkatkan pencapaian sekolah dalam aspek pengajaran dan pembelajaran (P&P), pentadbiran, motivasi murid dan penglibatan aktif ibu bapa di sekolah. Umumnya, kajian awal mengenai keberkesanan sekolah lebih melihat faktor sekolah dalam aspek proses keberkesanan sekolah serta outputnya iaitu pencapaian akademik murid. Kenyataan tersebut adalah selari dengan pandangan Murphy, Hallinger, dan Mesa (2001) bahawa keberkesanan sekolah adalah berfokus kepada keputusan peperiksaan yang piawai khususnya untuk mata pelajaran Bacaan dan Matematik.

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Namun, kebanyakan kajian mengenai sekolah berkesan telah menolak penemuan tersebut kerana tumpuan output bagi menentukan keberkesanan sesebuah sekolah bukan hanya kepada pencapaian akademik tetapi terdapat faktor penyumbang lain seperti tingkah laku bilik darjah, penglibatan murid dan sikap terhadap pembelajaran (Rutter, 1983; Sammons et al., 2011). Evertson, Emmer, dan Worsham (2006) turut mempunyai pandangan yang sama dengan merumuskan keberkesanan sekolah adalah institusi pendidikan yang berupaya menyelesaikan permasalahan murid dalam aspek kemahiran asas iaitu bahasa, Matematik, penyelesaian masalah dan bersosial serta tingkah laku. Manakala Hartwell dan Vargas-Bargon (2015) menyatakan keberkesanan sekolah bukan tertumpu kepada beberapa kejayaan murid tetapi kejayaan keseluruhan diri murid yang melibatkan gaya pembelajaran dan tingkah laku.

Selanjutnya, dalam konteks Malaysia, Muhammad Faizal (2012) berpendapat bahawa keberkesanan sekolah lebih tertumpu kepada pemboleh ubah outcome berbanding pemboleh ubah output sesebuah sekolah. Dalam memahami kenyataan tersebut, Muhammad Faizal et al. (2016) menambah bahawa outcome adalah hasilan jangka panjang yang melahirkan individu seimbang dalam aspek fizikal, spiritual, emosi, intelek dan sosial. Tambah mereka lagi, outcome sesebuah sekolah amat bergantung kepada pemboleh ubah proses dan tahun pengambilan murid.

Ringkasnya, keberkesanan sekolah lebih tertumpu kepada pemboleh ubah outcome yang melibatkan kejayaan jangka panjang murid dalam aspek fizikal, spiritual, emosi, intelek dan sosial.

Perkembangan Pendidikan Islam di MalaysiaPerkembangan pendidikan Islam di Malaysia bermula sejak zaman pemerintahan kerajaan awal Melaka. Hairunnizam, Jaffary, Rozmi, Kamaruddin dan Mohamad Alinor (2011) menggambarkan kenyataan tersebut menerusi persekitaran pembelajaran tidak formal pada zaman Parameswara sekitar tahun 1414. Tambah mereka, masyarakat pada zaman tersebut dibekalkan guru berbangsa Arab untuk mengajar pendidikan asas agama iaitu menyempurnakan solat dan membaca Al-Quran.

Malah, salah seorang pemerintah Melaka iaitu Sultan Mansur Syah telah mengiktiraf Kitab Darul Mazlum, sebuah kitab tasawuf, untuk dijadikan rujukan utama masyarakat Melaka (Suzalie Mohamad, 2003). Baginda juga mengirim kitab tersebut ke Parsi (Iran) untuk diterjemahkan ke dalam Bahasa Melayu (Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor, 2011). Baginda turut menghantar Tun Bija Wangsa ke Pasai bagi mendapatkan penjelasan daripada ulama Parsi mengenai kedudukan ahli syurga dan neraka (Shafie Abu Bakar, 1984).

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Namun, Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor (2011) menjelaskan ketika awal pendidikan Islam diperkenalkan di Malaysia, tiada satu undang-undang yang mewajibkan ibu bapa menghantar anak mereka ke sekolah. Setelah negara mencapai kemerdekaan, pendidikan Islam kelihatan lebih terbela dengan penggubalan undang-undang berkaitan pendidikan Islam. Misalnya, penggubalan Laporan Rahman Talib pada tahun 1960 bertujuan untuk memantapkan pendidikan Islam dengan mewajibkan pengajaran mata pelajaran Pendidikan Islam sekurang-kurangnya 2 jam seminggu bagi sekolah yang mempunyai jumlah murid beragama Islam melebihi 15 orang (Abdullah Ishak, 1995; Shafie Abu Bakar, 1984). Dalam aspek pembiayaan pendidikan pula, peruntukan kewangan telah diberikan sejak tahun 1961. Misalnya, pada tahun 1961 peruntukan sebanyak RM2.39 juta telah disalurkan untuk pendidikan Islam (Abdullah Ishak, 1995). Jumlah peruntukan tersebut meningkat kepada RM10.21 juta pada tahun 1972 (Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor, 2011).

Rumusannya, pendidikan Islam di Malaysia berkembang pesat daripada pendidikan tidak formal kepada formal. Bagi memantapkan pendidikan secara formal, kerajaan telah melaksanakan beberapa usaha seperti penggubalan undang-undang pendidikan dan membiayai institusi pendidikan Islam.

Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan AgamaBerikut adalah maklumat ringkas mengenai Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.

SejarahIdea awal penubuhan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama telah diilhamkan oleh mantan Pengarah Bahagian Agama Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, Tuan Haji Nik Mohammed Mohyideen Haji Wan Musa. Suzalie Mohamad (2003) memberikan alasan penubuhan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama berdasarkan keprihatinan negara khususnya kerajaan dan masyarakat mengenai kepimpinan dan kemudahan sekolah tersebut yang agak lemah. Di samping itu juga, pengaruh persekitaran mengenai kebangkitan Islam yang menyedarkan ibu bapa tentang kepentingan pendidikan Islam (Roslan Mohd Nor, 2011).

Justeru, pihak kerajaan melalui Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia telah berunding dengan kerajaan negeri untuk mengambil alih pengurusan sekolah agama negeri dan rakyat. Abdullah Ishak (1995) menggambarkan situasi pengambilalihan pengurusan sekolah agama tersebut menerusi persetujuan kedua-dua kerajaan persekutuan dan negeri untuk menyeragamkan sistem pengurusan dan kurikulum sekolah agama seperti mana sekolah milik

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kerajaan. Misalnya, dalam aspek kurikulum, penawaran mata pelajaran mengambil kira kehendak pasaran dengan menawarkan mata pelajaran akademik seperti Sains dan Matematik di samping mata pelajaran asal iaitu Pengajian Islam dan Bahasa Arab (Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, 1999).

Justeru, proses pengambilalihan pengurusan 11 buah Sekolah Agama Negeri dan Rakyat oleh Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia telah dilakukan pada tahun 1977. Pertumbuhan sekolah tersebut adalah amat pesat dengan penambahan bilangan daripada 11 buah pada awal penubuhan kepada 55 buah Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama pada masa kini (Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor, 2011).

Objektif Penubuhan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan AgamaMenurut Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (2016) berikut adalah objektif penubuhan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.(a) Mencapai kecemerlangan kurikulum dan kokurikulum;(b) Melahirkan murid yang mengamalkan akhlak mulia;(c) Membentuk generasi murid sebagai pemimpin yang boleh diteladani;(d) Melahirkan murid yang mempunyai ketahanan diri dalam menghadapi

cabaran budaya yang bercanggah dengan nilai-nilai Islam; dan(e) Menyediakan murid yang berupaya untuk memberikan sumbangan

berkesan bagi memenuhi keperluan negara dan ummah.

Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan AgamaTerdapat dua sumber intelek yang mempengaruhi tingkah laku manusia. Pertama, faktor sosiologi yang mempengaruhi tingkah laku manusia seperti norma masyarakat, peraturan dan undang-undang. Faktor sosiologi melibatkan tindakan membentuk tingkah laku manusia berdasarkan pengaruh persekitaran yang dipanggil pembolehubah konteks. Sumber aliran intelek kedua adalah faktor kendiri yang melibatkan individu bertingkah laku secara berdikari hasil daripada visi diri yang dimiliki. Dengan kata lain, individu tersebut bertingkah laku berdasarkan prinsip diri yang mereka miliki. Nieto (2004) menyatakan manusia perlu kepada kedua-dua sumber intelek kerana setiap satu saling mempengaruhi. Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani et al. (2016) dan Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (1999) memberikan misalan suatu objek turut larut sekiranya berada di dalam sebuah balang yang mengandungi cecair berwarna. Dengan kata lain, persekitaran luar murid amat mempengaruhi dalam membentuk tingkah laku mereka.

Justeru, penubuhan sekolah menengah kebangsaan agama berpunca daripada dua alasan utama iaitu (a) perubahan persekitaran yang menyebabkan

9


masyarakat perlu berhati-hati dengan unsur negatif seperti teknologi dan (b) desakan masyarakat yang inginkan anak mereka terhindar daripada budaya negatif misalnya penyalahgunaan dadah (Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani, 2012). Manakala, keberkesanan SMKA dinilai berasaskan tiga aspek seperti mana berikut.

(a) Penawaran dan pelaksanaan Aspek di atas sering dikaitkan dengan permintaan masyarakat

khususnya ibu bapa untuk menyekolahkan anak mereka di SMKA. Permintaan tersebut disebabkan masyarakat meyakini keberkesanan ilmu melibatkan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai yang ditawar dan dilaksanakan oleh SMKA. Kajian Abdul Monir Yaacob (2013) menggambarkan kenyataan tersebut menerusi peningkatan permohonan masuk murid ke tingkatan satu sekolah aliran agama sama ada milik kerajaan negeri mahupun kerajaan persekutuan. Data Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia mengenai kemasukan murid ke SMKA meningkat sepanjang tahun 1990 an dan 2000 an. Misalnya, pada tahun 1997 seramai 27,658 orang murid, 1998 (29,898), 1999 (31,388), 2002 (23,988), 2003 (24, 064) dan 2004 (24,258).

Antara faktor penyebab ibu bapa menyekolahkan anak mereka di SMKA kerana faktor berikut: (i) kesedaran mengenai kepentingan pendidikan agama, (ii) kelebihan menguasai pendidikan akademik dan agama secara serentak, (iii) berpeluang untuk memilih bidang yang lebih luas iaitu akademik atau agama, (iv) sistem pendidikan di SMKA yang tidak menyekat masa depan murid, (v) pengiktirafan kerajaan persekutuan terhadap graduan lulusan agama dan (vi) sistem pendidikan SMKA adalah lebih bersepadu (Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani, 2012; Nor Faizah A. Rahman, 2006).

(b) Pencapaian dalam peperiksaan Aspek di atas merujuk kepada kecemerlangan akademik murid.

Kajian Norhafizah Shoheme (2001) menyetujui kenyataan tersebut bahawa kewujudan sekolah aliran agama seperti SMKA berupaya meningkatkan pencapaian murid sama ada dalam aspek akademik mahupun keperibadian diri. Misalnya, kajian tersebut yang dilaksanakan di sebuah SMKA di Pulau Pinang mendapati peningkatan pencapaian peperiksaan standard Negara seperti Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia: Pada tahun 1993 seramai 43 orang murid memperolehi keputusan cemerlang berbanding 59 orang pada tahun 1999.

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(c) Penghayatan dan amalan Penghayatan dan amalan merujuk kepada perubahan tingkah laku murid

setelah mengamali pendidikan untuk sesuatu tempoh. Penemuan kajian Muhammad Yasir Abu Hassan (2005) mempunyai persamaan dengan kenyataan ini. Kajian beliau dalam kalangan murid tingkatan enam SMKA di Kedah mendapati wujudnya perkaitan antara penghayatan pengetahuan dan kefahaman agama dengan pembentukan keperibadian diri murid. Malah, dapatan kajian tersebut melaporkan pendidikan agama berupaya menghalang sebahagian besar murid daripada melakukan masalah sosial. Justeru, kekuatan pendidikan agama menyebabkan ibu bapa menghantar anak mereka belajar di sekolah aliran agama seperti SMKA bagi memastikan anak mereka menjadi individu yang mempunyai keperibadian diri yang baik dan terhindar daripada gejala sosial. Ringkasnya keberkesanan pendidikan agama di sekolah aliran agama seperti SMKA dinilai berdasarkan pencapaian akademik dan bukan akademik seperti mana digariskan dalam Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan, “Pendidikan di Malaysia adalah suatu usaha berterusan ke arah memperkembangkan lagi potensi individu secara menyeluruh dan bersepadu untuk mewujudkan insan yang seimbang dan harmonis dari segi intelek, rohani, emosi dan jasmani berdasarkan kepercayaan dan kepatuhan kepada Tuhan. Usaha ini adalah bagi melahirkan rakyat Malaysia yang berilmu pengetahuan, berketerampilan, berakhlak mulia, bertanggungjawab dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraan diri, serta memberi sumbangan terhadap keharmonian dan kemakmuran keluarga, masyarakat dan Negara”.

Kaedah KajianBahagian ini membincangkan aspek seperti mana berikut.

Reka Bentuk Kajian Pelaksanaan kajian ini mempunyai unsur falsafah konstruktivis iaitu pengkaji berusaha untuk memahami permasalahan yang berlaku dalam sesebuah persekitaran. Pemahaman fenomena tersebut dikenal pasti melalui kutipan data menggunakan kaedah kuantitatif. Cohen (2015) menjelaskan kenyataan tersebut menerusi pemahaman pengkaji mengenai permasalahan melalui data yang dikumpul daripada kajian lapangan. Menerusi kaedah tinjauan, pengkaji telah menerokai pandangan warga sekolah SMKA mengenai cabaran keberkesanan sekolah mereka.

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Sampel dan Lokasi Kajian Pemilihan peserta kajian ini adalah secara rawak dan berbentuk persampelan bertujuan (purposive sampling). Jadual 1 menggambarkan ciri-ciri peserta kajian.

Jadual 1Profil Peserta Kajian Profil Peserta Kajian orangJantinaLelakiPerempuanJumlah

BangsaMelayuCina IndiaLain-lainJumlah

70110180

17172-

180

Umur (tahun)Kurang 25 26-3536-45Melebihi 46Jumlah

Kelayakan AkademikPhD SarjanaIjazah DasarJumlah

3519531180

-37143180

Pengalaman Dalam Pendidikan tahun

Kurang 1 2- 5 6-1011-1516-20Melebihi 20Jumlah

- 16 45 66 26 27 180

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Seramai 180 orang peserta kajian dalam kalangan guru di 6 buah Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama cemerlang telah dipilih untuk tujuan kutipan data. Pemilihan sekolah tersebut adalah berasaskan perbincangan dengan pihak Bahagian Pendidikan Islam, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, dalam aspek pangkatan kecemerlangan. Manakala, asas penetapan jumlah sampel kajian ini adalah berdasarkan pandangan Scheaffer, Mendenhall III, Ott, dan Gerow (2013) yang mengatakan had saiz minimum peserta kajian bagi kajian tinjauan adalah seramai 30 orang berdasarkan taburan normal. Ciri-ciri pemilihan peserta kajian adalah seperti berikut: staf akademik gred DG41 ke atas, pengalaman mengajar melebihi 2 tahun dan berkhidmat di sekolah semasa sekurang-kurangnya setahun.

Instrumen Kajian Kajian ini menggunakan instrumen soal selidik yang telah dibina oleh pengkaji terdahulu iaitu Muhammad Faizal A. Ghani (2008). Instrumen tersebut dipilih kerana pembinaan item adalah berdasarkan kesepakatan pandangan dalam kalangan 15 orang pakar bidang Kepimpinan Sekolah. Instrumen tersebut mengandungi dua bahagian utama iaitu Bahagian A melibatkan profil sekolah dan guru sebanyak 7 item dan Bahagian B mengenai cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama (21 item). Selanjutnya, pandangan peserta kajian telah diuji menggunakan skala Likert 5 poin. Bagi Bahagian B skala Likert 5 poin seperti mana berikut: 1 – Sangat Tidak Setuju 2 – Tidak Setuju 3 – Agak Setuju 4 – Setuju 5 – Sangat Setuju

Instrumen ini juga telah menjalani kajian rintis pada skor kebolehpercayaan Alfa Cronbach adalah .895. Manakala, 2 orang pakar dalam bidang berkaitan telah ditemui untuk tujuan kesahan instrumen.

Analisis DataData soal selidik dianalisis menggunakan Program Statistical Packages for The Social Sciences (SPSS) versi 23.0. Kaedah statistik deskriptif yang menggunakan skor min, sisihan piawai, peratus dan frekuensi telah digunakan untuk menjawab soalan kajian. Bagi tujuan menganalisis tahap pandangan guru terhadap faktor penyumbang kepada keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah

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Kebangsaan Agama, tahap pengukuran seperti mana Jadual 2 telah digunakan hasil pengubahsuaian pandangan Pallant (2007).

Jadual 2 Interpretasi Skor Min Tahap Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

Julat Min Interpretasi Tahap Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama

1.00-2.33 Tidak Setuju2.34-3.66 Sederhana Setuju3.67-5.00 Setuju

Dapatan KajianBahagian ini memberi ulasan mengenai dapatan kajian bagi mencapai objektif kajian.

Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan AgamaUntuk mencapai objektif kajian ini, data yang dikutip dalam kalangan 180 orang guru Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama dianalisis menggunakan kaedah statistik deskriptif. Keputusan analisis data dipersembahkan mengikut dimensi utama cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama seperti mana berikut.

Secara umum, Jadual 3 menunjukkan keputusan analisis data secara keseluruhan mengikut dimensi dan pangkatan.

Jadual 3Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama Mengikut DimensiDimensi Min Sisihan Piawai Tahap CabaranKonteks 3.31 1.21 Sederhana SetujuMurid 2.89 1.23 Sederhana SetujuGuru 2.75 1.28 Sederhana SetujuSekolah 2.74 1.17 Sederhana SetujuKeseluruhan 2.86 0.98 Sederhana Setuju

Jadual 3 menunjukkan dimensi konteks adalah disetujui oleh peserta kajian sebagai faktor penyumbang utama cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama apabila skor min 3.31 dan sisihan piawai 1.21. Dimensi murid turut dipersetujui sebagai faktor penyumbang kedua

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cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama apabila skor min 2.89 dan sisihan piawai 1.23. Selanjutnya, dimensi guru dipersetujui sebagai faktor penyumbang ketiga cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama apabila skor min 2.75 dan sisihan piawai 1.28. Manakala, dimensi sekolah dipersetujui sebagai faktor penyumbang keempat cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama apabila skor min 2.74 dan sisihan piawai 1.17. Persetujuan terhadap dimensi di atas adalah pada tahap sederhana.

Keseluruhannya, warga Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama bersetuju pada tahap sederhana bahawa sekolah mereka menghadapi cabaran bagi meningkatkan keberkesanan sekolah. Tahap tersebut dicapai apabila skor min adalah 2.86 dan sisihan piawai 0.98.

Berikut merupakan perincian dapatan kajian berdasarkan dimensi utama.

Dimensi KonteksJadual 4 merupakan perincian dapatan kajian berdasarkan dimensi konteks yang menjadi cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.

Jadual 4Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama: Dimensi KonteksCabaran Dimensi Konteks N Min SP Tahap Cabaran

1.Program kementerian lain selain KPM mengganggu proses P&P guru

2.Perubahan dasar pendidikan yang mendadak 3.Peruntukan kewangan dari KPM yang lewat dan kurang mencukupi

4.Kurang sokongan dari pihak berkepentingan pendidikan terhadap sekolah (seperti UA)

180

180

180

180

3.34

3.32

3.51

3.07

1.17

1.19

1.22

1.27

Sederhana Setuju

Sederhana Setuju

Sederhana Setuju

Sederhana Setuju

Berdasarkan Jadual 4, warga Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama menyetujui peruntukan kewangan kerajaan persekutuan adalah lewat dan kurang mencukupi sebagai cabaran utama keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama dalam aspek konteks . Tahap persetujuan tersebut adalah

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sederhana apabila skor min adalah 3.51 dan sisihan piawai 1.22. Selanjutnya, program kementerian lain selain Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia mengganggu proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran guru (min = 3.34; sisihan piawai = 1.17), perubahan dasar pendidikan yang mendadak (min = 3.32; sisihan piawai = 1.19) dan kurang sokongan daripada pihak berkepentingan pendidikan lain seperti universiti awam (min = 3.07; sisihan piawai = 1.27).

Dimensi MuridJadual 5 merupakan perincian dapatan kajian berdasarkan dimensi murid yang menjadi cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.

Jadual 5Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama: Dimensi MuridCabaran Dimensi Murid N Min SP Tahap Cabaran

1.Sikap ketidakprihatinan murid terhadap pembelajaran menimbulkan masalah disiplin

2.Murid kurang mendampingi guru

3.Murid tiada visi dan misi yang jelas

4.Murid kurang dibimbingi guru ke arah visi dam misi yang jelas

180

180

180

180

3.53

2.77

2.87

2.38

1.26

1.28

1.27

1.12

Sederhana SetujuSederhana SetujuSederhana Setuju

Sederhana Setuju

Jadual 5 menunjukkan sikap ketidakprihatinan murid Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama terhadap pembelajaran akan menimbulkan masalah disiplin merupakan cabaran utama keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama dalam aspek murid. Tahap persetujuan tersebut adalah sederhana apabila skor min adalah 3.53 dan sisihan piawai 1.26. Selanjutnya, murid tiada visi dan misi yang jelas (min = 2.87; sisihan piawai = 1.27), murid kurang mendampingi guru (min = 2.77; sisihan piawai = 1.28) dan murid kurang dibimbingi guru ke arah visi dan misi yang jelas (min = 2.38; sisihan piawai = 1.12).

Dimensi GuruJadual 6 merupakan perincian dapatan kajian berdasarkan dimensi guru yang menjadi cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.

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Jadual 6Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama: Dimensi Guru

Cabaran Dimensi Guru N Min SP Tahap Cabaran

1.Guru mengajar bukan berdasarkan kepakaran mereka

2.Sikap guru yang tidak menerima perubahan

3.Beban tugas guru semakin bertambah

4.Kompetensi guru kurang selari dengan keperluan semasa

5.Guru kurang memahami peranan mereka sebagai pendidik

180

180

180

180

180

2.19

2.27

4.07

2.71

2.12

1.28

1.19

1.36

1.34

1.25

Tidak Setuju

Tidak Setuju

Setuju

Sederhana Setuju

Tidak Setuju

Jadual 6 menunjukkan warga Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama menyetujui beban tugas guru semakin bertambah adalah cabaran utama keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama dalam aspek guru. Tahap persetujuan tersebut dicapai apabila skor min adalah 4.07 dan sisihan piawai 1.36. Selanjutnya, kemampuan guru kurang selari dengan kehendak semasa (min = 2.87; sisihan piawai = 1.27). Manakala, warga Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama kurang menyetujui dengan pandangan berikut: sikap guru yang tidak menerima perubahan apabila skor min adalah 2.27 dan sisihan piawai 1.19, guru mengajar bukan berdasarkan kepakaran mereka (min = 2.19; sisihan piawai = 1.28) dan guru kurang memahami peranan mereka sebagai pendidik (min = 2.12; sisihan piawai = 1.25)

Dimensi SekolahJadual 7 merupakan perincian dapatan kajian berdasarkan dimensi sekolah yang menjadi cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.

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Jadual 7Cabaran Keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama: Dimensi SekolahCabaran Dimensi Sekolah N Min SP Tahap Cabaran

1.Pengetua kurang mahir mengamalkan kepimpinan dalam suasana sebenar

2.Sikap ibu bapa kurang prihatin dengan perkembangan pendidikan anak-anak

3.Hubungan dalam kalangan staf kurang mesra

4.Pengetua kurang menyampaikan maklumat dengan telus

5.Kemudahan fizikal sekolah yang kurang mencukupi dan berfungsi

6. Staf kurang bekerja dalam satu pasukan

7. Kadar pusing ganti adalah tinggi dalam kalangan guru

8. Visi sekolah yang tinggi berbanding kemampuan sekolah

180

180

180

180

180

180

180

180

2.87

2.64

2.60

2.73

2.87

2.73

2.90

2.57

1.47

1.36

1.33

1.37

1.37

1.33

1.20

1.24

Sederhana Setuju

Sederhana Setuju

Sederhana Setuju

Sederhana Setuju

Sederhana SetujuSederhana Setuju

Sederhana Setuju

Sederhana Setuju

Jadual 7 menunjukkan warga Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama menyetujui kadar pusing ganti dalam kalangan guru adalah tinggi merupakan cabaran utama keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama dalam aspek sekolah. Tahap persetujuan tersebut adalah sederhana dicapai apabila skor min adalah 2.90 dan sisihan piawai 1.20. Selanjutnya, kemudahan fizikal sekolah yang kurang mencukupi dan berfungsi (min = 2.87; sisihan piawai = 1.37), pengetua kurang mahir mengamalkan kepimpinan dalam suasana

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sebenar (min = 2.87; sisihan piawai = 1.47), staf kurang bekerja dalam satu pasukan (min = 2.73; sisihan piawai = 1.33), pengetua kurang menyampaikan maklumat dengan telus (min = 2.73; sisihan piawai = 1.37), sikap ibu bapa kurang prihatin dengan perkembangan pendidikan anak-anak (min = 2.64; sisihan piawai = 1.36), hubungan dalam kalangan staf kurang mesra (min = 2.60; sisihan piawai = 1.33) dan visi sekolah yang tinggi berbanding kemampuan sekolah (min = 2.57; sisihan piawai = 1.24).

Rumusannya, berikut adalah cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama berdasarkan dimensi.(a) Dimensi Konteks

• Peruntukan kewangan kerajaan persekutuan adalah lewat dan kurang mencukupi;

• Program kementerian lain selain Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia mengganggu proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran guru;

• Perubahan dasar pendidikan yang mendadak; dan• Kurang sokongan daripada pihak berkepentingan pendidikan lain

seperti universiti awam.

(b) Dimensi Murid• Sikap ketidakprihatinan murid Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan

Agama terhadap pembelajaran akan menimbulkan masalah disiplin;

• Murid tiada visi dan misi yang jelas;• Murid kurang mendampingi guru; dan• Murid kurang dibimbingi guru ke arah visi dan misi yang jelas.

(c) Dimensi Guru • Beban tugas guru semakin bertambah; dan• Kompetensi guru kurang selari dengan keperluan semasa.

(d) Dimensi Sekolah• Kadar pusing ganti dalam kalangan guru adalah tinggi;• Kemudahan fizikal sekolah yang kurang mencukupi dan berfungsi;• Pengetua kurang mahir mengamalkan gaya kepimpinan dalam

suasana sebenar;• Staf kurang bekerja dalam satu pasukan;• Pengetua kurang menyampaikan maklumat dengan telus;• Sikap ibu bapa kurang prihatin dengan perkembangan pendidikan

anak-anak;• Hubungan dalam kalangan staf kurang mesra; dan• Visi sekolah yang tinggi berbanding kemampuan sekolah.

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PERBINCANGANMasyarakat prihatin dengan pencapaian sesebuah sekolah. Keprihatinan tersebut kerana mereka yakin masa depan sesebuah negara bergantung kepada sekolah yang mempunyai pencapaian cemerlang (Hall, 2015). Namun, untuk mencapai kecemerlangan bukan suatu usaha yang mudah. Justeru, pelbagai cabaran yang dihadapi oleh pihak sekolah. Gambaran ini adalah selari dengan pandangan Lezotte (1997, h. 2): “Pendidikan berkualiti untuk semua: Di mana sahaja kita berada…tetapi pada hakikatnya situasi tersebut kurang berlaku kerana cabaran yang dihadapi…”

Kajian Johnson dan Duffett (2015) mendapati sebahagian besar cabaran yang dihadapi sesetengah sekolah adalah kurang berjaya untuk memenuhi tuntutan perubahan dasar pendidikan yang mendadak. Antara lain adalah keperluan sekolah tinggi untuk berubah (Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 2004), masyarakat kurang berkeyakinan dengan usaha sekolah kerajaan (Phi Delta Kappa, 2004) dan penambahan murid dalam aspek budaya, etnik dan bahasa yang pelbagai (Nieto, 2004).

Namun, setiap sekolah mempunyai cabaran yang berlainan. Kenyataan berikut digambarkan oleh Barth (1986).

“Seperti mana Ronald Edmonds sering berkata,…kita lebih mengetahui mengenai ciri-ciri sebuah sekolah berkesan berbanding bagaimana (usaha) sesebuah sekolah itu menjadi berkesan… Kenapa? Hal tersebut kerana kita memaksa sekolah yang kurang berjaya menjadi berkesan seperti mana sekolah yang telah berjaya menerusi kurang menganalisis kekuatan dan kemampuan sekolah kurang berjaya…”

(Barth, 1986, h. 294)

Berpandukan pandangan tersebut, Barth (1986) menyatakan proses mewujudkan sekolah berkesan bukan semudah yang difikirkan. Tambah beliau lagi, kesilapan besar yang wujud dalam kalangan pihak berkepentingan khususnya penggubal dasar, adalah mengguna pakai amalan terbaik keberkesanan sesebuah sekolah dan dilaksanakan di tempat yang lain pula. Alasan tersebut kerana setiap lokasi dan persekitaran mempunyai kekuatan dan kekurangan yang berlainan (Evertson, Emmer, & Worsham, 2006).

Begitu juga dengan penemuan kajian ini yang mendapati aspek konteks, murid, guru dan sekolah merupakan faktor penyumbang kepada cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama berprestasi tinggi. Dalam aspek konteks, dua pihak berkepentingan utama iaitu penggubal dasar dan institusi pendidikan selain sekolah merupakan penyumbang kepada

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cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama berprestasi tinggi. Dalam konteks penggubal dasar, kajian ini mendapati perubahan dasar yang mendadak berupaya mengganggu keberkesanan pengurusan sekolah jenis ini. Situasi tersebut disebabkan setiap perubahan pemerintahan berlaku, kumpulan baru akan membincangkan tujuan dan jangkaan baru kerajaan terhadap sekolah menerusi pelbagai dialog, persetujuan dan keputusan (Tyack & Cuban, 2015) yang bergantung kepada perspektif mereka (Wagner, 2002). Implikasinya, pelbagai perubahan perlu dilaksanakan oleh pihak sekolah yang melibatkan murid, guru, ibu bapa, pemimpin sekolah dan staf sokongan.

Schlechty (2014) menggambarkan situasi tersebut menerusi usaha pihak sekolah menambahbaik data sekolah bagi mengenal pasti keperluan staf terhadap pengetahuan dan kemahiran baru serta menambah erat jalinan ibu bapa agar mereka dapat membantu pihak sekolah, khususnya dalam aspek kewangan sekolah. Usaha tersebut sehingga meminggirkan matlamat asal penubuhan sekolah iaitu meningkatkan pembelajaran murid. Untuk mengatasi permasalahan ini, sekolah perlu berkolaborasi dengan pihak berkepentingan dalam pendidikan seperti universiti awam bagi tujuan bimbingan. Namun, kajian ini mendapati kurangnya sokongan pihak berkepentingan selain institusi sekolah, khususnya universiti awam, terhadap Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama. Hal tersebut bertentangan dengan cadangan Togneri dan Anderson (2013) yang berpendapat bahawa peningkatan pencapaian murid berupaya dilaksanakan melalui perubahan dua aspek berikut iaitu amalan pengajaran dan sistem sokongan sekolah. Tambah mereka lagi, kedua-duanya berupaya diubah dengan membangunkan strategi berkesan melalui budaya kolaboratif sama ada dengan pihak dalam mahupun luar sekolah. Guru berupaya menambahbaik amalan pengajaran dengan meningkatkan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai yang diperolehi daripada pakar (Wagner, 2002). Implikasinya, budaya untuk berubah khususnya diri sendiri akan membentuk sebuah sistem sokongan baharu yang berfokus kepada pencapaian murid (Evertson et al., 2006).

Dalam aspek murid pula, komponen sikap murid yang negatif turut menghalang Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama mencapai keberkesanan pencapaian. Kajian ini menemui murid SMKA yang kurang prihatin dengan proses pembelajaran menyebabkan timbulnya masalah disiplin dalam kalangan mereka. Alasan yang diberikan oleh Goldhaber dan Brewer (2007) serta Hanushek (2012) adalah berkaitan latar belakang keluarga murid. Kajian mereka mendapati wujudnya perkaitan antara pencapaian murid berasrama dengan pendidikan ibu bapa, saiz keluarga dan pendapatan mereka. Mereka menyatakan ibu bapa berpendidikan tinggi lebih meluangkan masa dan mendidik anak mereka apabila waktu cuti sekolah. Manakala, ibu bapa

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berpendidikan rendah mengandaikan murid berupaya berdikari dalam menguruskan kehidupan mereka. Dalam aspek saiz keluarga, jumlah yang ramai menyebabkan ibu bapa kurang memberikan tumpuan kepada anak mereka kerana beranggapan murid berupaya menguruskan diri sendiri. Begitu juga dengan ibu bapa yang berpendapatan tinggi atau sederhana berupaya memenuhi keperluan anak khususnya berkaitan pendidikan. Bagi ibu bapa yang berpendapatan rendah, mereka lebih memberikan tumpuan kepada pemakanan murid kerana beranggapan murid berasrama merindui masakan ibu.

Kajian ini juga menemui sikap murid yang kurang memiliki visi yang jelas berupaya menyebabkan mereka kurang berdisiplin. Littky (2016) meyokong kenyataan tersebut dengan menggambarkan harapan sekolah abad ke-21 terhadap murid. Beliau menyatakan kejayaan pembelajaran abad ke-21 bukan hanya tertumpu kepada pencapaian akademik murid tetapi kehidupan mereka yang berkualiti. Pada pandangan beliau, kehidupan berkualiti berupaya dicapai sekiranya murid dilatih untuk berfikir bagi kehidupan masa depan. Dengan kata lain, sekiranya murid berpandangan jauh, mereka akan bertingkah laku positif untuk mencapai kejayaan, misalnya beranggapan perbincangan dengan guru berupaya menyelesaikan masalah. Kepentingan murid berbincang dengan guru bagi mendapatkan bimbingan diberikan penekanan oleh Shepard (2014). Beliau menyatakan guru telah menyusun proses atau aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran maka mereka arif dalam menentukan proses tersebut. Justeru, murid seharusnya mendampingi guru bagi tujuan bimbingan. Malah, Wheatley (2012) menyatakan sekiranya hubungan antara murid dan guru erat, pencapaian akademik dan pembangunan sosial murid akan meningkat. Bowsher (2011) menggambarkan situasi tersebut dengan menyatakan jika murid mempunyai hubungan erat dengan guru, murid kurang menerima kritikan daripada guru kerana mempunyai hubungan peribadi positif yang erat, kerap berbincang dengan guru dan sering menerima bimbingan dan pujian guru. Implikasinya, murid mempercayai guru, berminat dalam pembelajaran, berdisiplin dan mencapai pencapaian akademik yang tinggi (Littky, 2016).

Hakikatnya, masyarakat menekankan kepentingan sesebuah sekolah untuk memiliki guru berkualiti seperti mana dibincangkan sebelum ini. Malah, masyarakat dan kerajaan menyokong usaha melahirkan guru berkualiti. Misalnya, kerajaan mewujudkan peperiksaan piawai bagi menilai pencapaian guru menerusi keputusan peperiksaan yang diterima oleh murid (Thomas & Mortimore, 2006). Dengan kata lain, banyak faktor penyumbang yang berupaya meningkatkan pencapaian murid seperti karakter murid, keluarga dan masyarakat tetapi banyak kajian (seperti Sammons, 1996; Shepard, 2014)

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menemui faktor guru adalah faktor penyumbang utama. Namun, perlu disedari pencapaian guru amat dipengaruhi oleh faktor sekolah seperti kepimpinan sekolah, persekitaran sekolah yang kondusif dan bidang tugas (Rowe & Fitzgerald, 2009). Pandangan tersebut selari dengan penemuan kajian ini yang mendapati faktor guru dan sekolah merupakan faktor penyumbang ketidakberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama.

Dalam aspek guru, kajian mendapati tahap beban tugas dan kompetensi guru merupakan cabaran utama keberkesanan sekolah jenis ini. Penemuan yang sama oleh Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2009) mendapati guru kurang bermotivasi untuk berprestasi cemerlang kerana tahap beban tugas mereka yang tinggi. Kajian itu turut mendapati hal tersebut mengganggu tahap kompetensi dan kehidupan berkeluarga guru. Mereka memberikan alasan kepentingan menjaga kebajikan keluarga untuk tidak menghadiri program profesionalisme (Nelson, 2002). Implikasinya, pengetahuan dan kemahiran guru agak kurang selari dengan perubahan persekitaran khususnya dalam pendidikan (Littky, 2016) dan mereka akan sering bertukar lokasi pekerjaan bagi mencapai kepuasan kerja (Shepard, 2014).

Bagi mengatasi permasalahan tersebut, persekitaran dalaman dan luaran sekolah seharusnya memainkan peranan. Goldhaber dan Brewer (2007) menggambarkan kenyataan tersebut dengan berpesan kepada pihak berkepentingan dalam pendidikan untuk berganding bahu mengurangkan tugas kurang penting guru dan pemimpin sekolah agar mereka berupaya menumpukan perhatian kepada pencapaian murid. Penggubal dasar yang dikaitkan dengan persekitaran luaran sekolah seharusnya memperkenalkan dasar pendidikan berasaskan perancangan sistematik. Usaha tersebut disebabkan dasar yang berlandaskan akauntabiliti akan menggalakkan pihak sekolah meningkatkan pencapaian mereka (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2009). Manakala, pemimpin sekolah merupakan salah satu faktor penyumbang yang berada dalam persekitaran sekolah, seharusnya berkeyakinan diri tinggi untuk menolak keputusan yang berupaya meningkatkan beban tugas dalam kalangan warga sekolah khususnya guru (Shepard, 2014). Guru pula perlu berkolaborasi bagi membuktikan setiap tugas yang dilaksanakan dalam bilik darjah bertujuan untuk meningkatkan pencapaian murid (Hanushek, 2012).

Akan tetapi, situasi yang digambarkan ini kurang berlaku di sekolah kajian. Misalnya, peserta kajian menyetujui pengetua Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama kurang berpengetahuan dan kemahiran untuk memimpin warga sekolah. Mereka juga bersetuju pengetua kurang telus dalam menyampaikan maklumat kepada warga sekolah adalah salah satu cabaran keberkesanan sekolah mereka. Persoalannya kini mengapakah terdapat

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jurang antara amalan pengetua dengan pendekatan yang dicadangkan oleh pengkaji sekolah berkesan? Ramai pengkaji (seperti Berlin, Kavanagh & Jensen, 2010; Flath, 2006) meyakini aktiviti perkembangan profesionalisme berupaya meningkatkan kompetensi pengetua. Alasan tersebut disebabkan jika prasyarat untuk menjadi pemimpin sekolah adalah kelayakan akademik dalam bidang Pentadbiran Pendidikan, kualiti dan kandungan program tersebut adalah berbeza-beza antara universiti tempatan, luar negara, awam dan swasta (Nelson, 2002). Malah, laporan National Staff Development Council (2016) menyatakan 96 peratus daripada 1000 orang pengetua baru mendapati pengalaman rakan sejawat lebih membantu memainkan peranan mereka sebagai seorang pemimpin sekolah berbanding pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang dipelajari daripada program pengajian dahulu. Alasan tersebut kerana pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang dipelajari ketika pengajian adalah kurang selari dengan perubahan persekitaran khususnya bidang Pendidikan (Falath, 2006).

Jelas di sini bahawa keberkesanan sesebuah sekolah amat bergantung kepada kepimpinan sekolah seperti mana dinyatakan oleh Howard, Howell, dan Brainard (1987, h. 23).

“Saya belum pernah melihat sebuah sekolah cemerlang dipimpin oleh pengetua yang lemah atau sebuah sekolah lemah dipimpin oleh pengetua yang cemerlang. Saya pernah melihat sekolah yang kurang berjaya bertukar menjadi cemerlang dan berasa menyesal sekiranya sekolah cemerlang bertukar menjadi lemah. Pokok punca hal di atas adalah kualiti pengetua sesebuah sekolah…”

Oleh itu, kepemimpinan yang dimainkan oleh pengetua sekolah adalah suatu yang penting. Pengetua seharusnya memakai pelbagai topi ketika memimpin sekolah tetapi kebanyakan pemimpin sekolah yang cemerlang bukan sahaja berperanan sebagai pengurus dan pengawal disiplin, mereka juga bertindak sebagai pemimpin pembelajaran (Cohen, 2015). Sebagai pemimpin pembelajaran, mereka akan bertindak agar permasalahan yang ditemui dalam kajian ini berkaitan dengan cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama sekurang-kurangnya berkurangan: mewujudkan persekitaran sekolah yang kondusif dalam aspek hubungan erat antara warga sekolah untuk melahirkan budaya kolaboratif dan menyediakan kemudahan sekolah yang berfungsi, menggalakkan penglibatan aktif ibu bapa di sekolah serta berkongsi visi dan misi yang jelas.

Peranan pengetua seperti dibincangkan ini ditegaskan oleh Bill dan Foundation (2010) bahawa kepimpinan pengetua mempunyai perkaitan

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rapat dengan keberkesanan faktor sekolah yang lain. Mereka berpendapat pencapaian murid akan menurun sekiranya pengetua gagal memimpin faktor sekolah secara cekap dan berkesan. Malah, kajian Davis, Darling-Hammond, LaPointe dan Meyerson (2015) menjelaskan dengan harapan tinggi masyarakat terhadap sekolah, jawatan pengetua dianggap penting kerana berupaya menambahbaik proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Justeru, pengetua seharusnya berperanan sebagai pencetus visi sekolah, pemimpin kurikulum dan pengajaran, pakar penilaian, pengawal disiplin sekolah, pembina jaringan permuafakatan antara rumah dan sekolah, pakar jalinan masyarakat, penganalisis bajet sekolah, pengurus kemudahan sekolah, pentadbir sekolah dan pakar analisis dasar pendidikan dan sekolah (Nelson, 2002).

Dengan kata lain, pengetua seharusnya berperanan sebagai orang tengah kepada guru, ibu bapa, murid, penggubal dasar, kesatuan keguruan dan pihak berkepentingan lain bagi memenuhi keperluan pembelajaran murid. Davis et al. (2015) menggambarkan kenyataan tersebut bahawa peranan pengetua kelihatan melangkaui tugas pihak berkepentingan lain yang memberikan tanda awal sebagai satu pengiktirafan terhadap pengetua untuk memastikan murid dapat belajar di sekolah cemerlang. Begitu juga dengan pandangan Schmidt-Davis dan Bottoms (2016) bahawa seorang pengetua berupaya memberikan impak kehidupan murid dalam jumlah yang ramai untuk sesuatu tahun.

Walau bagaimanapun, sebaik mana kualiti kepimpinan seseorang pengetua, beliau masih memerlukan sokongan daripada warga sekolah. Shepard (2014) menyetujui pandangan tersebut dengan menyatakan pengetua seharusnya memimpin dalam kerangka kerja kolaboratif dan berkongsi dalam pembuatan keputusan sekolah bersama-sama warga sekolah khususnya guru dalam mengatasi cabaran yang ditemui dalam kajian ini. Hal tersebut kerana pengetua lebih bertindak sebagai orang tengah kepada pihak berkepentingan dalam pendidikan khususnya penggubal dasar manakala pihak berkepentingan lain sebagai pelaksana utama dasar pendidikan (Sammons, 1996; Shepard, 2014).

Sebagai kesimpulan, cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama melibatkan aspek dalaman dan luaran persekitaran sekolah iaitu faktor konteks, guru, murid dan sekolah. Cabaran tersebut berupaya diatasi dengan kepimpinan profesional pengetua dan guru yang bertindak dalam sebuah kerangka kerja kolaboratif dan berkongsi dalam pembuatan keputusan mengenai sekolah. Hal tersebut kerana cabaran yang dihadapi oleh SMKA adalah berpunca daripada kepimpinan pengetua yang berupaya bagi mengatasi cabaran berkaitan faktor konteks, murid, guru dan sekolah.

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PENUTUPSekiranya kita serius dengan proses penambahbaikan terhadap sesebuah sekolah yang kurang berkesan, kita seharusnya memberikan tumpuan kepada punca berlakunya ketidakberkesanan sekolah tersebut. Usaha tersebut disebabkan punca berlakunya ketidakberkesanan sekolah adalah pelbagai dan strategi pemulihan seharusnya berbeza-beza berdasarkan tahap pelaksanaan.

Dengan kata lain, proses mengenal pasti punca berlakunya ketidakberkesanan merupakan satu usaha permulaan yang sangat penting sebelum memulakan proses pemulihan. Justeru, kajian ini telah mengenal pasti empat cabaran keberkesanan Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama berprestasi tinggi iaitu faktor konteks, murid, guru dan sekolah. Selanjutnya, kebanyakan pengkaji sekolah berkesan seperti Evertson, Emmer, dan Worsham (2006) menyatakan proses awal untuk mengenal pasti punca ketidakberkesanan sesebuah sekolah adalah menilai tugas yang telah dilakukan oleh pemimpin sekolah khususnya pengetua. Alasan tersebut disebabkan pengetua adalah individu yang mempunyai kuasa sebagai pembuat keputusan terakhir bagi sesebuah sekolah (Shepard, 2014). Jatuh bangun sesebuah sekolah bergantung kepada kepimpinan sekolah. Manakala, faktor penyumbang ketidakberkesanan sekolah yang lain merupakan penyokong kepada usaha yang dijalankan oleh pengetua.

Bagi mengatasi cabaran tersebut, setiap faktor konteks, murid, guru dan sekolah perlu berkolaboratif dan melakukan penambahbaikan bagi mewujudkan peluang pembelajaran kepada murid. Permuafakatan antara komuniti sekolah khususnya yang terlibat langsung dengan pembelajaran murid adalah penting bagi melahirkan murid yang berjaya dan persekitaran sekolah yang kondusif menerusi perancangan penambahbaikan sekolah yang cekap dan berkesan.

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PEMBENTUKAN AKHLAK AWAL KANAK-KANAK MENERUSI TELADAN IBU BAPA

Noraziah Ahmad Nadzim* & Mohd Nizam Sahad (PhD) Pusat Pengajian Ilmu Kemanusiaan

Universiti Sains [email protected]

Mohd Nazri Abdul Rahman (PhD)Fakulti PendidikanUniversiti Malaya

AbstrakPembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak bermula dengan didikan dan asuhan ibu bapa.Ibu bapa berperanan sebagai penyebar pertama kepada sosialisasi sejak anak-anak dilahirkan ke dunia. Kegagalan ibu bapa dalam mendidik anak-anak menyebabkan mereka terjerumus kepada keruntuhan ahklak. Kertas kerja ini ini bertujuan mengetengahkan isu berkaitan pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak menerusi teladan ibu bapa dalam Islam. Kertas kerja ini memberi fokus terhadap konsep pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak berserta kepentingannya. Konsep teladan ibu bapa dalam Islam dan prinsip-prinsipnya turut dibincangkan. Kanak-kanak dipilih sebagai subjek sasaran perbincangan kerana ibu bapa memainkan peranan yang penting dalam mencorakkan tingkahlaku dan akhlak awal kanak-kanak. Metodologi penulisan kertas konsep ini adalah melalui kajian kepustakaan dengan menekankan aspek analisis kandungan (content analysis). Hasil analisis telah membuktikan bahawa pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak dipengaruhi oleh faktor teladan ibu bapa meliputi aspek perbuatan dan percakapan. Adalah menjadi harapan agar penulisan berkaitan pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak menerusi teladan ibu bapa ini memberi gambaran dan kefahaman terhadap konsep keibubapaan dalam Islam agar difahami bagi tujuan pembentukan akhlak yang mulia dalam kalangan awal kanak-kanak berpaksikan ajaran Islam berpandukan Al-Quran dan Sunnah.

Kata kunci: pembentukan akhlak, awal kanak-kanak teladan, ibu bapa

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PENGENALAN Dalam pendidikan awal kanak-kanak, ibu bapalah yang menjadi pendidik pertama kepada pembentukan peribadi dan akhlak kanak-kanak tersebut. Dalam kertas kerja ini akan menerangkan berkaitan konsep pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak menerusi teladan ibu bapa merangkumi persediaan ibu bapa dalam menjadi teladan kepada anak-anak serta bentuk teladan yang akan dicontohi dalam kehidupan kanak-kanak tersebut. Dalam membentuk akhlak anak-anak, ibu bapa perlulah menggunakan kaedah pendidikan akhlak yang sesuai serta waktu yang tepat agar menjadi pegangan kukuh kepada anak-anak.

Anak-anak yang soleh akan muncul bermula dengan kesolehahan ibu dan bapa kerana keduanya merupakan pencorak kepada peribadi-peribadi ini sejak daripada kecil berterusan sehingga dewasa. Pendidikan kanak-kanak pada umumnya adalah berasaskan pada dua bahagian iaitu apa yang ditiru daripada orang yang rapat sama ada ahli keluarga ataupun rakan dan apa yang diperolehi secara asuhan. Oleh itu, institusi keluarga adalah institusi terpenting dalam memupuk keperibadian kanak-kanak.

Konsep Pembentukan Akhlak Kanak-kanak dari Pespektif IslamFenomena keruntuhan akhlak dalam kalangan masyarakat Islam di Malaysia semakin mendapat perhatian semua pihak. Masyarakat Islam yang menyedari fenomena negatif yang semakin menular menyeru supaya ibu bapa meletakkan Islam sebagai prinsip dalam kehidupan berkeluarga. Maka ibu bapa perlu menerapkan anak-anak dengan penghayatan cara hidup Islam dalam menghadapi cabaran kehidupan. Pendidikan akhlak awal kanak-kanak melalui peranan ibu bapa menurut prinsip Islam amatlah ditekankan dalam Islam. Saranan yang terdapat dalam al- Quran adalah pendidikan yang menyeluruh, tidak terbatas kepada ibadat dan melupakan tingkah laku, atau memberatkan individu dan melupakan amal, tetapi meliputi segala aspek kehidupan manusia.

Muhammad Nur Abdullah Hafiz Suaid (2006:157) menyatakan tempat yang paling subur bagi pembinaan pendidikan adalah fasa kanak-kanak yang merupakan fasa terpanjang dalam perjalanan hidup. Masa kanak-kanak mempunyai keistimewaan yang berupa kelenturan, kesucian dan fitrah. Jika masa kanak-kanak ini dibangunkan dengan penjagaan , bimbingan dan arahan maka kelak kanak-kanak ini akan kukuh pegangannya dalam menghadapi hari depannya. Dalam mendidik kanak-kanak, Khayr Fatimah (1998: 202) dalam Abdul Salam (2003) beliau membahagikan peringkat umur kanak-kanak kepada tiga peringkat utama iaitu:

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1. antara masa bercerai susu iaitu fitam, 2 tahun sehingga umur 7 tahun,2. antara umur 7 tahun sehingga 10 tahun,3. antara umur 10 tahun sehingga baligh.

Pada peringkat umur ini, anak –anak perlulah diberikan asas pembinaan akidah, ibadah, akhlak, emosi, intelektual dan jasmani berdasarkan hadis Rasulullah, setiap manusia itu perlu dibekalkan dengan enam aspek pendidikan ini. Miqdad Yalchin (1983) dalam Ahmad Mohd Salleh (2003) menyatakan bahawa pendidikan akhlak sebagai satu usaha untk membina peribadi, masyarakat dan budaya yang baik. Terdapat banyak kaedah atau cara perlaksanaan sistem pendidikan di sebuah institusi keluarga. Namun kaedah pendidikan dengan menunjukkan contoh dan tauladan, dan pendidikan yang menekankan aspek kerohanian adalah dikira asas yang paling penting.

“ Wahai orang yang beriman peliharalah dirimu dan keluargamu dari api neraka yang berbahan manusia dan bau, sedangkan para penjaganya adalah para malaikat yang kasar dan keras , serta tidak pernah menderhakai Allah terhadap apa yang diperintahkan-Nya kepada mereka serta selalu mengerjakan apa yang diperintahkan”.

(At-Tahrim: 6)

Setiap Muslim haruslah mendidik diri dan keluarganya dengan cara memerintahkan mereka untuk mengerjakan kebaikan dan melarang mereka dari berbuat kejahatan.Kesolehan kedua orang tua merupakan teladan yang baik bagi anak, mempunyai pengaruh yang besar terhadap kejiwaaan anak. Apabila kedua orang tuanya mempunyai disiplin untuk bertakwa kepada Allah dan mengikuti jalan Allah, dan juga terus ada kerjasama antara ibu bapa untuk menunaikan perkara tersebut, maka anak-anak akan mengikut membesar dalam ketaatan dan berbakti kepada Allah kerana mencontohi kedua ibu bapanya.

Penerapan adab merupakan asas akhlak seseorang. Adab dimaksudkan sebagaai pergaulan yang baik. Penanaman adab kepada anak dan membiasakansehingga menjadi tabiat dan perangai itu lebih utama dan sangat penting dalam Islam. Pendidikan akhlak terhadap awal kanak-kanak yang disarankan dalam Islam ialah beradab terhadap kedua ibu bapa, adab terhadap ulama adab menghormati dan menghargai orang lain, adab persaudaraan, adab berjiran, adab meminta izin, adab makan dan adab dalam penampilan diri. Kesemua ini merupakan asas kepada pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-

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kanak dan mudah dicontohi sekiranya ibu bapa menerapkan dalam kehidupan sehariannya.

Pemilihan waktu yang tepat oleh kedua ibu bapa dalam memberikan bimbingan kepada anak-anak, memberikan pengaruh yang sangat besar agar nasihat yang diberikan memberikan kesan yang diharapkan. Pemilihan waku yang tepat akan memudahkan dan meringankan usaha dalam melakukan kegiatan mengajar. Jika ibu bapa mampu memilih waktu yang tepat , di mana anak mudah menerima bimbingan ibu bapanya, maka ketika itu ibu bapa akan dapat melaksanakan kegiatan pendidikan kepada anak-anak. Menurut Abdur Rahman Annahlawi (1995), Rasulullah SAW menyarankan tiga waktu yang tepat dalam membimbing anak-anak:i- Waktu berkelah, ketika dalam perjalanan dan di atas kenderaan. Rasululah SAW pernah mendukung anak ketika sedang berjalan .

Ini kerana pada masa itu, anak mudah mendapatkan pengaruh dari bimbingan yang diberikan oleh orang yang bersamanya.

ii- Waktu makan Pada waktu ini, seorang anak akan mulai lemah di hadapan keinginan

untuk makan sehingga terkadang dia melakukan perbuatan yang tidak baik atau tercela. Jika kedua iu bapanya tidak menemaninya ketika makan dan meluruskan kesalahan-kesalahan kereka, maka anak akan berperangai tidak baik.

iii- Ketika anak sedang sakit Sakit dapat membuatkan lentur hati orang dewasa yang kasar. Seorang

anak yang sedang sakit mempunyai dua kelembutan iaitu kelembutan fitrah keanakan itu sendiri dan juga fitrah kelembutan hati dan jiwa ketika dia sedang sakit. Dengan demikian, dia mudah untuk diluruskan segala kesalahannya.

Kajian-kajian Berkaitan Pembentukan Akhlak Awal kanak-kanak Penulisan ini bukan yang pertama kalinya berkaitan ibu bapa, namun ada beberapa kajian berkaitan pengaruh gaya asuhan ibu bapa terhadap akademik dan tingkahlaku remaja. Terdapat banyak kajian berkaitan contoh teladan dan model dalam pendidikan seperti kajian peranan guru sebagai role model atau contoh teladan kepada pelajar yang dijalankan oleh A. Halim Tamuri,Mohamad Khairul Azman Ajuhary (2010). Menurut Kamarul Azmi Jasmi (2007:31) corak pendidikan dan kebiasaan anak-anak sewaktu kecil sehingga remaja dijadikan kayu pengukur kepada pembentukan peribadi anak-anak apabila dewasa. Seorang dewasa yang beretika, berdisiplin dan

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berbudi bahasa adalah datang daripada kelompok kanak-kanak yang terdidik dengan etika, disiplin dan berbudi bahasa. Begitu juga sebaliknya, seorang dewasa yang kejam, ganas dan tidak beretika datangnya daripada kelompok kanak-kanak dan remaja yang terbiasa dengan persekitaran yang kejam, ganas dan tidak beretika

Terdapat beberapa kajian berkaitan gaya asuhan ibu bapa dan pencapaian akademik pelajar. Kajian oleh Nor Mazana Ismail (2001), dalam tesis sarjana beliau yang bertajuk Hubungan Di Antara Gaya Kepimpinan Ibu Bapa Dengan Pelanggaran Disiplin Pelajar-Pelajar Tingkatan Empat Di Sekolah Menengah Teknik Slim River, Perak menyatakan terdapat empat gaya kepimpinan ibu bapa iaitu gaya kepimpinan demokratik, gaya kepimpin autoritarian, gaya kepimpinan permissive-indulgent dan gaya kepimpinan permissive-neglectful. Daripada analisis data yang diperolehi, menunjukkan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara gaya kepimpinan ibu bapa dengan pelanggaran disiplin pelajar. Walau bagaimanapun, dalam penulisan ini, penulis akan memfokuskan kepada teladan ibu bapa ke arah pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak.

Kajian oleh Zakaria Stapa et al. (2012) membincangkan faktor-faktor persekitaran sosial yang boleh mempengaruhi pembentukan jati diri setiap individu. Faktor-faktor persekitaran sosial yang dikenal pasti memberikan kesan yang cukup signifikan dalam pembentukan jati diri individu adalah terdiri daripada ibu bapa, rakan sebaya, sekolah dan guru dan media massa. Amla et al.(2010) dalam kajiannya berkaitan Peranan Bapa dalam Pembangunan Sahsiah Remaja dan Implikasinya terhadap Nilai Kekeluargaan membentangkan hasil kajian yang penting iaitu penglibatan bapa agak baik, iaitu bertanggungjawab dari segi menyediakan kemudahan fizikal serta sokongan kepada ibu. Walau bagaimanapun, fokus penulis ialah melihat pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak berbanding kajian tersebut yang mengkaji perkembangan pembelajaran dan konsep kendiri remaja.

Secara keseluruhannya, penulis mendapati terdapat beberapa kajian lepas dan penulisan berkaitan tajuk kepimpinan ibu bapa dan akhlak remaja, namun masih terdapat kurang perbincangan berkaitan teladan ibu bapa dan hubungannya dengan pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak.. Justeru, adalah menjadi satu keperluan bagi membincangkan isu berkaitan pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak menerusi teladan ibu bapa dalam penulisan ini.

Konsep Teladan Ibu bapaAl-Quran dan Sunnah merupakan sumber panduan hidup dalam Islam. Asas kehidupan manusia itu mestilah berteraskan kepada asas akidah, ibadah dan juga akhlak sebagai panduan kehidupan. Firman Allah:

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“Kamu wahai (Muhammad) adalah sebaik-baik umat dilahirkan bagi (faedah) umat manusia, kerana kamu menyuruh berbuat segala perkara yang baik dan melarang kepada perkara yang salah. Serta kamu pula beriman kepada Allah”.

(Ali Imran, 3:110)

Kamarul Azmi Jasmi et al. (2007) menyatakan bahawa teknik uswah hasanah yang bermaksud contoh ikutan yang baik merupakan salah satu teknik pengajaran terhadap pendidikan Islam .Ini berdasarkan daripada firman Allah yang bermaksud:

“Demi sesungguhnya adalah bagi kamu pada diri Rasulullah itu uswah hasanah (contoh ikutan yang baik iaitu bagi orang yang sentiasa mengharapkan keredhaan Allah dan balasan baik hari Akhirat”.

(Al-Ahzab, 33:21)

Teknik ini adalah teknik utama yang digunakan Rasulullah SAW dalam pendidikan Islam. Penerapan pendidikan Islam yang dilaksanakan baginda mencapai kejayan yang baik kerana baginda sendiri menunjukkan contoh teladan dalam melaksanakan perkara yang hendak disampaikannya.Kaedah ini memudahkann kefahaman para sahabat terhadap pelaksanaan sesuatu amalan. Sebagai contoh, Rasulullah SAW mengajarkan tentang bagaimana tatacara berkenderaan kepada Saidina Ali r.a dan saidina Ali r.a pula mengajarkan secara lengkap kepada pelajarnya (Kamarul Azmi Jasmi 2007: 54).

Rasulullah SAW diutuskan Allah SWT sebagai suri teladan kepada umat manusia. Sebagai pemimpin dalam keluarga, ibubapa mestilah mencontohi akhlak Baginda Rasulullah SAW dalam segala aspek kehidupan ke arah membentuk anak-anak yang soleh serta berakhlak terpuji. Berkaitan peranan ibu bapa terhadap pendidikan anak-anak, Imam al-Ghazali mengatakan bahawa anak merupakan amanah bagi kedua orang tuanya. Jika dia dibiasakan dan diajarkan untuk berbuat kebaikan, maka dia akan membesar menjadi anak yang baik. Dengan begitu, kedua orang tuanya akan berbahagia di dunia dan akhirat. Sedangkan apabila dia dibiasakan berbuat jahat, dan dibiarkan begitu saja seperti membiarkan haiwan ternak, maka dia akan sengasara dan binasa. Malahan, dosanya akan dipikul oleh orang yang bertanggungjawab untuk mengurus dan walinya (Muhammad Nur Abdullah Hafiz Suaid ,2006).

Pendidikan keibubapaan menerusi ajaran Islam memperingatkan ibu bapa tentang peranan mereka sebagai khalifah dalam keluarga. Konsep khalifah mengangkat martabat ibu bapa sebagai pemimpin. Ibu bapa

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memimpin ahli keluarganya ke arah kebaikan dan menjauhkan mereka dari melakukan kejahatan. Ibu bapa mestilah menunjukkan teladan yang baik agar menjadi cerminan dan panduan hidup sejak dari awal kanak-kanak lagi. Para pakar pendidik menyatakan bahawa masa yang penting bagi kehidupan seseorang ialah pada masa kanak-kanak. Mereka berpandangan bahawa pada masa ini adalah membentuk masa depan seseorang manusia tersebut (Muhammad Baihaqi :2002).

Sabda Nabi Muhammad SAW:

Setiap bayi yang dilahirkan, dilahirkan dalam keadaan fitrah (Islam). Maka kedua orang tuanyalah yang menjadikan Yahudi, Nasrani atau Majusi.

(Hadith Riwayat Muslim).

Berdasarkan hadith tersebut, adalah menjadi kewajian bagi setiap ibu bapa untuk memberikan tunjuk ajar yang dapat memudahkan mereka untuk mendapatkan pendidikan yang layak. Ibu bapa mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat terhadap perkembangan psikologi anak.Dari ibu bapalah akan diambil contoh oleh anak-anaknya., dan mengikuti jejaknya. Oleh itu, apa yang diucapkan dan yang dilakukan akan selalu terkesan serta menjadi ikutan oleh anak-anaknya. Ibu bapa merupakan contoh teladan bagi anak-anakya. Oleh itu, ucapannya tidak boleh bertentangan dengan perbuatanya. Apabila mengajak sesuatu kebaikan , maka ibu bapa yang harus melakukannya terlebih dahulu agar dapat diikuti dan dicontohi anak-anak.

Sebelum membentuk tingkahlaku anak-anak, semestinya setiap ibu bapa itu perlulah melengkapkan dirinya dengan asas -asas Islam agar terbiasa dengan cara hidup Islam dan seterusnya diteladani dan menjadi ikutan oleh kanak-kanak dan masyarakat sekelillngnya. Muhammad Qutb dalam Ahmad Mohd Salleh (2003) menerangkan bahawa kualiti insan yang soleh ialah: a. Manusia yang beriman kepadaAllah dan membersihkan dirinya dari

unsur syirikb. Manusia yang melakukan amal soleh dalam seluruh kehidupannya

untuk dunia dan akhiratc. Manusia yang memiliki akhlak yang mulia hasil dariada iman dan amal

yang soleh.

Kewajipan ibubapa bukan sekadar menyediakan keperluan kebendaan malahan mencakupi pendidikan keimanan sebagai asas kehidupan kepada anak-anak. Ibubapa bertanggung jawab memberikan pendidikan yang sempurna kepada anak-anak terutamanya dalam menjalankan tanggung jawab

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kepada Allah, kepada diri dan juga masyarakat. Ibubapa merupakan contoh teladan yang sangat penting kepada kanak-kanak yang sedang membesar. Teladan yang ditunjukkan kepada oleh ibubapa akan meninggalkan kesan yang sangat mendalam (Muhammad Baihaqi ,2002) . Selain itu, dalam membentuk akhlak awal kanak-kanak, perkara utama yang perlu ditekankan ialah ibu bapa hendaklah:1. berpegang kepada akidah Islam,2. bergaul dengan sopan dan hormat agar anak dapat menghormati orang

lain,3. Menjauhkan diri dari perbuatan zalim dan berusaha untuk meluaskan

keadilan,4. bergaul dengan kasih sayang,5. melontarkan kata-kata yang baik dan tidak menggusarkan hati anak-

anak.

Keteladanan yang baik memberikan pengaruh yang besar terhadap jiwa kanak-kanak. Anak banyak meniru ibubapanya. Ibubapa perlulah menjadi teladan yang baik dalam kepada anak-anak terutama berkenaan akhlak di dalam bergaul dengan anak-anak.. Anak-anak akan selalu memerhatikan dan mengawasi perilaku orang dewasa. Mereka akan sentiasa mencontohi ibu bapa mereka kerana terbiasa melihat perkara sedemikian di dalam kehidupan seharian.. Sekranya ibu bapa berlaku jujur, maka mereka maka membesar dengan kejujuran. Demikian juga dalam perkara-perkara lain. Oleh itu, kedua ibubapa dituntut menerapkan perintah Allah sebagai amalan serta terus menambah amalan sunnah menurut kemampuan kerana anak-anak akan terus mengawasi dan meniru mereka setiap waktu. Ini kerana kemampuan anak-anak dalam menerima secara sedar taupun tidak sedar sangatlah tinggi tanpa kita sedari dan jangkakan.

Pengajaran dan pendidikan menjadi tidak berkesan apabila tindakan atau perilaku pendidik bertentangan dengan isi kandungan pengajarannya sendiri. Sebenarnya pengajaran melalui tindakan adalah lebih berkesan daripada pengajaran secara lisan. Peribahasa Melayu sendiri ada menyebutkan, “Jika guru kencing berdiri, murid kencing berlari”. Begitulah pentingnya kedudukan ibubapa sebagai pendidik awal dalam pembentukan diri anak-anak.

Dalam konteks keluarga pula, Abdur Rahman Annahlawi (1995) menyatakan bahawa ibu bapa adalah murabbi kepada anak-anak mereka setiap kali berlaku interaksi antara kedua-dua pihak. Dalam pendidikan di rumah, kedudukan ibubapa sebagai contoh teladan menjadi lebih penting kerana anak-anak lebih terdedah kepada peribadi dan tingkah laku ibubapanya dengan lebih dekat. Kita semua menyedari bahawa sungguh banyak pengajaran dan

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pengalaman yang diperolehi anak-anak melalui interaksi dengan ibu bapa mereka sejak hari pertama kelahiran lagi. Pengajaran dan pengalaman ini mungkin membina keperibadian mereka. Kanak-kanak kecil belajar melalui pengamatan dan meniru perlakuan dan tindak tanduk ibu bapanya. Melalui pengamatan, akan terbentuk sesuatu di dalam mental anak-anak dan akan menjadi satu pelajaran kepada mereka. Oleh itu sesuatu tingkah laku ibu bapa yang dilakukan secara berterusan akan membentuk proses pengukuhan dalam diri anak-anak dan akhirnya tindakan tersebut akan menjadi sebati dengan peribadi anak-anak.

Menurut Abdur Rahman Annahlawi (1995) menyatakan bahawa teladan ibu bapa dalam kehidupan kanak-kanak berlaku dalam dua situasi iaitu:a. Pengaruh langsung yang tak disengaja (spontan) Keberhasilan peneladanan ini banyak bergantung pada kualiti

kesungguhan tingkahlaku yang diteladankan. Dalam situasi ini, pengaruh teladan berjalan secara langsung tanpa sengaja. Ini bermaksud bahawa setiap orang diharapkan menjadi teladan hendaklah memelihara tingkah lakunya, disertai kesedaran bahawa ia bertanggung jawab dihadapan Allah dalam segala hal yang diikuti oleh orang lain. Anak-anak akan meniru teladan ibu bapa secara tidak langsung kerana terbiasa melihat perlakuan ibu bapa mereka dalam urusan kehidupan seharian. Sebagai contoh, sekiranya ibubapa berinteraksi dengan lemah lembut terhadap anak-anak maka anak-anak juga akan terbiasa mengikut perilaku ibu bapa mereka dan berinteraksi dengan masyarakat dengan cara yang sopan dan lemah lembut.

b. Pengaruh yang sengaja Peneladanan ini dilakukan secara sengaja ataupun bertujuan. Sebagai

contoh, sekiranya ibu bapa ingin menerapkan solat sebagai ibadah wajib kepada anak-anak maka ibu bapa akan mengajar dan menerangkan cara bersolat dan kepentingan solat itu sendiri. Maka, anak-anak akan mengikut perlakuan tersebut atas dasar ajaran secara langsung daripada ibu bapa mereka sendiri.

Dapatlah kita simpulkan di sini bahawa keteladanan ibu bapa ini berlaku secara langsung dan tidak langsung terutamanya mencakupi aspek percakapan dan perbuatan dalam kehidupan seharian. Aspek perbuatan yang dilakukan secara berulangkali ternyata memberi kesan yang lebih mendalam dan semakin dekat untuk diikuti dan memberi kesan kepada pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak.

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Pembentukan Akhlak Awal Kanak-Kanak : Isu dan CabaranMenurut Abdullah Nasih Ulwan (1988:58) pendidikan akhlak awal kanak-kanak melalui teladan ini juga, mengikut tahap atau peringkat. Mula-mula anak-anak akan terikut dengan contoh daripada ibu bapa mereka kemudian, teman-teman ,guru dan seterusnya dari anak-anak yang lebih tua usia darinya.Justeru, ibu bapa perlulah memainkan peranan yang sangat penting dalam mengambil inti pati dan mengamalkan semua yang telah diajarkan oleh Rasulullah saw dalam mengikutpelbagai cara atau kaedah yang telah disampaikan kepada kita untuk mendidik anak-anak sejak dari kecil lagi.

Antara contoh teladan yang telah ditunjukkan juga oleh Rasulullah dalam menzahirkan sifat-sifat mulia Baginda ialah dalam ibadatnya, kemurahan hatinya, sifat zuhud dan tawaduknya , sopan santun, ketegasan dan keberanian, dan belas kasihan Rasulullah kepada anak-anak yang boleh dijadikan contoh oleh ibu bapa dalam memberikan pendidikan Islam dalam jiwa anak-anak. Tambahan lagi, menjadikan Rasulullah sebagai ikutan juga merupakan pilihan yang utama kerana Rasulullah sendiri telah diutuskan oleh Allah bertujuan untuk menjadi teladan yang baik bagi kaum Muslimin.Allah juga telah meletakkan semua sifat-sifat mulia di dalam peribadi Nabi Muhammad s.a.w. sebagai lambang dasar Islam, agar generasi akan datang dapat mencontohi kesemua sifat-sifat Baginda Nabi Muhammad s.a.w. (Abdullah Nasih Ulwan 1990:142) .

Nabi Muhammad s.a.w mengingatkan sesiapa yang memikul tugas pendidikan , supaya mengambil teladan yang baik dalam segala sesuatu yang boleh memberikan gambaran yang baik kepada orang yang dididiknya , supaya mereka dapat menurut segala kelakuan dengan sifat yang terpuji dan mulia ,mengikut nasihat-nasihat dengan berkesan dan perhatian yang jelas serta perilaku mereka selari dengan syariat Islam. Justeru Rasulullah merupakan contoh ikutan yang baik oleh ibu bapa dalam mendidik anak-anak dalam membina rumah tangga bahagia (Abdullah Nasih Ulwan 1990:142).

Walau bagaimanapun terdapat cabaran yang dihadapi ibu bapa dalam membentuk akhlak awal kanak-kanak memandangkan terdapat pengaruh-pengaruh luar yang turut serta dalam menghakis pembentukan akhlak anak-anak. Pendedahan anak-anak kepada media elektronik terutamanya siri animasi yang berunsur hiburan duniawi dan berbentuk keganasan akan melunturkan sikap kelembutan yang ada pada diri kanak-kanak tersebut. Penggunaan gajet-gajet terkini juga menyekat perkembangan sosial anak-anak untuk berinteraksi dengan masyarakat sekeliing dan menjadikan anak-anak tersebut sebagai seorang individualistik.

Tuntutan hidup dan desakan ekonomi masa kini menyebabkan kedua ibu bapa keluar mencari rezeki manakala anak-anak ditinggalkan di pusat

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asuhan kanak-kanak.Di sini, pengaruh rakan sebaya terutamanya ketika bersama rakan di taman asuhan atau pusat penjagaan kanak-kanak ketika ibu bapa bekerja juga dapat mempengaruhi tingkahlaku dan akhlak kanak-kanak. Faktor kesibukan ibu bapa juga memainkan peranan dalam pembentukan akhlak awal aknak-kanak di mana terdapat situasi kedua ibu bapa bekerja serta tiada masa untuk berinteraksi dengan anak-anak menyebabkan anak-anak sering ditnggalkan dan diasuh oleh penjaga atau pembantu rumah. Segala perilaku orang yang paling hampir dengan mereka akan dicontohi saban hari dan membentuk peribadi dan tingkahlaku anak-anak itu sendiri.Faktor persekitaran juga memainkan peranan dalam pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak di mana ibu bapa juga didapati tiada kemahiran keibubapaan positif bagi menangani atau memenuhi keperluan anak-anak ini seperti yang diharapkan.

Oleh yang demikian, ibu bapa perlulah memperuntukkan masa yang berkualiti dalam berinteraksi dengan anak-anak agar terlahir bentuk teladan yang dapat dicontohi anak-anak dalam proses pembentukan akhlak seiring dengan pertumbuhan fizikal, mental dan emosi anak-anak tersebut.

RUMUSANAspek pembinaan institusi keluarga sesungguhnya merupakan isu yang melibatkan hampir setiap individu yang telah berumah tangga. Masalah kekeluargaan khususnya cabaran dan peranan dalam mendidik anak-anak adalah merupakan perkara yang amat penting dalam kehidupan berkeluarga. Oleh kerana itu, institusi kekeluargaan merupakan unit yang terkecil bagi sesebuah negara dan ummah. Jika keluarga itu kuat, maka kuatlah negara dan ummah. Sebagaimana kata-kata hukama’, “Binalah kerajaan Islam di dalam diri sendiri, sebelum anda membina kerajaan Islam di dalam keluarga. Binalah kerajaan Islam dalam keluarga, sebelum anda membina kerajaan Islam di dalam masyarakat.”

Ibu bapa selaku pemimpin mestilah menyedari sebenar-benarnya bahawa tugas mendidik dan mentarbiyah anak-anak dengan didikan agama dan akhlak Islam adalah merupakan tugas murni yang amat dituntut dan ianya merupakan salah satu ibadat yang tinggi dan mulia di sisi Allah SWT.

Justeru, diharapkan dengan penulisan ini, akan membantu ibu bapa memberi ruang dan masa agar dapat menbentuk akhlak anak-anak dengan contoh teladan yang baik secara optimum walaupun dalam kesuntukan masa dan desakan hidup yang semakin meruncing pada masa kini. Sesungguhya masa bersama anak-anak itu merupakan detik berharga dalam membentuk akhlak anak-anak sebagai aset kita agar menjadi generasi yang soleh

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dapat berbakti kepada ibu bapa, keluarga, masyarakat, agama dan negara. Sewajarnya, isu pembentukan akhlak awal kanak-kanak ini patut dipandang serius dan mendapat pehatian daripada pihak berwajib berkaitan isu pendidikan awal kanak-anak Islam. Maka, dapatlah disimpulkan bahawa terdapat keperluan untuk membangunkan satu modul dan model pendidikan akhlak awal kanak-kanak di rumah yang menyeluruh dengan melibatkan peranan ibu bapa dan institusi masyarakat dalam pendidikan kanak-kanak di usia dini berdasarkan perbincangan di atas.

RUJUKANAl-Quran al-KarimAbdur Rahman Annahlawi.(1995).Pendidikan Islam di Rumah, Sekolah

danMasyarakat. Jakarta:Gema Insani Press.Abdullah Nasih Ulwan .(1988). Pedoman Pendidikan Anak Dalam Islam

Jilid 1-2.Saifullah Abdullah Nasih Ulwan .(1993).Pendidikan Anak-anak dalam Islam Jilid 2.

Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd: Singapura Abdul Salam Muhamad Shukri. (2003). Panduan Mengajar Aaqidah kepada

Kanak-Kanak.Pahang : PTS Publication & Distributors Sdn Bhd.Ahmad Mohd Salleh.(2003). Pendidikan Islam, Falsafah Sejarah dan Kaedah

Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran . Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar BaktiAmla Salleh, Zahara Aziz, Zuria Mahmud dan Abd. Aziz Mahyuddin (2010)

,Peranan Bapa dalam Pembangunan Sahsiah Remaja dan Implikasinya terhadap Nilai Kekeluargaan , Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia 35(2)(2010): 9-17.

Kamarul Azmi Jasmi, Ab. Halim Tamuri.(2007). Pendidikan Islam Kaedah Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran. Johor:Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

Muhammad Nur Abdullah Hafiz Suaid,(2006). Didik Anak Cara Rasulullah SAW, Kuala Lumpur: Klang Book Centre.

Muhammad . Baihaqi .(2002).Pesanan Untuk Para Ibu Menangani Masalah Anak Nakal. Kuala Lumpur: Al-Hidayah Publishers.

Nor Mazana Ismail (2001), Hubungan Di Antara Gaya Kepimpinan Ibu Bapa Dengan Pelanggaran Disiplin Pelajar-Pelajar Tingkatan Empat Di Sekolah Menengah Teknik Slim River, Perak. Tesis Sarjana. Fakulti Teknologi Kejuruteraan Kolej Universiti Teknologi Tun Hussein Onn.

Zakaria Stapa, Ahmad Munawar Ismail dan Noranizah Yusuf (2012), Faktor Pesekitaran Sosial dan Hubunganya Dengan Pembentukan Jati Diri,Fakulti Pengajian Islam, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,Social Environmental Factors and Their Relation to Identity Formation, Jurnal Hadhari Special Edition (2012) 155-172.

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KEPERLUAN NILAI ETIKA DAN AKHLAK: PERSPEKTIF PENDIDIKAN KEMAHIRAN

Abdul Muqsith Ahmad*, Zaharah Husin (PhD), Farazila Yusof, Saedah Siraj (PhD), Siti Syahidah Mohd Rum,

Mohd Ridhuan Mohd Jamil & Maisarah A MalikFakulti PendidikanUniversiti Malaya

[email protected]

AbstrakPembangunan modal insan sering menjadi perkara yang diutamakan dalam setiap dasar yang digubal umumnya pada dasar negara dan khususnya pada dasar pendidikan negara. Pembangunan secara menyeluruh hanya dapat dicapai melalui pendidikan. Pendidikan adalah mendium yang tepat di mana pelajar sedang melalui satu proses yang komprehensif dan menyeluruh bukan sekadar menimba pengetahuan, malah ia juga melibatkan proses yang membentuk diri serta mempersiapkan diri pelajar dengan tata susila yang tinggi sebelum memasuki dunia pekerjaan. Mutakhir ini, masyarakat dibimbangkan dengan pelbagai permasalahan berkaitan sosial tidak kira dari golongan professional mahupun golongan bahawan. Hal ini ekoran kurangnya penerapan nilai-nilai yang boleh membantu serta memandu mereka kearah jalan yang betul. Justeru itu, kertas ini menerangkan serta membincangkan berkaitan pendidikan kemahiran, etika dan akhlak serta kepentingannya dalam usaha melahirkan seorang individu yang baik. Beberapa cadangan turut dicadangkan bagi mengatasi permasalahan ini.

Kata Kunci: Nilai, Etika, Akhlak, Pendidikan Kemahiran

PENGENALANPolemik masalah-masalah sosial kini sering mendapat perhatian di media massa sejak akhir-akhir ini (Shazaitul Azreen & Maisarah, 2016). Bagi

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mengatasi permasalahan ini, pelbagai bentuk usaha kearah penyelesaian dikemukan beberapa agensi samada sekolah, kementerian mahupun di peringkat pentadbiran tertinggi negara. Rentetan itu, jelas dilihat bahawa penekanan terhadap aspek modal insan dikemukakan bersama setiap dasar-dasar baru yang diperkenalkan oleh kerajaan. Bagi mencapai sebuah negara maju dan berjaya, pembangunan modal insan haruslah diberikan perhatian yang cukup serius (Aishah, Junaida & Mahadir, 2012). Dalam usaha kearah negara maju, salah satu keperluan yang perlu dipenuhi adalah bilangan tenaga mahirnya (Rancangan Malaysia ke 11). Namun begitu, permasalahan yang melanda kini adalah merosotnya kualiti tenaga kerja. Kemerosotan ini berlaku disebabkan oleh kebergantungan negara terhadap buruh yang tidak mahir seterusnya menyebabkan berlakunya krisis kewangan dan ekonomi. Penegasan oleh Norhayati, Ishak dan Rahmah (2012) menyatakan bahawa hasil daripada kebergantungan negara terhadap buruh tidak mahir terutamanya buruh dari negara asing telah mengakibatkan kadar pengangguran yang tinggi dan menjadikan pasaran buruh yang tidak menentu. Perkara ini dapat dilihat hasil daripada permintaan yang tinggi oleh syarikat-syarikat tempatan dengan membawa masuk tenaga buruh dari luar (Siti Rohayu, Rahmah & Norlin, 2014). Secara jelas dapat dirumuskan bahawa negara kekurangan tenaga tempatan yang sangat mendesak terutamanya dalam bidang professional dan teknikal lalu menyebabkan kelembapan ekonomi. Namun begitu, kemasukan tenaga buruh asing ini kebanyakannya tidak menepati kemahiran yang diperlukan oleh industri dan ia tidak menyelesaikan permasalahan sedia ada.

Jika disorot kembali kajian yang dilakukan oleh Muhammad Hazrul (2012), terdapat beberapa kelemahan yang telah dikenal pasti di lakukan oleh para graduan yang baru memulakan kerjaya mereka. Rata-rata syarikat tempatan memberi maklum balas bahawa kebanyakan pekerja baru warga tempatan mempunyai kekurangan dalam berfikir secara kritis terutamanya dalam menganalisis dan menyelesaikan masalah. Kita sedia maklum bahawa pekerja baru kebanyakannya cetek pengalaman dan kebanyakan mereka tiada daya kompeten. Bagi melatih mereka, industri memerlukan modal yang besar dalam menyediakan latihan pekerja (Mustafa, et. al., 2010). Selain itu juga, aspek yang perlu ditekankan adalah kemahiran-kemahiran sampingan iaitu kemahiran insaniah termasuklah etika, moral dan akhlak pelajar Pengukuhan ini disokong oleh International Employer Barometer (IEB) (2008) dimana dalam kajiannya mendapati dalam menggaji pekerja, majikan cenderung melihat kebolehan berkomunikasi beserta ciri-ciri personal yang baik bakal pekerja berbanding akademik. Ini menjelaskan keperluan nilai-nilai ini diterapkan ke dalam diri pelajar. Penekanan ini juga turut terkandung dalam Pelan Induk Latihan Dan Pembangunan Kemahiran Pekerjaan Malaysia

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(2008-2020) dimana telah disebut bahawa pelajar yang akan dihasilkan bukan sahaja mahir berpengetahuan malah baik budi pekertinya.

Dalam konteks artikel ini, pengkaji melihat perlunya di tekankan aspek etika dan akhlak ditekankan. Secara jelasnya, kedua-dua elemen ini menjadi teras kepada pembangunan modal insan dan ianya dilihat sebagai remeh oleh sesetengah pihak. Namun dari sudut pengkaji, dua elemen ini mampu memberikan impak yang cukup besar seterusnya mampu untuk menghasilkan modal insan yang mampu berdaya saing. Pengukuhan yang sama turut dinyatakan oleh Mustapha Kamal, Zahiah dan Abdullah (2010) bahawa perlunya seseorang manusia itu mempunyai kualiti yang tinggi dimana tiga unsur utama iaitu akal, rohani dan jasmani haruslah disuburkan dan disegarkan. Hal ini menjelaskan bahawa keseimbangan terhadap segala aspek harus diberi penekanan bagi malahirkan modal insan yang baik. Telah banyak sarjana-sarjana Islam yang telah menghuraikan konsep berkaitan etika dan akhlak secara spesifiknya (Abdul Muqsith et. al., 2016)

Nilai EtikaKajian asal usul dan sejarah perkataan etika adalah berasal dari greek

iaitu ethos dan ethikos. Ethos membawa maksud sifat, kebiasaan, watak dan adat yang baik manakala ethikos pula membawa maksud kelakuan, perbuatan, dan adab yang baik (Abd Haris, 2007). Kamus Dewan Bahasa edisi keempat mendefinisikan etika sebagai prinsip moral atau nilai-nilai akhlak (adab sopan santun dan sebagainya) yang menjadi pegangan seseorang individu atau sesuatu kumpulan manusia. Namun secara terminologi pula, etika bermaksud pengetahuan yang membincangkan berkenaan baik dan buruk serta kebenaran dan kebatilan tindakan dan tingkahlaku manusia selaras nilai-nilai kewajipan setiap manusia.

Terdapat beberapa pandangan berkenaan defisini yang tepat mengenai etika dan akhlak di mana Zaharah, Abu Daud, dan Nazri (2009) memberi penegasan bahawa etika merupakan keupayaan seseorang manusia dalam membezakan perkara betul dan salah berdasarkan pertimbangan pemikiran dan akhirnya melakukan perkara yang betul. Namun begitu, penakrifan yang berbeza dinyatakan oleh Roziah, Zulkarnain, Nasruddin (2011) yang menghujahkan bahawa etika adalah suatu sistem tingkah laku manusia yang bersumberkan kepada daya pemikiran manusia itu sendiri. Berdasarkan Hamzah (1985) pula, etika bermaksud satu ilmu dalam menyelidik pelakuan baik dan buruk dengan memerhatikan tingkahlaku manusia menggunakan akal fikiran. Etika juga merupakan persoalan berkenaan kebaikan dan keburukan dan juga tujuan pelakuan sesuatu perkara. Ia juga merangkumi prinsip akhlak dan moral dimana ianya menjadi pegangan seseorang idividu

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atau kumpulan tertentu (Ajmain, Aminudin, Ahmad Marzuki & Idris, 2013). Hal yang sama turut dipersetujui oleh sarjana lain di mana etika merupakan disiplin yang bertindak sebagai indeks prestasi atau rujukan bagi mengawal sesuatu sistem (Martin, 1994). Konteks yang berbeza, di dalam setiap kajian pastinya terdapat teori yang mendasari kajian. Pengkaji melihat aspek etika berdasarkan teori virtue ethics yang di perkenalkan oleh aristotles. Hal ini kerana tokoh tersohor ini menyebut bahawa terdapat beberapa elemen yang mampu menyuburkan keharmonian sesebuah masyarakat selagi ianya mengekalkan nilai-nilai yang baik seperti kejujuran, keadilan, keberanian/semangat serta kesederhanaan dan ianya diperlukan dalam menentukan kestabilan kehidupan yang baik (Strike dan Moss, 2006). Gambaran yang lebih jelas mengenai elemen ini dengan merujuk rajah 1.

Virtue ethics ( Aristotles ) 384-322 B.C

Kejujuran Keadilan Keberanian Kesederhanaan

Rajah 1:Elemen-elemen dalam virtue ethics (Khalidah, Rohani dan Mashitah, 2010)

Walaupun teori yang di perkenalkan ini agak lama, namun ianya mampu menjawab soalan asas berkaitan etika dimana tindakan di ambil oleh seseorang itu menjadikan siapa dia di kemudian hari. Hal ini adalah berasaskan akhlak yang baik, motif pelakuan dan juga nilai-nilai teras (Weiss, 2006). Di samping itu juga, teori ini selaras dengan apa yang digariskan di dalam Al-Quran dan As-sunnah yang dinyatakan dalam dalam hadis sahih bukhari (Khalidah, Rohani dan Mashitah, 2010). Namun begitu, terdapat juga artikel yang memilih untuk menggunakan beberapa nilai-nilai moral yang di terima secara universal ; integriti, kejujuran, hormat, kawalan diri dan juga keberanian (Jennings, 2006).

Oleh yang demikian, jika disorot kembali definisi yang dinyatakan oleh para sarjana, maka terdapat kontradiksi dalam memperihalkan berkenaan aspek etika namun pengkaji menyimpulkan bahawa etika merupakan satu pelakuan yang memerlukan manusia berfikir menggunakan akal fikiran seterusnya menghasilkan sesuatu tindakan yang baik atau buruk berlandaskan kaca mata masyarakat umumnya.

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Kepentingan serta Kajian Mengenai EtikaKepentingan kajian terhadap aspek etika dapat dilihat melalui kajian-kajian yang telah dilakukan oleh pengkaji terdahulu. Penyataan yang diberikan oleh Weisul dan Merrit (2002) menyatakan ‘pelajar hari ini mungkin menjadi penjenayah di masa hadapan’ harus difikirkan secara serius oleh semua pihak berkepentingan. Penyataan yang cukup mendalam ini memberi makna yang cukup jelas bahawa perlunya diterapkan aspek etika dalam sistem pendidikan pada hari ini. Kepentingan ini harus disegerakan memandangkan etika pelajar kini mampu memberi kesan terhadap masa depan sesebuah negara (Aishah, Junaida & Mahadir, 2012).

Jika dilihat di peringkat global, terdapat laporan kajian menyatakan 70% pelajar di institusi pendidikan tinggi di Romania mengamalkan tingkah laku yang tidak beretika (Iorga, Ciuhodaru, Romedea, 2013). Selain itu, bukti-bukti yang diterima menunjukkan permasalahan ini sentiasa meningkat dari semasa ke semasa (Simkin and Mcleod, 2010). Hal yang sama turut dilaporkan oleh Lin dan Wen (2007) dimana 61.72% pelajar mengaku pernah melakukan kesalahan akademik sekurang-kurangnya sekali sepanjang pengajian mereka seperti datang lambat, membantu rakan meniru tugasan, menipu dalam peperiksaan dan lain-lain lagi. Manakala, Jumoke (2014) menegaskan dalam dapatan kajiannya bahawa 80% pelajar kejuruteraan akan melakukan sekali kesalahan terhadap akademik sepanjang pengajiannya.

Dalam konteks kajian yang dijalankan di pusat pengajian dalam negara pula, kajian-kajian terdahulu menunjukkan beberapa dapatan yang sama di peringkat global. Hal ini dinyatakan dalam kajian oleh Khalidah, Rohani dan Mashitah (2010) di Intitut Pengajian Tinggi Swasta (IPTS) dimana dapatan kajian yang diperoleh mendapati bahawa kelakuan pelajar terhadap aspek tidak beretika adalah tinggi. Selari dengan kajian yang dijalankan oleh Abdul Muqsith et. al., (2016) dimana kajiannya terhadap pelajar seni mushaf di Kolej Restu mendapati bahawa secara keseluruhannya menunjukkan penglibatan pelajar terhadap kelakuan yang tidak beretika adalah sangat tinggi dengan mencatatkan 62.94%. Ditegaskan juga bahawa pelajar seni mushaf ini cenderung untuk melakukan kelakuan yang tidak beretika sekurang-kurangnya sekali sepanjang pengajiannya. Dapatan ini berbeza dengan dapatan yang diperoleh Shazaitul Azreen dan Maisarah (2016) dimana kajiannya terhadap para pelajar di Universiti Awam Malaysia mendapati bahawa kesedaran pelajar terhadap aspek beretika bervariasi iaitu campuran antara tinggi dan rendah. Namun begitu, kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa pelajar kejuruteraan mempunyai tahap kesedaran yang rendah berbanding pelajar aliran sains dan sosial sains.

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Manakala itu, kajian serupa turut dijalankan oleh Shahrulanuar et. al., (2011) di mana kajiannya di Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) mendapati bahawa beberapa kekangan dan halangan yang perlu di atasi dalam menerapkan aspek etika iaitu kurangnya bahan rujukan, tiada garis panduan yang jelas dalam menilai aspek nilai, moral dan etika, kekurangan prasana serta persekitaran yang menggalakkan pembangunan etika dan moral pelajar, dan dinyatakan bahawa kebanyakan kursus menekankan aspek teknikal berbanding aspek etika. Kepentingan penerapan elemen etika diperkukuhkan lagi dengan kajian yang dijalankan oleh Cheng Ooi dan Michelle (2014) dalam kajiannya dimana dapatan yang diperoleh menunjukkan perlunya bengkel berkenaan aspek etika dibangunkan. Hal ini kerana ia memberikan impak yang positif kepada pelajar sebagai persediaan sebagai manusia yang beretika. Penegasan yang sama turut dinyatakan oleh Balakrishnan, Er dan Visvanathan (2013) dimana pendidikan serta isu-isu sosio etika mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat ke atas pengetahuan, kemahiran serta sikap dalam kajiannya terhadap pelajar kejuruteraan nanoteknologi.

Selain daripada sektor pendidikan, sektor awam turut menekankan aspek etika dalam pekerjaan. Hal ini boleh dilihat dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh Roslan dan Nik Rosnah (2008) terhadap pendidikan etika, moral dan integriti dalam organisasi sektor awam di Malaysia dimana dapatan kajian yang diperoleh menunjukkan pekerja di sektor awam mempunyai kesedaran yang cukup rendah dan kurang memberangsangkan. Dapatan ini secara tidak langsung menguatkan lagi keperluan elemen etika dalam setiap profesion dan hal ini juga perlu di titik beratkan dalam persekitaran pekerjaan atau pembelajaran serta proses pengambilan kerja. Pendapat ini berpadanan dengan kajian yang di jalankan oleh Lawson (2004) dimana hasil dapatannya mendapati hubungan yang kuat di antara kelakuan yang tidak beretika ketika belajar dengan tingkah laku yang tidak beretika ketika bekerja. Manakala itu, terdapat beberapa komponen telah dikenal pasti sebagai asas kepada aspek etika iaitu hormat sesama pelajar, keselamatan dan kesihatan pelajar, privasi pelajar, kegagalan menyediakan bahan yang bermanfaat kepada pelajar dan sebagai balasan memberikan markah yang baik kepada pelajar, kepercayaan dan rasa hormat pelajar, toleransi dan keterbukaan, penampilan, tidak meggunakan kemudahan tempat belajar untuk kepentingan peribadi dan mengelakkan jenaka yang tidak sesuai (Mohsen dan Farzin, 2014).

Jika disorot kembali kajian-kajian terdahulu, pengkaji mendapati tiada kajian terdahulu yang mengkaji penerapan aspek etika dijalankan di mana-mana institusi kemahiran di Malaysia. Kelompongan ini seharusnya diisi bagi melihat serta membandingkan dapatan kajian dengan dapatan kajian yang terdahulu. Penegasan yang di buat oleh Roncin (2013) dalam

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kajiannya menyatakan bahawa etika bukan sahaja mendidik sikap serta tingkah laku malah ia mengajar bagaimana menyelesaikan masalah dengan meminimumkan kesan buruk terhadap alam, masyarakat serta mengutamakan keselamatan umum. Kajian-kajian terdahulu juga menunjukkan keperluan menerapkan konsep etika dalam kursus yang ditawarkan. Kajian-kajian lepas samada dari luar mahupun dalam negara menunjukkan bahawa etika seharusnya diberikan fokus yang serius dalam membentuk pelajar yang bukan sahaja kompeten malah baik perilakunya.

Nilai AkhlakDefinisi akhlak yang ditakrifkan oleh Roziah et. al., (2011) menyatakan bahawa akhlak merupakan nilai yang perlu diberi perhatian khususnya aspek rohani dan jasmani. Manakala, hujah Ibn Miskawaih (1398) pula menegaskan bahawa akhlak adalah satu perbuatan manusia yang di lakukan dengan mudah tanpa perlu menggunakan akal dan pemikiran kerana ianya telah tertanam di dalam jiwa. Pandangan yang berbeza pula dinyatakan Ibrahim Mustafa t.th. dimana akhlak di definisikan sebagai satu perbuatan yang zahir menerusi latihan dan didikan sehingga perbuatan itu menjadi kebiasaan. Sebagai seorang muslim, kita harus mencontohi akhlak Rasulullah SAW sebagaimana firman Allah bermaksud :

Dan sesungguhnya kamu benar-benar berbudi pekerti (khuluq) yang agung. (Ayat Al-Qalam : 4)

Perkara ini dikukuhkan lagi dengan penyataan oleh Aisyah r.a dimana akhlak Rasulullah adalah Al-Quran. Hal ini jelas menggambarkan bahawa al-Quran dan al-Sunnah secara dasarnya menjadi sandaran akhlak. Namun, jika di amati dan dibincangkan, skop bidang ini amat luas sehingga meliputi perbuatan zahir dan batin serta perbuatan zahir manusia (Aminudin & Jamsari, 2012). Kajian terdahulu terhadap bidang akhlak telah banyak dilakukan. Hal ini dibuktikan melalui sejarah dimana jatuh bangunnya sesuatu bangsa dan negara itu berkait rapat dengan akhlak (Hamid et. al., 2004). Oleh hal demikian, perlunya kita membentuk akhlak generasi muda pada masa kini untuk dijadikan bekalan untuk masa hadapan (Fuad Nasar, 1992). Hasil pembentukan akhlak yang mantap terhadap generasi muda, ianya mampu dijadikan benteng kepada umat islam seterusnya menghindarkan mereka terpesong dari landasan agama islam. Umat Islam perlu kembali menyemarak serta menyuburkan Islam sebagaimana yang diajar dan dilakukan oleh Rasulullah S.A.W dan para sahabatnya. Sebagaimana riwayat Imam Malik :

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“Tidaklah berjaya umat akhir zaman ini melainkan mereka berpegang dengan apa yang dipegang dari generasi pertama”.

Hasil daripada kajian yang dijalankan oleh pengkaji, sarjana-sarjana muslim melalui falsafahnya kebanyakan menyatakan perlunya di tekankan pembangunan jiwa ini berlandaskan Al-Quran dan Al-Sunnah. Didikan akhlak ini harus dimulakan bermula dari peringkat kanak-kanak lagi. Namun begitu, pengkaji merumuskan bahawa terdapat beberapa perkara yang perlu menjadi tunjang kepada pembentukan akhlak ini. Hal ini selari dengan Zaharah (2008) dimana pembentukan akhlak terutamanya dalam pendidikan harus bertunjangkan kepada empat domain iaitu hubungan dengan Allah, hubungan dengan manusia, hubungan dengan diri sendiri dan juga hubungan dengan diri sendiri. Domain-domain ini adalah berlandaskan oleh Al-Ghazali dalam kitabnya Ihya Ullumuddin (Khairani, 2012). Rajah 2 menunjukkan domain-domain yang terdapat dalam pembentukan akhlak menurut al-Ghazali.

Rajah 2: Domain-domain pembentukan akhlak menurut al-Ghazali (Zaharah, 2009)

Jika diimbas kembali, dapat disimpulkan secara ringkas bahawa akhlak adalah perbuatan yang telah tertanam kuat di dalam diri seseorang sehingga menjadi kebiasaan, perbuatan yang di buat tanpa perlu pemikiran, tiada paksaan, dilakukan secara rela dan bersungguh-sungguh, ikhlas kerana melakukan ibadah kepada Allah dan seterusnya melahirkan perbuatan yang baik dan buruk (Saedah, 2003 ; Zaharah 2005 ; Hairuddin, 2013). Justeru itu, penegasan oleh Abdul Salam (2010) menyatakan keutamaan harus diberikan

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terhadap semua disiplin ilmu dalam menerapkan nilai-nilai etika, moral dan akhlak. Hal ini kerana seseorang berperanan dan bertindak secara rasional apabila nilai-nilai positif dan murni ini ditanamkan ke dalam diri dan secara tidak langsung dapat menangani segala permasalahan yang dihadapi.

Kepentingan serta Kajian Mengenai AkhlakDalam konteks islam, akhlak adalah teras kepada pembangunan diri (Zainudin & Norazmah, 2011). Oleh yang demikian, pendidikan agama harus ditanamkan di dalam setiap diri anak-anak agar dapat membantu mebentuk perkembangan diri yang positif serta mempunyai nilai-nilai murni di dalam jiwa mereka. Pelbagai kajian terdahulu dijalankan berkaitan akhlak bukan sahaja di peringkat domestik malah di peringkat global (Fauziah et.al., 2012). Hal ini mengukuhkan lagi kepentingan pembangunan akhlak terutamanya kepada para pelajar remaja. Hal ini bagi meningkatkan imej, kualiti hidup, jati diri dimana ia seharusnya menjadi agenda utama Negara.

Hasil sorotan literatur yang dijalankan oleh pengkaji, kebanyakan kajian menumpukan kepada pembentukan akhlak bermula di peringkat sekolah lagi. Hal ini memberikan satu persepsi kepada pengkaji dimana pengkaji mendapati kadar permasalahan tingkah laku pelajar di sekolah berada pada tahap yang tinggi. Hal ini di buktikan dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh Khalim dan Wan Zulkifli (2009) menyatakan bahawa di Malaysia, masalah tingkah laku pelajar sering menjadi perhatian di media massa sehingga ianya terus di perdebatkan oleh pihak berkepentingan dan masyarakat seolah-seolah tiada berpenghujung. Di peringkat global, masalah tingkah laku pelajar menjadi isu yang hangat diperkatakan seawal 1980-an. Hal ini dibuktikan oleh kajian yang di jalankan oleh Englander (1987) dimana dapatan kajian mendapati bahawa 80 % masa guru telah diperuntukkan untuk menguruskan kes-kes pelajar. Ini bermakna kadar masalah tingkah laku pelajar adalah tinggi dan ianya telah bermula lebih awal. Hal yang sama turut di catatkan di Malaysia secara khususnya institusi kemahiran dimana kajian yang dijalankan oleh Normarina (2015) terhadap pensyarah Kolej Vokasional di Johor mendapati bahawa tahap stres dalam kalangan pensyarah berada pada tahap tinggi. Dinyatakan juga dalam kajiannya bahawa antara faktor penyumbang kepada stres dikalangan para pensyarah adalah disiplin dan tingkah laku pelajar.

Di peringkat domestik pula, kajian berkaitan akhlak begitu banyak dijalankan oleh para sarjana. Kupasan mengenai konsep, definisi remaja dan belia, konsep akhlak, konsep akidah dan hubunganya dengan tingkah laku manusia. Penegasan dibuat oleh Rohana dan Norhusni (2014) menyatakan tingkah laku yang positif adalah berhubung kait serta didorong oleh amalan

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dan penerapan nilai-nilai akhlak dan akidah. Kepentingan dalam memantapkan nilai yang ada dalam diri melalui kerohanian perlu dalam membentuk tingkah laku yang positif dan baik. Hasil kajian yang dijalankan Khairani (2013) pula menunjukkan bahawa kaedah pembangunan akhlak menurut al-Ghazali boleh digunapakai dan di amalkan oleh golongan pengajar dalam program tarbiah sekolah agama di negeri Kedah. Pembelajaran ini sangat signifikan dan releven dalam dalam konteks membentuk akhlak pelajar. Manakala, pendapat Khalim dan Wan Zulkifli (2009) pula menyatakan bahawa bagi mengatasi permasalahan tingkah laku pelajar, pendekatan Islam adalah sesuai digunakan. Hal ini dibuktikan hasil dari satu program pemulihan yang telah dianjurkannya. Selain itu juga Ajmain et. al., (2013) memperihalkan keperluan kurikulum akhlak dalam melahirkan pelajar muslim berakhlak dalam melahirkan modal insan yang baik dalam konteks Malaysia. Tambahnya lagi, pendidikan modal insan yang bersifat holistik sangat diperlukan ketika ini dalam melahirkan para ilmuwan yang bukan sahaj berilmu malah berakhlak mulia melalui penerapan nilai dalam melaksanakan tanggungjawab di muka bumi ini.

Pendapat yang berbeza dinyatakan oleh Rohana, Zikmal & Mohd Nur Adzham, (2014) dimana kajiannya mendapati bahawa melalui pengamalan amalan tadabbur Al-Quran, akan terhasil seorang muslim tinggi akhlak dan baik budi pekertinya. Dapatan juga menekankan kepentingan pembangunan akhlak dalam menentukan siasah dan hal ini selaras dengan perkembangan jiwa seseorang. Dalam hal yang berkaitan, faktor-faktor kearah pembentukan akhlak juga turut disentuh dalam kajian-kajian terdahulu. Hal ini dapat dilihat dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh Wan Norina, Zaharah, Ahmad Fkrudin dan Ahmad Arifin (2013) dalam mengenalpasti pengaruh media massa terhadap penampilan akhlak pelajar Islam di Politeknik Malaysia menunjukkan bahawa media massa memberikan pengaruh positif dalam pembentukan akhlak pelajar. Hasil dapatan kajian juga mendapati bahan-bahan media massa memberi kesan negatif terhadap pelajar dan hal ini mampu membuatkan pelajar hilang fokus serta tujuan mereka berada di Institusi Pengajian. Keseimbangan dalam memilih bahan bacaan dan tontonan perlu di ambil kira dalam aspek pembentukan akhlak pelajar.

Faktor lain yang mempengaruhi pembentukan akhlak juga turut di kaji oleh Hamidah, Zawawi dan Roslina (2013) dimana dapatannya menunjukkan bahawa kecerdasan emosi mempunyai hubungan signifikan dalam pembentukan akhlak seseorang. Hasil penyelidikannya juga mendapati kecerdasan emosi yang tinggi memberikan kecenderungan kepada tingkah laku yang positif. Hal ini menguatkan lagi hujah agar penekanan terhadap kecerdasan emosi perlu di ambil kira dalam pembentukan akhlak yang baik.

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Selain itu juga, Pendekatan psikologis merupakan salah satu pendekatan yang boleh di amalkan dalam pembangunan akhlak seseorang dan perkara ini ditekankan dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh Faridah dan Tengku Sarina Aini (2006). Kajian juga mendapati psikologis juga adalah elemen penting mewujudkan peradaban ummah malah kewujudan sesebuah tamadun itu didorong oleh kemantapan dan penghayatan kepada moral dan nilai yang tinggi. Antara elemen yang memberi sumbangan yang besar terhadap pembentukan akhlak adalah ilmu pengetahuan, nilai-nilai murni dan kreativiti.

Terdapat juga kajian yang mengkaji berkaitan penghayatan akhlak dari sudut gender. Hal ini dapat dilihat dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh Sarimah, Mohd Kashfi, Ab. Halim dan Kamarulzaman (2011) dimana mendapati bahawa pelajar perempuan mendominasi kebanyakan penghayatan akhlak berbanding pelajar lelaki. Oleh hal demikian, usaha yang padu perlu dilakukan dalam meningkatkan tahap penghayatan pelajar lelaki ke tahap tertinggi. Kajian juga mencadangkan supaya pihak-pihak berkepentingan memainkan peranan masing-masing dalam membentuk akhlak para pelajar. Kesedian pengajar merupakan antara factor yang kritikal dalam menentukan kejayaan sesebuah sistem pendidikan. Penghayatan akhlak perlu bermula oleh para guru atau pengajar sebelum diaplikasikan kepada pelajar.

Jika disorot kembali, akhlak merupakan asset yang sangat berharga bagi setiap individu sebagai satu usaha dalam menjalankan tanggungjawab sebagai pemimpin di muka bumi ini. Kajian-kajian lepas menunjukkan kepentingan menerapkan pendidikan akhlak samada di serap dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran mahupun dalam setiap pekerjaan. Kajian-kajian lepas juga menunjukkan bahawa akhlak merupakan tunjang kepada sikap yang baik. Sifat yang baik seharusnya menjadi asas kepada pembentukan modal insan yang baik. Namun begitu, pengkaji mendapati tiada kajian yang dijalankan berkaitan aspek akhlak ke atas institusi kemahiran di Malaysia secara khususnya dijalankan. Dalam konteks program kemahiran di Malaysia, elemen pembangunan akhlak seharusnya menjadi antara perkara yang perlu dimabil berat dan diserapkan ke dalam kurikulum supaya negara dapat melahirkan modal insan yang bukan sahaja kompeten malahan baik perilaku dan akhlaknya.

Perbincangan dan kesimpulanJika di sorot kembali perbezaan antara etika dan akhlak, kita dapat melihat bahawa kedua-duanya tidak banyak perbezaan dari segi definisi dan makna. Etika merujuk pengetahuan berkaitan perbuatan manusia dalam menentukan baik dan buruk bersandarkan kepada pemikiran dan perasaan sahaja manakala

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akhlak pula perbuatan yang di buat tanpa perlu pemikiran melibatkan dosa dan pahala bersandarkan al-Quran dan al-Sunnah. Apabila di amati, kedua-dua elemen ini memperihalkan mengenai pertimbangan terhadap sesuatu yang baik dan buruk. Namun, bagi elemen akhlak, perbuatan harus bersandarkan al-Quran dan al-Sunnah. Dapat dirumuskan bahawa akhlak merupakan payung kepada etika dan etika adalah sebahagian dari akhlak. Elemen akhlak mampu menjadi penentu dalam menentukan perkara yang benar terhadap sesuatu etika dan keduanya saling melengkapi (Aminudin dan Jamsari, 2012 ; Roziah et. al., 2011 ; Owoyemi & Ahmad, 2012). Oleh yang demikian, pengkaji berpendapat bahawa etika dan akhlak tidak boleh dipisahkan dan ianya harus berjalan seiring dalam pembangunan diri pelajar.

Disamping itu juga, pembangunan akhlak seharusnya menjadi tanggungjawab semua pihak. Pembangunan yang menyeluruh dan seimbang ini haruslah dimulakan dengan pendidikan kerana pendidikan merupakan medium yang menyalurkan semua aspek pembelajaran malah melangkaui aspek pengetahuan. Melalui penerapan nilai etika dan akhlak, maka terhasil sebuah jiwa yang mampu memandu diri dalam menghadapi cabaran yang semakin hari kian mencabar. Hal ini juga diharapkan mampu menjadi benteng yang kukuh dalam mendepani dugaan-dugaan yang getir dan hebat. Diharapkan dengan adanya penyelesaian yang holistic maka ia mampu mengurangkan kadar penyakit sosial yang kini kian membarah.

Secara dasarnya, kita mengetahui bahawa dalam usaha mencapai negara maju, negara bukan sahaja perlu mencapai sasaran dalam melahirkan tenaga mahir. Sejajar dengan itu, pembangunan modal insan turut menjadi aspek yang diutamakan. Oleh yang demikian, keutamaan secara umumnya harus diberikan kepada pendidikan dan dalam kertas konsep ini pendidikan yang dimaksudkan adalah pendidikan kemahiran. Hal ini disebabkan pendidikan kemahiran merupakan tunjang dalam melahirkan tenaga-tenaga mahir dan perkara ini juga turut ditekankan dalam Rancangan Malaysia Ke Sebelas. Semua ini mampu terlaksana jika terdapatnya kesedaran, tanggungjawab, penghayatan dan kefahaman akan keperluan nilai-nilai sejagat dalam melahirkan sebuah negara bangsa yang berjaya. Pendek kata, pendidikan merupakan tunjang dalam membentuk sahsiah diri yang baik dalam mendidik masyarakat terutamanya Malaysia yang mempunyai demografik yang berbeza.

Jika di sorot kembali kupasan kertas konsep ini, ia menunjukkan bahawa terdapat keperluan membangunkan model etika dan akhlak di dalam proses pengajian di Pusat Kemahiran Malaysia hasil dari kelompongan terhadap kurangnya kajian yang dijalankan di institusi tersebut. Dengan kewujudan model ini, pelajar akan dapat mengaplikasikan serta menangani isu-isu yang timbul semasa menyelesaikan sesuatu permasalahan. Hal ini

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mampu meningkatkan keberkesanan pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam usaha melahirkan pelajar yang berkemahiran dan berketrampilan seterusnya mempunyai akhlak serta nilai yang baik. Saranan keperluan membangunkan model ini selari dengan cadangan yang dicadangkan oleh Muhammad Khairi, (2016) ; Abdul Muqsith et. al., (2016).

PENGHARGAANPengkaji ingin berterima kasih kepada para penilai serta editor dalam proses menilai artikel ini. Sekalung penghargaan juga diucapkan kepada penyelia dan rakan-rakan yang telah memberikan tunjuk ajar dalam penghasilan kertas kajian ini. Tidak lupa juga kepada penaja, Universiti Malaya melalui Skim Biasiswa Universiti Malaya (SBUM) dan juga Geran PPP (PG092-2015B) dalam memberikan segala bentuk bantuan sepanjang pengajian ijazah tinggi.

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PENERAPAN NILAI MORAL DAN AKHLAK BAGI MENJANA KELESTARIAN ALAM SEKITAR DALAM

PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN: SATU PERBINCANGAN

Habib Mat Som (PhD)Fakulti Sains Kemanusiaan

Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris

Syed Kamaruzzaman Syed Ali (PhD)Fakulti PendidikanUniversiti Malaya

AbstrakArtikel ini membincangkan pendekatan bersepadu bagi menerapkan nilai moral dan akhlak merentas kurikulum dalam proses pengajaran bagi melahirkan pelajar yang berupaya melestarikan alam sekitar. Dari segi dimensi moral, pendekatan sedemikian diharapkan dapat melahirkan pelajar yang memiliki kemoralan yang menpunyai pengetahuan moral, perasaan moral dan amalan moral dalam melestarikan alam sekitar secara bertanggungjawab. Penerapan dimensi akhlak pula, diharapkan pelajar dapat menghayati dan menginsafi dirinya selaku makhluk Tuhan yang tahu memelihara hubungannya dengan Pencipta, hubungan sesama manusia dan hubungan dengan alam sekitar. Gabungan kedua-dua dimensi yang disisipkan merentas kurikulum dalam proses pengajaran diharapkan dapat melahirkan individu yang mempunyai sikap positif sebagai warga bumi yang bertanggungjawab terhadap alam sekitar mereka.

PENGENALANKeadaan alam sekitar mutakhir ini menyaksikan wujudnya pelbagai isu di mana pencemaran alam, gangguan terhadap persekitaran fizikal bumi telah berlaku secara berleluasa seperti aktiviti penebangan hutan, pencemaran sungai, penarahan dan penggondolan bukit dan gunung, pencemaran pantai

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dan sebagainya. Kehidupan alam sekitar telah terjejas dan menatijahkan kehidupan yang tidak selesa sehingga menyebabkan terjadinya banyak kematian (Grove, 2002). Situasi ini berlaku disebabkan sikap tamak haloba, rakus di samping tekanan terhadap pembangunan ekonomi dan keperluan penduduk (Gardner & Stern,2001). Persoalannya apakah situasi ini disebabkan orientasi kurikulum di sekolah mahu pun institusi pendidikan kurang berkesan dalam memupuk semangat mencintai alam atau pun strategi pengajaran yang kurang berkesan dalam memberi pendidikan kepada pelajar terhadap kesedaran untuk melestarikan alam sekitar itu sendiri .

Dalam hal ini, Ornstein (1998) mencadangkan kurikulum perlu mengambil sumber kerohanian yang berpaksikan moral supaya dapat membangunkan modal insan dan prinsip- prinsip moral yang baik dalam kalangan pelajar. Huebner (1985) pula berpandangan unsur-unsur moral dalam pelaksanaan kurikulum akan membangkitkan kesedaran kemanusiaan yang tinggi, bertimbang rasa, kepekaan terhadap fenomena kehidupan yang melengkari alam jagat.

Mengintegrasikan Aspek Moral dan Akhlak Dalam Proses Pengajaran dan PembelajaranPendidikan alam sekitar bermatlamat untuk melahirkan individu yang peka terhadap isu-isu alam sekitar dan prihatin dalam menguruskan alam yang merangkimi aspek aspek kelestarian sosial, persekitaran dan ekonomi (Lukman & Glavic, 2007). O’Riordan (1981) pula menyatakan pendidikan alam sekitar perlu mencakupi elemen keprihatinan terhadap alam dan kepekaan terhadap isu kelestarian alam itu sendiri. Moseley (2000) pula berpandangan pendidikan alam sekitar hendaklah dimulai dengan kesedaran kognitif berkaitan kepentingan memulihara alam sekitar untuk kesejahteraan hidup manusia sejagat. Dalam hal ini, United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) 2005-2014 telah diwujudkan bertujuan untuk memberi pendidikan yang memberi fokus terhadap kepentingan pendidikan alam sekitar dalam kalangan pelajar dan masyarakat umum.

Tyler (1949) sebagai pakar dalam bidang kurikulum menyatakan kurikulum adalah balapan yang menjadi laluan bagi seseorang pelajar untuk memperoleh ilmu pengetahuan, pembinaan sikap dan sahsiah serta kemahiran. Justeru itu, sekiranya matlamat pendidikan adalah untuk melahirkan individu pelajar yang prihatin tehadap kelestarian alam sekitar di atas bumi sebagai tempat kediaman dan kegiatan manusia, maka orientasi kurikulum perlu memberi penekanan kepada unsur moral yang dapat memupuk kesedaran sedemikian dalam pada diri seseorang pelajar itu sendiri. Goodlad (1979)

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menyatakan pendidikan yang berkesan perlu berkisar bukan sahaja kepada penghasilan (output) bagi mengembangkan potensi individu tetapi perlu menghasilkan ahli masyarakat yang bertanggungjawab yang dapat mengekalkan unsur-unsur jatidiri, kesedaran, keinsafan dan prihatin .

Kajian-kajian berkaitan komitmen pelajar dalam melestarikan alam sekitar menunjukkan dapatan yang berbeza berdasarkan orientasi kurikulum itu sendiri. Misalnya kajian Norsharini (2009) dan Tan Pei San dan Norzaini (2011) mendapati pelajar jurusan Sains Tulen mempunyai tahap komitmen yang rendah terhadap alam sekitar berbanding pelajar aliran sains Sosial dan Pengajian Islam. Implikasi kajian memberi interpretasi terdapat kemungkinan orientasi kurikulum dan pendekatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran berbeza telah menghasilkan output individu pelajar yang berbeza dari segi penerapan elemen akhlak dan moral dalam proses pembelajaran.

Bagi mencapai matlamat pendidikan kelestarian, pendekatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam pendidikan moral dan akhlak boleh diberi nilai tambah yang merangkumi elemen pembagunan modal insan melalui strategi penerapan nilai murni merentas kurikulum selaras dengan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan yang ingin melahirkan rakyat Malaysia yang berilmu berpengetahuan, berakhlak mulia, bertanggungjawab dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraan diri. Pendekatan tersebut juga dapat melahirkan pemastautin dunia yang bertanggungjawab dalam konteks ”sebuah keluarga dalam perkampungan global ” (Jafni, 1987). Pendidikan moral dan akhlak yang berkesan seterusnya akan dapat membentuk semangat dan keghairahan melakukan tindakan-tindakan yang sihat, membentuk kesedaran hidup yang mementingkan kemaslahatan umum dan menumbuhkan semangat kekitaan yang dapat meresapkan rasa tenteram dan damai terhadap kehidupan (Muqdad Yaljan, 1986).

Pendidikan unsur kelestarian dalam pendekatan pengajaran dan pembelanjaran Moral Orientasi dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran Moral merangkumi tiga domain iaitu Pengetahuan Moral, Perasaan Moral dan Amalan Moral.

Pemikiran MoralDomain ini memberi penekanan dari segi kognitif di mana pelajar memperoleh pengetahuan berkaitan kepentingan kelestarian alam sekitar yang dikaitkan dengan nilai-nilai moral seperti; baik hati, bertanggungjawab, berterima kasih, hemah tinggi, kasih sayang, kerajinan, kerjasama dan toleransi. Kaedah penjelasan nilai boleh diaplikasikan bagi penerapan nilai-nilai

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yang dinyatakan. Bahan pengajaran yang disokong dengan gambar, grafik, video, ilustrasi, penggunaan laman web akan memperteguhkan kefahaman pelajar terhadap aspek pengetahuan moral yang boleh diterap dan disisip dalam konteks penjagaan alam sekitar. Aspek pemikiran moral juga boleh menerapkan pendekatan Teori Constraints yakni satu pendekatan dalam pendidikan nilai moral yang menekankan pemikiran secara kritis dengan memfokus kepada tiga peroalan iaitu; (a) apa yang perlu dilakukan perubahan (misalnya penguatkuasaan

undang-undang bagi mengawal kegiatan manusia terhadap alam sekitar, penggunaan perkhidmatan awam dan kawalan terhadap aktiviti penggondolan lereng bukit bagi tujuan pembangunan)

(b) apakah bentuk perubahan yang ingin dibuat (misalnya mengubah sikap rakus manusia dalam mengejar keuntungan dalam kegiatan ekonomi agar tidak terlalu rakus melakukan aktiviti tanpa memikirkan implikasi terhadap generasi akan datang)

(c) bagaimana untuk mengubahnya (Misalnya melalui pendidikan komuniti, memperkasa peranan pertubuhan sosial dan NGO, pendidikan undang-undang dan mengaktifkan kegiatan kesukarelawanan) .

Dalam erti kata lain, bagi domain pemikiran moral, pelajar dirangsang melalui sesi pembelajaran di bilik darjah agar berfikir secara kritis berkaitan isu-isu yang berbangkit tentang alam sekitar dengan penumpuan terhadap persoalan tentang:(a) Apakah tanggungjawab masyarakat dalam melestarikan alam (b) Mengapa masyarakat memerlukan alam sekitar yang lestari (c) Sejauh mana pengetahuan dan pemahaman masyarakat terhadap

kepentingan persekitaran yang selesa bagi sebuah kehidupan (d) Sejauh mana masyarakat dapat mengaplikasikan pengetahuan mereka

dalam penyelesaian isu-isu alam sekitar. (e) Perasaan Moral. Domain ini berkaitan dengan aspek afektif seperti

perasaan sayang, suka, gembira, menghayati, menghargai, kesyukuran, tolak ansur dan sebagainya. Orientasi pengajaran dan pembelajaran melalui pendekatan ini menjurus kepada pemupukan perasaan moral yang berkaitan dengan sikap dan penghayatan dalam penjagaan alam sekitar. Aktiviti yang dicadangkan antara lain adalah aplikasi pendekatan ”real life” yang merujuk kepada pengalaman sebenar yang pernah dilalui oleh pelajar, masyarakat dan komuniti secara langsung. Misalnya peristiwa yang pernah dialami pelajar akibat akitiviti penggondolan bukit yang menyebabkan rumah ditenggelami banjir lumpur, yang mengakibatkan kematian ahli keluarga dan orang yang disayangi .Kes-

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kes sebenar yang dilalui sendiri oleh pelajar yang boleh diceritakan dan dikongsi bersama berkaitan isu-isu yang melibatkan alam sekitar akan meninggalkan kesan yang mendalam dalam jiwa pelajar sekiranya guru dapat berperanan sebagai pemudahcara yang berkesan dalam sesi pengajaran tersebut. Perbincangan apakah isu-isu moral yang boleh dipelajari dari ”:real life” akan mendorong kepada bentuk pembelajaran aktif dalam kelas dengan membangkitkan persoalan-persoalan yang mencabar minda dan perasaan moral pelajar. Soalan yang boleh dicetuskan dalam perbincangan seperti; Apakah amalan nilai murni yang hilang dalam masyarakat; Apakah kesan kelestarian alam sekitar kepada kehidupan Aktiviti boleh didokumentasikan dalam bentuk penulisan jurnal reflektif.

Amalan MoralAktiviti berkaitan penjagaan alam sekitar boleh dilaksanakan di sekolah melalui aktiviti seperti membersihkan persekitaran sekolah melalui projek kawasan angkat mengikut kelas, kelab dan persatuan. Antara aktitiviti seperti projek menghijaukan persekitaran sekolah dengan menanam pokok dan juga penyelenggaran taman. Guru perlu memberi fokus terhadap amalan moral semasa proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran sama ada secara langsung atau tidak langsung dalam kelas dan di luar kelas supaya dapat memupuk amalan yang positif dalam kehidupan pelajar. Aspek pemupukan ini penting dalam meningkatkan kesedaran moral terhadap pemuliharaan alam. Misalnya dapatan kajian Wahida et al. (2004) menunjukkan kesedaran terhadap isu-isu alam sekitar dan pemuliharaan alam sekitar dalam kalangan pelajar secara umumnya adalah rendah. Walau bagaimanapun dapatan kajian oleh Zarina dan Norjan (2003) mengenai tahap kesedaran alam sekitar dalam kalangan pelajar Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia didapati tinggi tetapi kesediaan untuk mengatasi masalah alam sekitar adalah rendah. Implikasi dapatan kajian tersebut menunjukkan terdapat keperluan institusi pendidikan memberi penekanan terhadap pemupukan kesedaran dan amalan moral dalam pemuliharaan alam sekitar agar keprihatinan tersebut dapat dipertingkatkan dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran.

Dari segi pendidikan akhlak pula, menghargai alam sekitar dan memuliharanya adalah perkara yang dituntut sebagai manusia yang berakhlak dan beradab. Menurut Asmawati Suhid (2005) sekolah berperanan penting dalam memupuk akhlak dan membangunkan modal insan Komponen Adab dan Akhlak Islam dalam Kurikulum Pendidikan Islam KBSM merangkumi antara lain aspek berkaitan hubungan dengan diri sendiri, individu lain, alam

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sekitar serta hubungan dengan Tuhan. Nilai akhlak tersebut boleh diterapkan guru merentas kurikulum bagi subjek yang diajar mereka dengan penekanan kepada nilai bersifat sejagat.

Integrasi pendekatan moral dan akhlak dalam pengajaran merentas kurikulkum berkaitan kelestarian alam sekitar adalah selaras dengan konsep pendidikan bersepadu yang menjadi intipati dalam pelaksanaan Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM). Walaupun terdapat kepelbagaian pandangan mengenai kesepaduan pendidikan akhlak dan moral dalam proses pengajaran, namun ianya bukanlah suatu masalah sekiranya dapat diterapkan secara harmonis. Sementata itu, Muqdad Yaljan (1986) menegaskan pemupukan akhlak dalam kalangan pelajar patut digalakkan supaya sekolah dapat melahirkan individu yang prihatin melaksanakan prinsip-prinsip moral dan menjauhi amalan-amalan negatif yang tidak diterima oleh masyarakat.

Melalui penerapan aspek akhlak merentas kuruikulum pelajar dapat dididik supaya menyantuni persekitaran sosial secara berakhlak sama ada secara individu atau berjamaah (dalam kelompok masyarakat) untuk saling bantu seperti pengukuhan satu binaan bangunan. Pendidikan akhlak yang disisipkan dalam proses pengajaran guru boleh melahirkan manusia bersifat holistik yang terasuh secara sepadu dari segi tuntutan material, kerohanian dan keagamaan yang seterusnnya dapat menjadi warga bumi yang bertanggungjawab (Muqdad Yaljan, 1986).

Pendekatan Pendidikan Akhlak Merentas Kurikulum.Al Ghazali telah memperkenalkan konsep Konsep Tiga P dalam pendekatan pendidikan akhlak. Elemen tersebut adalah:

Pendekatan Pembentukan Pendekatan pembentukan bermaksud membentuk kebiasaan melakukan perbuatan dan sikap yang baik serta bertanggungjawab. Sekiranya guru ingin membentuk sikap mencintai alam sekitar dalam kalangan pelajarnya, guru dan pihak sekolah secara terancang dan bersepadu perlu membiasakan para pelajarnya ke arah sikap tersebut seperti melaksanakan aktiviti membersihkan tandas, kantin, membersihkan kawasan sekolah, taman, tempat rekreasi di kawasan sekolah dan melaksanakan projek-projek komuniti di luar sekolah secara berterusan melalui pendidikan komuniti yang melibatkan masyarakat di luar sekolah. Persatuan Ibubapa Guru, Persatuan Penduduk, NGO, Pertubuhan Sukarela yang wujud di luar komuniti sekolah boleh dilibatkan melalui jaringan sosial yang terancang. Satu budaya baharu perlu diwujudkan

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melahirkan sikap proaktif dan beriltizam dan bukan sekadar kempen dan galakan yang muncul secara bermusim.

Pendekatan Penghalang Pendekatan ini bermaksud menjauhkan seseorang daripada anasir yang mendorong kepada terbentuknya moraliti yang buruk. Dalam konteks ini Al Ghazali telah memperkenalkan konsep pendidikan keinginan di mana sesuatu keinginan perlu dipupuk dan dilatih seperti mana kebiasaan lain. Ini bermakna pelajar boleh dilatih untuk sentiasa berkeinginan melihat kawasan persekitaran sekolah yang cantik dan bersih, persekitaran yang menarik dan terurus, keinginan melihat aliran air sungai yang jernih, keinginan untuk menghirup udara yang nyaman, segar yang tidak tercemar dan sebagainya. Keinginan-keinginan sedemikian, boleh disisipkan dalam pengajaran merentasi kurikulum seperti mata pelajaran Geografi, Bahasa Melayu, Biologi dan sebaginya dengan matlamat untuk mengembangkan dan membentuk intuisi spontan bagi menghalang jiwa pelajar daripada melakukan kerosakan terhadap persekitaran. Dalam erti kata lain, melalui pendekatan ini kecenderungan-kecenderungan yang baik boleh diulang-ulangi berserta dengan aspek dorongan, ganjaran dan motivasi guru dan sekolah supaya pelajar terus terdidik dengan keinginan-keinginan yang positif dan kebiasaan-kebiasaan yang boleh mencetuskan perasaan cinta akan keindahan alam sekitar.

Pendekatan penyembuhanPendekatan ini bermaksud melalui proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran, guru berperanan sebagai tabib yang mengubati perlakuan yang bertentangan dengan akhlak dan moral.

Dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran, pengalaman pembelajaran yang hendak disampaikan kepada pelajar hendaklah menyisipkan pendekatan penyembuhan seperti konsep hukuman kepada pelajar yang melanggar peraturan, pemotongan merit bagi pelajar yang melanggar amalan penjagaan kebersihan dan kelestarian persekitaran sekolah (misalnya membuang sampah, menconteng dinding, merosakkan pasu bunga, mematahkan dahan pokok dengan sesuka hati).

Selain itu sesi info berterusan, sesi kaunseling, tazkirah, penerangan dari pihak berkuasa tempatan dan lain-lain perlu dimasukkan dalam takwim aktiviti sekolah. Melalui Pendekatan Penyembuhan ini, pelajar akan menyedari kesilapan yang mereka lakukan dan seterusnya guru memberi rawatan secara berterusan secara hikmah. Dari segi jangka panjangnya,

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pendekatan ini berupaya melahirkan individu yang bijaksana, bertoleransi, bersikap terbuka, mempunyai akal budi yang tinggi, memiliki kesantunan bersikap rasional dan memiliki sifat-sifat kearifan.

RUMUSAN DAN CADANGANPelajar di bangku sekolah adalah pewaris khazanah alam di masa hadapan. Justeru hala tuju dan pendekatan dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran perlu menjurus kepada pembinaan generasi yang berkembang mengikut fitrah semula jadi manusia yang cinta akan keindahan dan kedamaian. Kesedaran mengembalikan manusia kepada fitrahnya bermakna kita kembali kepada pendekatan kerohanian yang berteraskan akhlak dan moral. Kembalinya manusia kepada fitrah akan membantu dalam menyelesaikan pelbagai masalah kerakusan manusia, sifat tamak haloba, merosakkan alam sekitar dan pelbagai lagi amalan buruk (mazmumah). Kesepaduan pendekatan akhlak dan moral dengan penekanan kepada sumber autentik yakni agama perlu diusahakan secara bersungguh-sungguh dalam menjana kelestarian alam sekitar. Antaranya disarankan:• Komitmen guru: Guru perlu mempunyai kesedaran moral dan iltizam

yang tinggi untuk menghasilkan generasi yang dihasratkan melalui kepekaan terhadap isu-isu berkaitan dan fenomena yang menjejaskan persekitaran kehidupan manusia. Nasihat, teguran dan kreativiti guru secara profesional perlu digembeleng secara bersepadu melalui aktiviti kurikulum dan kokurikulum

• Budaya sekolah: Sekolah perlu membudayakan kehidupan mesra alam yang dilaksanakan secara tersirat melalui kurikulum tersembunyi seperti mengupayakan budaya menyayangi alam sekitar sekolah yang bersih dan pengurusan persekitaran sekolah yang berfokuskan amalan kehidupam insan berakhlak dan bermoral.

• Jaringan sosial: Sekolah perlu mewujudkan jaringan sosial dengan komuniti luar sekolah agar pelajar dapat menterjemahkan pengalaman pembelajaran di bilik darjah secara langsung dengan realiti kehidupan di luar bilik darjah berkaitan penjagaan alam sekitar.

Memetik kata-kata Muhammad Iqbal (Dlm Kamal Hasssan, 1988, h. 167); Dalam hal pendidikan, cara Islam adalah untuk membina manusia yang menyeluruh. Ia adalah skema pembinaan komprehensif yang tidak mengenepikan atau melupakan apa sahaja bahagian-bahagian manusia seperti jasad, intelek dan rohnya, kehidupan

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material dan spiritualnya dan setiap aktiviti kehidupan. Ia mengambil kira keseluruhan diri manusia itu sendiri dengan keadaan semulajadi (fitrah) yang Allah jadikan baginya

Usaha melestarikan alam sekitar adalah satu ibadah dan amal soleh yang dituntut dalam agama. Dalam menyongsong cabaran globalisasi yang menyaksikan kerencaman citarasa manusia dari pelbagai dimensi kehidupan yang menerjah masuk dalam ekosistem kehidupan kita, setiap warga pendidik harus memainkan peranan secara pro aktif menggunakan kebijaksanaan dan kreativiti dalam pendekatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran agar gagasan murni ini dapat mencapai matlamatnya.

RUJUKANAsmawati Suhid. (2005). Pengajaran adab akhlak Islamiah dalam

membangunkan modal insan. Dlm. Prosiding Seminar Pendidikan Islam & Bahasa Arab Pemangkin Peradaban Ummah. Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Gardner, G. T., & Stern, P. C. (2002). Environmental problems and human behavior. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Grove, R. (2002). Climate fears: Colonialism and the history of environmentalism. Harvad International Review, 23(4), 50-55

Huebner, D. E. (1985). Spirituality and knowing. Dlm. E. W. Eisner (ED.), Learning and teaching the ways of knowing (1985). Chicago, IL: University pf Chicago Press

Jafni Hassan. (1987). Pendidikan Moral dalam kurikulum bersepadu: Ke arah memupuk seorang insan harmonis. Jurnal Pendidikan. Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 12, 83-91.

Kamal Hassan (1988). Pendidikan dan pembangunan: Satu perspektif bersepadu. Kuala Lumpur: Nurin.

Lukman, R., & Glavic, P. (2007). What are the key elements of a sustainable university? Clean Techn Environ Policy, 9, 103-114.

Moffett, J. (1994). The universal schoolhouse. San Fransisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Ornstein, A, C., Pajak, E, F., & Ornstein, S. B. (2009). Contemporary issues in curriculum. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Pinar, W. F., Reynolds, W. M., Patrick, S., & Taubman, P. M. (1995). Understanding curriculum. New York, NY: Peter Lang.

Tan Pei San, & Norzaini Azman. (2011). Hubungan antara komitmen terhadap alam sekitar dengan tingkahlaku mesra alam sekitar dalam kalangan pelajar universiti. Jurnal Personalia Pelajar, 14, 11-22

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Tyler, R. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press

Zurina Mahadi, & Norjan Yusof. (2003). Kesedaran alam sekitar: Tinjauan awal di kalangan pelajar Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Prosiding Seminar Kebangsaan Pengurusan Persekitaran. Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

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PROBLEM SOLVING IN CULINARY ARTS: PEDAGOGICAL ISSUES FACED BY CULINARY INSTRUCTORS AT COMMUNITY COLLEGES

Umawathy Techanamurthy, Norlidah Alias (PhD) & Dorothy DeWitt (PhD)

Faculty of Education,University of Malaya

[email protected], [email protected] & [email protected]

AbstractTechnical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) graduates need to be skilled in problem-solving to increase employability. However, TVET graduates seem to lack problem-solving skills. This article discusses the pedagogical issues faced by Culinary Arts instructors to inculcate problem solving skills among their students. Among the issues faced by instructors is the lack of instructional guidance on how to inculcate problem solving skills during instruction. This is due to the lack of instructional materials such as examples of real world problems and knowledge on instructional strategies required to teach problem-solving skills related to Culinary Arts. Culinary instructors, especially those without industrial experience may not have the real world exposure to teach problem solving skills using real world examples. Thus, in current teaching practice, instructors seem to focus more on transmitting technical skills (culinary skills). Instructors also seem to have insufficient time to cover both content and implement problem-solving activities within the stipulated class time. Hence, we need to develop a pedagogical module to ensure instructors in TVET institutions are more prepared to teach problem-solving using real world problems with help from technology. This can be accomplished by involving industry practitioners and experts in designing curriculum delivery which will benefit culinary instructors and their students at Community Colleges.

Keywords: problem-solving, instructional, Community College, Culinary Arts, Technical Vocational Education and Training, instructors, issues

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INTRODUCTIONThe Ministry of Education in its Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015 to 2025 (Higher Education) (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2015) highlighted the critical role of Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in developing a highly skilled workforce for the nation. A highly skilled workforce requires skilled TVET graduates who match industry needs (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2015). One initiative to ensure TVET graduates match industry needs is to enhance collaboration with the key industry players which can be achieved through collaboration in curriculum delivery. Students can get exposed to industry needs through apprenticeship, exposure to real-life simulations or special training programs by industry (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2015). These initiatives will be beneficial as it exposes students to industry needs.

Moreover, these initiatives, if taken, will benefit students as there is a growing recognition for TVET graduates to have good problem-solving skills, nationally and internationally. Graduates will be required to solve non-routine tasks or unfamiliar problems once they join the workforce. Being able to identify and solve problems is the core of actual professional experience that graduates will need to perform in industry and society in general (Doornekamp, 2001; Hedges, 1996). This means TVET graduates should be skilled within the area of specialization as well as in solving problems and thinking critically to be able to transfer knowledge in attempting non-routine tasks in a variety of situations (Hämäläinen, Cincinnato, Malin, & De Wever, 2014; Rasul, Rauf, Mansor, Yasin, & Mahamod, 2013; Soden, 2013; UNESCO, 2014). This is in line with the National Education Philosophy, where students and graduates must be able to think critically and innovatively and solve problems (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2015).

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDYThe Ministry of Education in its Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015 to 2025 (Higher Education) report also outlined that higher education TVET providers such as Community Colleges, together with Polytechnics and Vocational Colleges are to supply skilled TVET workers by 2020 (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2015). Despite the growing number graduating from higher education TVET providers, employers are finding it difficult to hire graduates who possess both technical skills and employability skills to fit their organization (Muhd Khaizer Omar, Ab. Rahim Bakar, & Abdullah Mat Rashid, 2012). For instance, the National Graduate Employability Blueprint between 2012 to 2017 published by the Ministry of Higher Education (2012),

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reported that 23.8% fresh graduates lack the depth of skills related knowledge and 25.9% fresh graduates are unable to solve problems. The graduates’ lack of problem solving skills also resonates with the findings from the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013 to 2025 which reports that employers were concerned about the lack of higher order thinking skills including problem-solving and creativity among graduates (MOE, 2012). Similarly, several local studies on TVET students in Vocational Colleges in Malaysia have consistently documented that TVET students lack problem-solving skills (Bakar & Hanafi, 2007; Mimi Mohamad, Heong, Muhammad Rajuddin, & Keong, 2011; Rahman, Mokhtar, Hamzah, & Yasin, 2011). Just like graduates from other TVET institutions, Community College graduates also seem to lack problem-solving skills despite having skills specific to their area of specialization (Awang, Ibrahim, Hussain, Ramli, & Lyndon, 2013; Zaliza Hanapi, Mohd Safarin Nordin, & Khamis, 2015). A study by Reezlin, Ishak, Zahari, and Inoormaziah (2012) also highlighted the alarming scenario when they found that Culinary Arts students at Community Colleges were unable to transfer their knowledge to new environments or solve related problems.

Studies are still lacking with regard to the issue of problem-solving skills among Community College students, even lesser on Culinary Arts graduates from Community Colleges. This matter merits further investigation as there has been a steady increase in student enrolment in Culinary Arts courses at Community Colleges over recent years (MOHE, 2011). Thus, this article focuses on the Culinary Arts Courses offered at Community Colleges. Community Colleges fall under the purview of the Department of Community College Education (DCCE), under the Higher Education Sector of the Ministry of Education of Malaysia. The mission of Community Colleges in Malaysia is to leverage on TVET and learning opportunities throughout life, as a means for preparing local communities for education for the world of work and skills development for employability. Community Colleges were established as centers of excellence for technology, business and service industries (Don, Daud, Kasim, Sakdan, & Fauzee, 2014). One of the service industries that Community College students are prepared for is the food and beverage industry, namely Culinary Arts. The two-year Certificate level Culinary Arts program is offered at 11 Community Colleges throughout Malaysia.

The Culinary Arts workplace environment has also become increasingly challenging and competitive which requires graduates to be better prepared to enter the workforce. The changing workplace demands Culinary Arts graduates to be better prepared to solve non-routine tasks or ill-structured problems at the workplace. Food service operators and restaurant managers

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are looking for employees that can identify problems and take the initiative to come up with a workable or creative solution especially when solving on the ground problems (Deutsch, Billingsley, & Azima, 2009). The problem with procedures is that they seem to be useful when solving simple, well-structured problems, but, when procedures fail to work, students get stuck, not knowing what to do in different situations (Jonassen, 2004). It is necessary that students be provided with many problem-solving opportunities so that they can develop strategies to solve unfamiliar problems or on the ground problems at the workplace. Without the ability to transfer knowledge and solve problems, Culinary Arts graduates are unprepared to participate in the “real-world of restaurant work” (Hegarty, 2004). Thus, they would be unable to meet the standards of the workplace (Hegarty, 2004; Ko & Chung, 2015). To meet the standards of the workplace, Culinary Arts graduates are required to possess skills such as problem-solving to adapt and transfer learning to different situations (Ko, 2015; Müller, VanLeeuwen, Mandabach, & Harrington, 2009; Thomas, 1992; Way, Ottenbacher, & Harrington, 2011; Yao-Fen & Chen-Tsang, 2014; Zahari, Jalis, Zulfifly, Radzi, & Othman, 2009).

PEDAGOGICAL ISSUES FACED BY CULINARY ARTS INSTRUCTORS

With the growing importance of problem solving in the workforce, students should be taught problem-solving skills using real-world problems as early as possible. The emphasis on problem-solving is clearly outlined in the curriculum specification for the Community College Culinary Arts Certificate course. It is stated in the curriculum specification that students should be able to solve problems creatively and innovatively by the end of the program. Interestingly, the National Occupational Skills Standards (NOSS) document which sets the standards for a skilled workforce in Malaysia also highlights that one of the core abilities of a skilled workforce is being able to apply problem-solving strategies (Department of Skills Development, 2014). However, there seems to be a gap between policy and implementation. The problem-solving approach to instruction requires instructors to be trained in teaching with authentic or real-world problems (Buttles, 2002). Just like the Community College curriculum, the NOSS document for the Kitchen Sector also does not provide the instructor with examples of real-world problems that can be used as examples to teach the Culinary Arts discipline. Both documents also do not provide guidance to instructors on how to inculcate problem solving skills during instruction. The lack of examples or guidelines that can assist instructors to teach using real world problems in these documents seems

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to indicate that there is a shortage of instructional materials for instructors to develop their students’ problem solving skills. When instructional materials are not provided, there is the probability of significant variation between the intended or specified curriculum that students should learn, what instructors teach, and what students learn.

Instructors have a role in using a variety of resources to help students develop better problem-solving skills. Instructors are encouraged to use various scenarios of real-world problems so that students can apply problem-solving strategies to develop their problem-solving skills. Scenarios of real world problems can come from real world exposure. Unfortunately, instructors who lack industrial experience also may not have the real world exposure (Lin & Cherng, 2006). Some local studies have highlighted that culinary instructors lack industrial experience (Idris, 2011; Mohammad Azli Razali, Farina Nozakiah Tazijan, Suzana Ab. Rahim, Nina Farisha Isa, & Hemdi, 2012). This is not surprising as most instructors employed to teach in Polytechnics and Community Colleges are hired directly after having completed their studies based on their academic qualifications with less importance given to their industrial work experience (Idris, 2011). The overemphasis on academic credentials has resulted in the lack of relevant professional experience (Ko, 2012) which may reduce the quality of instruction. Instructors lacking in industrial experience may be unable to integrate theory and practice, thus leaving out the content most relevant and appropriate to industry needs (Ko & Chung, 2015; Lin & Cherng, 2006). They end up depending on what they have read in textbooks or experienced as consumers (Brown et al., 2015). This often results in students lacking a clear understanding of the industry realities (Brown et al., 2015).

With the lack of pedagogical support to teach problem solving, instructors perceive that it is harder to teach problem-solving skills; thus they focus more on teaching technical skills (culinary skills). The emphasis on culinary skills in current teaching practices results in the lack of focus on cultivating problem-solving and response abilities required in the workplace (Hegarty, 2011; Shani, Belhassen, & Soskolne, 2013; Wang, 2015).For instance, past studies have highlighted that in foundational level Culinary Arts courses, instructors seem to focus more on transmitting knowledge and technical skills (culinary skills), rather than keeping students engaged with creative problem-solving opportunities (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Hannafin & Land, 1997; Wang, 2015).Typically, traditional culinary arts instruction follows the recipe-based pedagogy where the chef-instructor demonstrates the recipe, then the students diligently replicate the demonstration, and the

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chef-instructor provides feedback based on the outcome (Brown, Mao, & Chesser, 2013; Deutsch, 2014; Noe, 2005).

Similarly, in the Community College Culinary Arts program, there is more emphasis on delivering technical skills, rather than learning theoretical knowledge and being able to apply it to real-world situations (Reezlin et al., 2012). A preliminary study of current problem-solving teaching practices at a Community College also revealed that culinary instructors at Community Colleges tend to focus more on developing cooking skills and technical skills among their students, rather than developing students’ problem-solving skills (Umawathy Techanamurthy, Norlidah Alias, & Dewitt, 2015).

The major obstacle in teaching using problem solving approaches is the reluctance to deviate from traditional teaching practices (Garton & Cano, 1996; Mimi Mohamad et al., 2011).Instructors seem to have insufficient time to inculcate problem solving skills during the stipulated class time as they focus on completing the syllabus. Reezlin Abdul Rahman, Mohamad Amer Hasbullah, and Zahari (2011) highlighted that instructors in the traditional foundation level culinary arts program have to teach a large amount of hands-on content that emphasize on skill-based cooking knowledge which forms the basis of the Community College Culinary Arts curriculum. Thus, instructors usually leave it to students to learn problem-solving skills during their industrial attachment, at the workplace, or when they pursue their studies at higher levels (Umawathy Techanamurthy et al., 2015). Hence, it may not be surprising that Community College Culinary Arts students seem unable to transfer their knowledge to new environments or solve related problems as reported by Reezlin et al. (2012).

As more emphasis is placed on delivering technical skills in the Culinary Arts course offered at Community Colleges, there is an imbalance between acquiring theoretical knowledge and applying it to unfamiliar situations (Reezlin Abdul Rahman et al., 2011). Some researchers suggest that emphasis must be placed on subject matter content and its application to nurture real-world problem-solving skills (Ko & Chung, 2015; Sweller, 2015). Owing to this, Reezlin Abdul Rahman et al. (2011) proposed that at least two hours per week should be allocated separately for imparting of theoretical knowledge which is currently taught along with the hands-on content. To achieve the balance between applying content knowledge and practicing real-world problem-solving skills, both conventional syllabus and practice of problem-solving skills can be delivered by planning the use of time flexibly with the affordances of technology.

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CONCLUSIONStudents need to be equipped with better problem-solving skills demanded by today’s ill-structured nature of work (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993; Jonassen, 1997; Lohman, 2004; Mohamed, Omar, & Romli, 2011). Instead of leaving it to the students to learn real-world problem-solving skills while on industrial attachments, at the workplace or when they continue higher studies, instructors need to prepare students to face the realities of employment as early as possible. To prepare them to be critical thinkers and better problem solvers, instructors need to expose them to more situations in authentic contexts to reflect how their knowledge will be used in reality (Billett, 1996; Herrington & Oliver, 1995; Herrington, Reeves, & Oliver, 2014; Jonassen, 2013; Kirschner & van Merrienboer, 2008; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Merrill, 2002; Merrill, 2012; Pratten, 2003; Pratten & O’Leary, 2007; Savery & Duffy, 1995). Thus, instructors need real world problems and suitable instructional strategies they can use to teach problem solving skills required by industry.

The intensive modes of delivery of the technical skills of Culinary Arts and less emphasis on delivery of fundamental knowledge and applying the knowledge to solve real-world problems are prevalent in current teaching practices at institutions. Change seems to be needed in attitude among instructors towards the importance of teaching problem solving to Culinary Arts students. Instructors must realize that competency in skills specific to the area of specialization or technical skills such as knife skills and cooking skills in culinary studies are no longer sufficient for survival in the industry (Horng & Lee, 2009; Müller et al., 2009; Rinsky, 2012; Shani et al., 2013).Employers in the Culinary Arts are seeking employees who can identify problems and take the initiative in developing practical and creative solutions for problems (Deutsch et al., 2009).

To meet employer expectations, students need to be trained by culinary instructors based on the workplace realities (Ko & Chung, 2015; Pratten, 2003; Pratten & O’Leary, 2007) according to the needs and expectations of the culinary industry (Ko & Chung, 2015). This means students need lessons with more practice in addressing real-world problems using authentic contexts, coupled with instructor’s guidance. This may be difficult to achieve especially with instructors who lack industry exposure. To follow the problem-solving approach to teaching, instructors will need guidance on how Culinary Arts concepts can be used to solve real world problems. Based on the literature, students should be taught to identify problems, identify suitable information, connect and use the information to solve problems, make decisions after generating alternative solutions and evaluate the success of the solution

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(Barrows, 1996; Jonassen, 1997; Lohman, 2004) these can be used as a strategy when solving problems. Not only that, the problem solving approach to instruction relies on using authentic problems to place learning in context and to link classroom learning to the real world (Buttles, 2002).

Unfortunately, the available documents such as curriculum specifications and NOSS documents only provide instructors with the specific requirements with regard to the competency in skills specific to the specialization or technical skills that need to be acquired in the Culinary Arts field. These documents do not provide instructors with pedagogical support such as real world problems or instructional strategies that can be used to inculcate problem solving. Thus, instructors need pedagogical support in terms of instructional strategies for teaching problem-solving. Implementing these instructional strategies must be informed by educational research and good practice (Porcaro, Jackson, McLaughlin, & O’Malley, 2016). Instructors also need time to cover the content and spend time on problem-solving based approaches in class. Design of all activities must also be aligned with the learning outcomes. The sequence of the learning activities must be carefully arranged to increase student ability to attain learning outcomes.

Based on the abovementioned issues, the opportunity to acquire knowledge and skills based on authentic real-world problems or tasks which are very relevant to vocational education seems to be hardly practiced in the Culinary Arts program as there is lack of pedagogical support for culinary instructors. This leads to the scenario where instructors do not seem to impart problem-solving skills during instructional time (Dasmani, 2011). Hence, a pedagogical module needs to be designed and developed to improve curriculum delivery at Community Colleges. According to the Malaysia Education Blueprint for Higher Education (2015-2025) (MOE, 2015), this can be achieved by enabling the industry to lead curriculum design and delivery. Hence, curriculum planning should involve participation of industry representatives and experts to reflect the most recent trends (Lin & Cherng, 2006; Maier & Thomas, 2013; Spowart, 2011; Zhong, Couch, & Blum, 2013).

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ART APPRECIATION TEACHING MODEL FOR UNDERGRADUATE LEVEL TO GAIN AN

AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE

Maithreyi Subramaniam* Cultural Centre

University of [email protected]

Jaffri Hanafi & Abu Talib Putih (PhD)Faculty of EducationUniversity of Malaya

Abstract One of the key objectives of Art Education by the Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE) is to enable students to develop the ability to appreciate, evaluate, analyze and discuss the production of various types of art and visual production. Students who are able to appreciate a work of art are also able to value and produce a good piece of work. The main purpose of this study was to build and examine an art appreciation model to be offered as an integral part of a subject of instruction in undergraduate level art education to gain an aesthetic experience. Several related theories of art appreciation were incorporated in developing the model such as Feldman (1967), Broudy (1970) and Mittler (1986/2005). The art appreciation theories were incorporated with formalism theories of Bell (1914/2014) and Fry (1920/2012) as well as Dewey’s (1934/1980/2005) aesthetic experience and Parker’s (1920) elements of experience. Therefore, these selected theories were used in developing this art appreciation teaching model.

Fundamentally, the whole guideline reflects several art appreciation theories were applied to create a teaching model in teaching art appreciation to students at undergraduate level. The ability to experience aesthetically or respond to art is viewed by many writers as an affective condition necessary for entering into the appreciative realm. In addition, numerous writers stated that cognitive

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components and activities that tend to fall outside of the aesthetic experience nevertheless contribute to appreciation. Feldman (1967), Broudy (1970) and Mittler (1986/2005) theories have been referred that these methods are able to provide valuable experiences exploring the meanings of art.

Inquiry to Art Appreciation TheoriesFeldman (1967) offered a different method for critical response or inquiry to art appreciation formats. Feldman claimed that the model is appropriate to be used in the art education programs because art educators basically involved in art criticism in the teaching of art appreciation and in studio instruction. The educators are engaged in the critical talk; therefore they must have some of the skills as art critics. During the process of instruction an art educator describes, analyzes, interprets and makes judgment about the art objects in the classroom. Feldman’s model of art criticism is incorporated in studio art production and art history instruction. Feldman has four aspects in performing criticism: (a) describing a work of art by naming things seen and how the artwork seems to have been formed; (b) formal analysis that includes explanation of qualities like shape, colour, texture and line; (c) interpreting the meaning of the artwork; and (d) judgment, Feldman’s method means evaluating by making comparison, or talking about the originality and craftsmanship. In the process of learning, the purpose of art talk and student’s experience would be influenced by the art educator’s objective; which is, whether the instruction is intended at assisting the students to become only art producers for their artwork or to assist them to be more sensitive in their responses to art (MacGregor, 1971).

Greer and Rush (1985) agreed with Broudy’s (1972) four steps of appreciative or perceptual process and revealed widespread use in most art education programs, and the most outstanding model being the one at Getty Education Institutes (as cited in Hamblen, 1985). Occasionally also called aesthetic scanning, Broudy’s structure consists of exploring sensory qualities, formal relationships, expressive meanings and technical properties. Although judgment is not included, Madeja (1979) described that Broudy’s work appears to place upon it and stress was given to perceiving an art object aesthetically in terms of its qualities (as cited in Hamblen, 1985). Numerous art educators, art critics and aestheticians have created about components of informed aesthetic response for education programs.

Furthermore, Holden (1977), an art teacher, used Broudy’s theory and established a method in preparing an aesthetic education curriculum mentioned that this framework was found useful and successful both in

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the teaching and learning process for the teachers and students in aesthetic education. This is the perceptual method to aesthetic education established predominantly on Broudy’s work and also others who have tried with new approaches in various situations at various levels (as cited in Borgmann, 1981). In expanding aesthetic experience, it requires expansion of aesthetic sensitivity for works of art whereby aesthetic sensitivity could be developed methodically by creating awareness for critical appreciation in terms of sensory properties, formal properties, technical properties and expressiveness properties in arts. Broudy’s model identifies these four levels of aesthetic scanning involving what art educators call the informed aesthetic response (Broudy, 1970).

On the other hand, Mittler (1980) proposed an art appreciation program incorporating a sequence of art criticism and art history operations. The educator proposed four stages; (a) premature decision-making that is a crude scanning operation which often terminates in premature decision-making based upon incomplete analysis of available cues in a perceived object; (b) searching for internal cues that lead to more discriminate decision-making; (c) searching for external cues to check out and confirm decisions; and (d) final decision-making to take consideration of both internal and external cues. The educator also explained that by using the suggested four steps as a guide, it is likely to recognize and categorize the art criticism and art history process believed to be significant to an art appreciation program. Through this process students are able to make and defend individual, differentiate judgments with regard to a various kind of visual art forms.

Formalism TheoryFor both Bell (1914/2014) and Fry (1920/2012) the main notion consists of aesthetics; only “significant form” must be studied as the soul of visual art forms. It is believed that through significant form, one can assess the art since it can clarify the peculiar nature of an aesthetic experience in which it represents the autonomy of work of arts (as cited in Braembussche, 2009). Braembussche also emphasized that Bell and Fry’s theory of significant form is similar to the contemporary view that visual art is concerning the artistic process that is often related to formalism, technical and aesthetic property of works of art. Both art critics believe that the elements such as lines, shapes and colors govern the formal quality of works of art.

Formalism is predominantly an examination about what it takes to determine the aesthetic characteristics or features or properties of things that incorporate the elements and principles of art. “Aesthetic” is an approach to give a sense of features that are aesthetic such as: beauty, ugliness, daintiness,

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dumpiness, elegance, and so forth. Formalist theory emphasizes meaning that is intrinsic in the formal qualities of an artwork. Bell (1914/2014) explained that to appreciate works of art they have to be related to the experience from our past, the knowledge that we have and emotion can influence an individual interest. The only internal or intrinsic criteria are considered important for the formalists, which are the forms of the artwork and not the content so that judgment of artworks can be merely based on the formal properties (as cited in Braembussche, 2009).

Intrinsic ValueParker (1920/2003) established that one is concerned with the intrinsic value of art instantly recognized in the experience of the arts that is frequently identified as “hedonistic”; value of art involves the enjoyment of sense of the aesthetic expression media offers, such as pleasure in the color, rhythm and movement through the use of line and form. There are two essential parts of formalism theory, which are the elements of design (line, color, shape, form, value, texture and space) and principles of design (harmony, balance, rhythm, pattern, emphasis, movement, variety, economy and proportion which later contribute to unity of a work of art). These two components are the building blocks used to create a work of art. Braembussche (2009) stressed formalism depends purely on the artistic criteria to assess works of art that are judged with independent, intricate, autonomous experience to be reflected on their own distinctions.

Aesthetic ExperienceAesthetic experience begins with a compelling reason to engage—a felt need, tension, or puzzlement that requires struggle. It continues in an uninterrupted movement towards an end, a movement infused with anticipation of the final outcome. (While the movement may be interrupted in time, it is not interrupted in intent.) Along the way we take action, even if that action is only intent observation, and we care about the things and conditions that result from our action, especially their bearing on the anticipated end. Finally, the ending is a consummation (not merely a cessation) that connects all events in the experience into a continuous, purposeful movement (Dewey, 1934, 1980, 2005). Art in the narrow sense results when the students create products or experiences whose direct aim is to create aesthetic experience in those who appreciate the work.

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Elements of ExperienceIn terms of analysis of aesthetic experience, Parker (1920/2003) has proposed elements of experience in the process of learning. The writer stated that to create a tangible notion of art experience and relate it with other facts, one should choose the components of mind inflowing into the art experience and reveal their relationship of characteristic. It is described the first element; each and every experience contains sensation of the media of expression. For example, a painting that has color. Vague feeling is the characteristic of aesthetic expressions, which the media used, represented by an expressive display of moods. Meanwhile the third element that is considered is the sense element, which possesses a function to represent a thing. The last element included is image of various senses—sight, hearing, taste, smell, temperature, movement which arise in connection with the ideas or meanings, making them concrete and full.

For this conceptual framework, related theories were used in this study. Art criticism or inquiry to art appreciation theories, Feldman (1967), Broudy (1972) and Mittler (1986/2005) were used as the departure point; incorporating formalism theory (Bell, 1914/2014; Fry, 1920/2011); and also elements of experience (Parker, 1920/2003). Following this section is a detailed explanation of the conceptual framework. Figure 1 displays the conceptual framework proposed for this study, which this section focuses on applying the concepts to the teaching model for art appreciation, which can be used generally in visual arts or applied arts. The researcher has generated two propositions which were included into two response modes: (a) intrinsic value covers the aspects of elements and principles of art and (b) aesthetic experience: elements of experience covers the aspects of media of expressions, aesthetic expression, sense elements and image of various senses. These levels are sequentially arranged and are as seen as progressive in achieving art appreciation.

Statement of ProblemZimmerman (1985) claimed that the teaching and learning of studio art production typically concentrates completely on students’ artistic technique, design layout or composition and psychomotor domain. So far, there is no indication that shows the studio art production offers students with an appreciation towards the visual arts. Furthermore, the educator also mentioned that many students have excellent skills in using various types of media or medium but are only able to make shallow responses toward a work of art. In addition, Eisner (1972b) established the aptitude to study and observe

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the world does not flow from the aptitude of making artistic process or art production. Moreover, Carpentier (1987) explained that art teachers in the 1960s and 1970s condemned the most important and powerful key studio art curricula established aiming at self-expression as inadequate and suggested a need to change the art education program by integrating art appreciation in the curriculum. Besides that, most art educators do not incorporate the aesthetics theory because they are uncertain about how to go about; hence art appreciation is missing in most art programs (Hamblen, 1988). Mittler (1980) also agreed with Chapman (1969) pointing out there are numerous indications showing that a studio-based program only offers insufficient factual information about the topic of art and has only a slight effect on the students’ attitude regarding art appreciation.

In emphasizing the disregarded part of critical aspects of art as one main line for curriculum improvement, Eisner (1965) argued that the combination

Figure 1.1. Conceptual framework of the teaching model for art appreciation.

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of art appreciation with an art subject is a fundamental area in need of development for students who are the main target audience rather than art creators. Furthermore, Eisner also stated art educators must not concentrate too much on the artistic production but also cover the critical aspects of art. The students have to learn how to look at art by using particular tools to study it. Moreover, Eisner stated that upon conducting tests to hundreds of high school and college students within the state some years back, the writer found the student’s attitude concerning art shows very minimal appreciation of the role of the arts in society or an understanding of the ways critical judgments were made. Students also did not perform well in the tests dealing with details of the artists and art history.

Perhaps this could be due to the lack of teacher’s preparation and insufficient resource materials in preparing the curriculum. Chapman (1969) asserted that among the obstacles to creating an effective of art appreciation goals are lack of teacher’s preparation and insufficient resource materials in preparing the curriculum that should be helpful for the art teachers. Conant (1965) also explained that only 25% of the schooling has a proper curriculum guide in art education, however the majority of them were obsolete and redundant. This explains why only a few art teachers deliver sufficient guidance in planning and presenting art appreciation and art experience to their students. The little substantiation to support this issue has been enhanced over the recent years (as cited in Mittler, 1980).

Research ObjectivesResolutions of the research adapt to the following moves and they are:a. To explore the models of art appreciationb. To identify the related theories of art appreciationc. To investigate the connection between art appreciation theories with

aesthetic experience

FindingsUpon analyzing the related models and theories of art appreciation for students to achieve an aesthetic experience, several findings were made and they are namely:

Implication toward TheoryThe findings of this research have proven to strengthen the cognitive skills. Art appreciation theories introduced by Feldman, Broudy and Mittler have

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the potential to enhance appreciation of artists’ works and students’ studio art production which has been an issue in the visual communication subject and in art education in general. The incorporation of formalism theories by Bell and Fry found most essential terminology to be incorporated in the learning module for classroom learning and experience by Dewey. Parker’s theory found to be the enlightenment that are in the form of classes of elements in experience and to combine to create a tangible meaning of the experience of art for students. All these relevant theories were able to be used in developing the teaching model and at the same time it was a helpful material for the lecturer to guide the students to develop their cognitive skills or enhance their thinking skills. It is found to be the significant component and strategy in visual communication subject.

Research Contribution towards Art Education Body of KnowledgeThe main goal of this research is to develop a comprehensive concept of implementation of art appreciation through visual communication subject. Following is the summary of the model:

Figure 1.2. Art appreciation teaching model for undergraduate level.

Through literature review, very little research used art appreciation incorporating art vocabulary to enhance students’ cognitive skill in art education programs. The introduction to this new teaching model is found to be a method of problem solving, improvisation and innovation. The contribution of knowledge specialized in visual communication, obtained through the research findings using the quantitative methods. This method is strong enough to justify the effectiveness of the art appreciation teaching model from the research findings as follows:

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Research Contribution towards Evaluation in Teaching Visual CommunicationThe art appreciation teaching model emphasizes the evaluation in teaching visual communication to stress on students’ active learning. Moreover, the purpose is to have a deeper understanding to learn effectively in the classroom. Cooperative learning and guided based learning have been shown through this module to increase students’ higher-order thinking and problem solving. The goal of the module is to offer resources to lecturers which will allow them to transform their classrooms into active, student-centered learning environments. The module has covered several topics from the lecture classes and provides active learning activities that guided students to develop their cognitive skill. This new paradigm for teaching recognizes that knowledge is constructed, discovered and extended by students as they interact with their environment. The lecturer is important in the learning process as he or she creates conditions which support and encourage students to construct meaning.

Preparation of Conceptual Framework for Instructional ApproachThe conclusive findings of this research indicated that the majority of art educators agreed that they are facing problems related to art appreciation. They emphasized too much on studio art production and do not have proper material in preparing a teaching model at undergraduate level. This conceptual framework has two important components namely cognitive skill and psychomotor skill for students to gain learning experience. So, this conceptual framework can be applied to any other art subjects such as drawing, photography, history of art and design, typography, graphic design, illustration/cartoon, computer graphic and animation. Lecturers can develop their own classroom instruction material based on this conceptual framework. The only difference here is that each subject would have its own art vocabulary so the lecturer can adjust this framework to suit the subject content.

This conceptual framework was developed based on the issue specifically to solve the problems encountered in teaching art appreciation. By integrating the two skills, this conceptual framework will help lecturers resolve any issue pertaining to art appreciation. This conceptual framework was formed through cognitive-based learning and such concept was discussed in the literature review. Therefore, this conceptual framework should be used in teaching diploma and undergraduate level graphic design and multimedia programs.

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Conclusion The developed art appreciation teaching model in the visual communication subject for the purpose of teaching art appreciation was designed to enhance a small part of the current curriculum. Cognitive learning strategies are effective instruments in helping students with learning problems. Learning is a complex task requiring students to improve any shortcomings in terms of cognitive skills—the higher order thinking skills comprising critical, logical, reflective, metacognitive and creative thinking are also a requirement set by the Ministry of Education (MOE). Learning needs mental effort; good learners both strategic and poor, eventually improved themselves which means learning occurs. The quality of the teaching model and its expectations for learning and measurable level of understanding enhances their cognitive learning point.

The use of cognitive strategies can increase the efficiency of learners who approach a learning task. Finally the framework is to improve the teaching of art appreciation at undergraduate level. Art appreciation has always been the highest goal of art education and one of the powerful rationalizations for art’s equivalent addition in the curriculum lies in its possession to cultivate such appreciation. The introduction of this art appreciation teaching model provides students with a higher stage of civilization or enlightenment, expands their imagination, generates their successful communication abilities and provides students with instruments for producing critical options and assessments. In reality, the fourth contribution provided students with instruments for producing critical options and assessments that were found to be the foundation to the other three aspects.

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ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING: WHY PROMOTING LEARNER AUTONOMY IS DIFFICULT

Renuka V. Sathasivam (PhD)Faculty of EducationUniversity of Malaya

[email protected]

AbstractAssessment for Learning (AfL) is an assessment process embedded within the regular teaching and learning discourse to inform and improve student learning by monitoring their progress and encouraging learner autonomy. This article focuses on learner autonomy in the context of AfL. Learner autonomy is a process of discovery that advocates students, incrementally, to be responsible to take ownership of their own learning. Teachers play a vital role in encouraging and facilitating learner autonomy among their students. However, teachers find it difficult to implement learner autonomy within their regular classroom assessment practices because it requires them to rethink their classroom traditions, their beliefs about teaching and learning and their relationships with their students. Teachers’ epistemological beliefs, pressures of summative examinations, unrealistic breadth and depth of the externally imposed curriculum, misconceptions with regards to AfL and power balance issues among teachers and students are some of the dilemmas that teachers face when promoting learner autonomy. Three strategies are suggested to help teachers promote learner autonomy in their classrooms. First, it would be easier for teachers to embed learner autonomy within their regular lessons if teachers reconceptualized AfL as a teaching approach rather than an evaluative one; second, teachers may utilize teaching approaches that favor incremental power depletion of teachers and third, teachers should engage in contemporary professional development that supports and guides them in their quest of promoting learner autonomy in their classrooms.

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International prominence of Assessment for Learning (AfL) should be credited to the seminal review of research on formative assessment practices undertaken by Black and Wiliam (1998a) that showed formative assessment practices resulted in significant improvement of student achievement at all grade levels, all types of students and worldwide. Formative assessment is conceptualized as an ongoing process engaged by teachers and students in order to gauge student understanding, and information gained from this process serve as feedback to modify current and to enhance future directions in teaching and learning (Dixson & Worrell, 2016; Young & Jackman, 2014). According to Black and Wiliam (1998b), the assessment process becomes formative when teachers use the evidence to adapt their teaching to meet student needs. Many researchers have expressed concern regarding this conceptualization of formative assessment because it seems to limit the utilization of feedback to only the teachers, and not much is mentioned about student involvement in this process (Frey & Schmitt, 2007; Klenowski, 2009; Sambell, McDowell, & Montgomery, 2013).

To show active student involvement, Assessment for Learning (AfL) was introduced (Swaffield, 2011). Willis (2011) defined AfL “as evaluative practices within the regular flow of teaching and learning with the purpose of informing and improving student learning to enhance learner autonomy” (p. 401). Coined by Holec in 1981, ‘learner autonomy’ means learners having the capacity and awareness to regulate their own learning. Learner autonomy gives students the freedom to make choices about the direction of their learning, so they have greater influence on their learning outcomes (Littlewood, 1997; Nakata, 2014; Tassinari, 2012). In the AfL context, learner autonomy refers to students acquiring knowledge and skills on self- and peer-assessment strategies (Black & Wiliam, 2009). An autonomous learner who has acquired the knowledge and skills on self- and peer-assessment would be able to look at a piece of work or a learning context, and to evaluate the level of that current piece of work/learning context in relation to the specific or standard learning goals or criteria. The student is then able to assess the quality of the piece of work and learning context and take the necessary actions to revise and improve on it accordingly (Andrade & Valtcheva, 2009; Spiller, 2012).

Teachers can make students understand and acquire learner autonomy in the assessment process by facilitating activities where students are engaged in analyzing marking schemes or scrutinizing exemplars of previous students’ work (Blair & McGinty, 2013; Wiliam & Thompson, 2007). When students have experiences of undertaking these kinds of activities they are able to formulate success criteria for themselves (Black & Wiliam, 2009). Students

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are able to recognize success criteria because they are actively participating in dialogs, initiating and contributing to discussions; feedback actively received by students from these discussions act as stimulus for reflection and metacognitive processes (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006). As such, autonomous learners are able to evaluate their own and others’ work, identify strengths and weaknesses, and make suggestions for improvements (Dam & Legenhausen, 2011). These evaluative practices not only support student learning but also assist students in taking ownership of their learning and eventually to become autonomous learners (Cowie, 2005; James, 2006).

Giving students autonomy does not mean that teachers completely transfer all control and decisions to them. Teachers’ roles in this process are vital as students collaborate with their teachers to gain some levels of autonomy (Zou, 2011). Therefore, learner autonomy is a process of discovery that advocates students, incrementally, to be responsible to take ownership of their own learning and to look upon learning as a lifelong process (Jacobs & Farrell, 2001; Zou, 2011). However, learner autonomy is not always an innate trait. While in some students there is a natural drive to take control of their own learning, in some others who are not naturally autonomous some kind of intervention aimed at promoting learner autonomy must be present. According to Littlewood (1997), the former is known as proactive autonomy and is generally associated with students from the Western countries. The latter is known as reactive autonomy and is prevalent among students in the Eastern regions. Therefore, it is imperative for teachers, especially in the Eastern regions, to provide their students with an awareness of how to think and how to learn to lead them to learning independency. Teachers who present themselves as facilitators of student learning and possess supportive attitudes are usually better at creating opportunities for encouraging learner autonomy (Clark, 2015). The success rate of learner autonomy implementation in the AfL context depends largely on the teachers as well as the teacher-student relationships (Little, 1995; Willis, 2011).

Conceptualizing Learner Autonomy in the Context of Assessment for Learning (AfL)Historically, AfL has been conceptualized from a cognitive-constructivist perspective (Willis, 2011). In this paradigm, the learner autonomy concept would require teachers to focus on cognitive processes to make students become more of an expert and to develop expertise in self-assessment strategies. Self-assessment is a metacognitive process where teachers explicitly make students aware of the self-assessment strategies. These strategies include students making judgment of their own work (self-monitor),

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then identifying disparities between their current and desired performance and lastly, diagnose and implement further learning activities for enhancing their understanding or skills (Ramnarain, 2010; Spiller, 2012; Young & Jackman, 2014). Teachers inspire these competencies and skills by asking students questions that focus on self-evaluating and self-monitoring skills (e.g., “What do you think can be done to improve this work?” or “Good, the ideas are developing. So how do you want to move forward?”). By facilitating these metacognitive practices, teachers are slowly enabling the students to share and eventually take up more of the responsibilities of learning and assessment; hence creating autonomous learners (Buhagiar, 2007; Chappuis, 2005; Kay, Li, & Fekete, 2007). Thus, teachers’ role is to encourage students to monitor and make thoughtful judgements of their thinking as well as to explicitly identify strategies that could lead to improved understanding (McMillan & Hearn, 2008).

In recent years, AfL has been reconceptualized from a socio-cultural perspective (Willis, 2010). Socio-cultural perspective draws the concept of learning from social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978) and the idea of situated learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991). From the socio-cultural perspective, learning is no longer an individual act but is a dialectical and cultural set of practices because all learning involves interaction with one’s context (objects, people, their words and ideas). This requires teachers to recalibrate their teaching focus, from teaching as an individual cognitive acquisition to teaching as an on-going student participation in cultural practices (Sfard, 1998; Willis, 2007). Giving autonomy in a sociocultural perspective means teachers must also guide students on how to participate with others and to acknowledge the importance of a cultural sense of what is ‘right-or-wrong’ that would allow their students to participate socially in the learning process (Willis, 2007). Therefore, to encourage learner autonomy teachers must devise learner-centered classroom environments where knowledge is socially constructed, students are actively participating in their learning, group work where trust and cooperation among group members are evident and a safe learning environment where feedback and evaluation of learning are provided in a nonthreatening manner (McMillan & Hearn, 2008). In addition, teachers must also practice flexibility as they bestow their students with choices on what and how to learn, as well as ample opportunities to evaluate their own and others’ learning (Spiller, 2012). Thus, within the context of AfL, peer-assessment becomes the strategy to stimulate learner autonomy; as students take ownership of their learning as a social enterprise where students engage in dialogs and negotiate learning outcomes collectively (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall & Wiliam, 2004; Leahy, Lyon, Thompson, & Wiliam, 2005).

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Why is Encouraging Learner Autonomy in the Classroom Difficult to Achieve? Studies have shown that teachers find it difficult to implement learner autonomy in the AfL context because it requires them to rethink their classroom traditions, their beliefs about teaching and learning and their relationships with their students (Buhagiar, 2007; Tan & Leong, 2014; Thanh-Pham & Renshaw, 2014). Drummond (2008) highlighted that assessment practices usually implemented in the classroom reflect teachers’ understanding of learning and what is valued within the social and cultural context. For example, a behaviorist teacher would view knowledge as objective and stable. These teachers also believe that students’ learning abilities are innate qualities and the best way for learning to occur is to transmit the knowledge to the students (Murphy, Sharp, & Whitelegg, 2006). Therefore, behaviorist teachers would view themselves as authoritative and administer usually teacher-centered assessment activities and hold convergent classroom discussions. Subsequently, these teachers tend to deprive students of any teacher independent exchange opportunities (Brown, Kennedy, Fok, Chen, & Yu, 2009).

Teachers, especially those working in high visibility summative assessment environments, face external pressures that may prevent them from encouraging student autonomy. In such environments, the spotlight is generally on the results of the summative assessments but these assessments primarily focus on low-level outcomes which mainly require memorization and knowledge reproduction (Berry, 2011). Since these summative examination results will be used to select students for elite schools and for the limited number of university places, teachers feel accountable for students’ success and thus are not motivated to encourage learner autonomy as they perceive it as a waste of time with little benefit for their students’ future. Therefore, teachers are discouraged from deploying AfL and especially learner autonomy, even though learner autonomy can develop sophisticated knowledge and skills (Brown et al., 2009).

The concept of learner autonomy does not sync well with an externally imposed curriculum which usually covers a very wide content matter simultaneously demanding teachers to complete the curriculum within a limited time (Clark, 2015). Even among those teachers who appreciate the potential of AfL to positively influence student achievement, there are concerns that AfL demands too much class time to integrate and its implementation limits the amount of curriculum teachers can cover (Marshall & Drummond, 2006). Carless (2005) noted that teachers believed AfL was good in theory, but deemed it impractical to implement. Subsequently, many

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teachers may express intentions seemingly aligned with AfL principles; however their AfL implementation practices are usually conducted in a very literal and procedural manner (Marshall & Drummond, 2006).

Teachers’ misconceptions about the fundamental principles of AfL may also prevent them from achieving learner autonomy. For example, Hargreaves (2005) examined teachers’ conceptions on AfL and found that many are still holding on to the ‘first-generation’ definition of formative assessment. In this definition, assessment is an activity teachers do to obtain feedback from students to make more systematic improvements and guidance for future classroom instructions. Having this misconception would then have teachers, to some extent, putting the burden of student learning on themselves as they feel it is their responsibility to help students with their learning (Black & Wiliam, 2003). Teachers who have this misconception would generally play down the students’ roles in assessing their own and peers’ learning and even discourage students from using their assessment results to guide future learning (McMillian, Hellsten, & Klinger, 2010). Another misconception that may prevent AfL is the idea that sufficient resources are lacking to successfully implement it. In reality, AfL integration requires very few additional resources (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, & Wiliam, 2003) as the majority of classroom strategies associated with AfL focus on teacher-student interactions rather than on using sophisticated resources or technologies.

Teachers’ lack of experience in terms of learner autonomy may be a challenge to implementing this strategy in their classrooms (Black et al., 2003; Hargreaves, 2012). These teachers have been in a system where they were constantly exposed to traditional learning experiences which required knowledge acquisition through teacher-led textbook activities. Thus, when these teachers are expected to provide learning opportunities which facilitate learner autonomy and learning choices, their experiences offer little help. For successful AfL integration, teachers would need to experience positive instances for it to influence their practices (Harrison, 2005). Currently, teachers widely base their use of AfL on their perceptions rather than on positive experiences of AfL. This notion may be a contributing factor for the low adoption rates of AfL in the classroom.

Practising learner autonomy especially from a socio-cultural perspective is challenging for teachers because not only would teachers need to regulate classroom activities that can encourage cognitive enhancement but they also need to mediate and help students learn as a community (Perrenoud, 1998). The challenges for these teachers are two-fold as they would need to infuse both, to encourage social participation as a classroom discourse and

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acquisition of knowledge (Willis, 2011). Moreover, they need to maintain these facets in each and every lesson (Sfard, 1998). Often only highly competent teachers are able to recognize the importance of encouraging learning and participation simultaneously through opportunities for peer learning, in a lively environment of shared ownership, and when these are done systematically and as routines they are able to impart autonomy successfully (Willis, 2011).

Learner autonomy requires a shift in power balance. AfL shifts the power balance from having power over students to sharing power with them (Harjunen, 2012; Wall, 2012). While learning is occurring in the context of AfL, students will be practising strategies of self- and peer-assessment and for this enterprise to succeed, students would need to be able to share power and take control of learning and assessment processes that have traditionally rested with the teacher. Not all teachers are able to handle these changes in power balance (Black & Wiliam, 2006). In giving students autonomy in their learning, teachers would need to help students to negotiate the teacher’s “discourse of power” (Munns & Woodward, 2006). This “discourse of power” contains five key areas that previously were held by the teacher: knowledge, ability, control, place and voice. This division of power becomes fuzzy when students acquire autonomy; thus reconstructing the assessment relationships to share ownership among teacher and students should take place (Willis, 2007). This is not a simple task and many teachers and students are unwilling to come to the roundtable (Wall, 2012).

Teachers who advocate learner autonomy may face students who find this approach does not fit with their own motivations and aspirations (Chappuis, 2005). These students still associate learning with being provided with facts and data. Subsequently, not all students want this power and may choose to adopt an approach known as learned dependence. Yorke (2003) defines learned dependence as a practice where students learn to rely on the teacher “to say what has to be done and does not seek to go beyond the boundaries that believes to be circumscribing the task” (p. 489). Promoting learner autonomy among students in Eastern regions of the world may not be popular. This is because learner autonomy often requires students to undertake verbal interchanges, such as giving one’s opinion or challenging another’s point of view and these actions seem to clash with students’ aspirations where they strive to establish harmonious relationships and avoid conflicts (Chen & Starosta, 1997; Thanh-Pham; 2013). Therefore, teachers who work within this cultural backdrop and with these kinds of students are less likely to adopt learner autonomy strategies.

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Overcoming Learner Autonomy ChallengesIn the previous section, challenges and barriers preventing teachers from enhancing learner autonomy in their classrooms were discussed. Some of these challenges stemmed from how teachers’ view themselves professionally, misconceptions about the core ideas of AfL and the type of students that sway their practices toward learner dependency. The concepts of sharing learning power and responsibility with students are relatively new to teachers and moreover, when asked to implement in unfavorable external pressures, many teachers are unable to accept these challenges and overcome the barriers. Studies have shown that teachers who are most successful in implementing learner autonomy are those who take accountability for what happens in their classrooms (Marshall & Drummond, 2006; Willis, 2011). These teachers generally do not criticize external circumstances or student characteristics. Furthermore, these teachers embed AfL principles throughout their lessons rather than employ bolt-on techniques at definite segments during their lessons.

So how do we help teachers who have not embraced the concept of learner autonomy to practise it in their classrooms? Willis (2011) provides a solution when she suggests that teachers be helped to reconceptualize AfL as an approach to teaching rather than a series of prescribed assessment steps. This can be done by making teachers aware that AfL strategies can be embedded into teaching and learning sessions and that supplying students with autonomy is a process (Dooner et al., 2010). In Willis’s (2011) study, one teacher realized that students value the process of achieving autonomy if they already have a positive relationship with their teacher. This positive relationship can be achieved if teachers share their own learning or life experiences and link it to what their students are currently learning. Rather than teaching autonomy as a ‘bolt on’ activity that is pushed upon the students, learner autonomy can be embodied with the regular teaching and learning as a social enterprise of mutual engagement (Willis, 2011).

If power balance is the issue teachers face regarding learner autonomy, it is then desirable for the teachers to introduce this concept in small increments. The 3E Framework (Enhance-Extend-Empower) allows teachers to let go of their power over students gradually (Smyth, Bruce, Fotheringham, & Mainka, 2011). For example, teachers want to create a scoring rubric with their students. What would they do in the 3E Framework, so that eventually students are able to take responsibility for their own learning? In the enhance stage of creating a scoring rubric, teachers can practice learner autonomy by make small adjustments to their practice to give students more responsibility for their own learning. The teacher still takes the leading role but allows

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students to give some input. In the extend stage, teacher would release more reins to give opportunities for students to make key decisions about how and what they want to learn or be assessed on. In creating the scoring rubric, the teacher becomes the facilitator. Lastly, in the empowerment stage, teachers then empower students to take full responsibility over their learning by re-designing learning activities to ensure that learners’ needs and interests drive the learning experience. In the context of the scoring rubric, teacher may give students the option of whether they would like to be assessed using a scoring rubric they have created themselves or even giving them choices to use different methods to evaluate their work. Through this process, the teachers have learned to provide autonomy to their students.

Contemporary flexible and productive professional development programs should be designed to upgrade teachers’ knowledge and practices on AfL strategies. Professional development models should focus on teachers as learners while promoting collaborative, contextualized and skilled-based learning (Darling-Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009; DeLuca, Luu, Sun, & Klinger, 2012). According to DeLuca et al. (2012), contemporary professional development approaches suggest that teachers may be able to learn more from each other with guidance from external resources and support rather than attending these programs remotely where knowledge is downloaded to them. Teachers are able to cope better with uncertainties and difficulties when implementing autonomy if these programs are designed such that teachers address authentic problems related to their daily experiences. Similarly, fostering a collaborative atmosphere based on mutual trust, respect and support as teachers work together to solve practice-based problems will develop the concept of “communities of practice” that can help reduce frustrations as teachers become experts in creating environments that support learner autonomy (MacPhail, Patton, Parker, & Tannehill, 2014; Pharo, Davison, McGregor, Warr, & Brown, 2014).

ConclusionSuccessful implementation of learner autonomy in schools necessitates an environment having “teachers who are willing to let go and learners who are willing to take hold” (Kumaravadivelu, 2003, p. 144). Implementing learner autonomy is vital because students must be autonomous and lifelong learners to live successfully in the future. Dewey said that “if we teach today as we taught yesterday, we rob our children of tomorrow.” Thus, it is imperative that teachers consciously promote learner autonomy by creating learning environments that make the goals and aspirations of learning explicit

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and engineer classroom discussions that focus on social interactions and sharpening metacognitive skills. We would not want to rob our children of their future!

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DEMONSTRATION AND MENTAL IMAGERY ON THE ACQUISITION OF MOTOR SKILL IN

PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Olubunmi O.Sodiya* & Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali (PhD)Faculty of EducationUniversity of Malaya

[email protected]

Abstract The teaching of fundamental motor skill in primary school is an essential part of pupil’s development in knowledge, skills and behaviours that will enable them to maintain good health and live a healthy lifestyle. The role of physical activity in ensuring that pupils are physically and mentally fit. Nowadays, teachers are confronted with different factors that are affecting the teaching of fundamental motor skills in schools, factors which are external and internal factors such as teacher’s expertise in the field of teaching of physical education, lack of understanding of teaching theories and approaches need to facilitate acquisition of motor skills, environment factor, lack of facilities and equipment. The aim of this paper is to contribute to a better understanding of demonstration and mental imagery as teaching strategies that can accelerate motor skills acquisition in primary schools and review past empirical studies on demonstration and mental imagery in the acquisition of motor skills and the relationship between fundamental motor skills learning and learning theories which are framework of how students absorbed, processed, and retained information during practice.

Keywords: Demonstration, Imagery, Acquisition, Teachers, pupils, Skill

INTRODUCTIONEvery functional activity of a human life involves some motor skills, motor skills are movement and motion, it can be understood as an act of that has

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a goal to achieve that need voluntary muscle movements such as walking, dancing, eating, running, driving a car, riding a bicycle, jumping, etc. Motor skills are categorised into two group’s namely gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are involved in movement and coordination of the arms, legs, and other large body parts. Fine motor skills involve control over the smaller muscles in hands and feet. Fundamental motor and sports skills are introduced to children in school during physical education classes such as soccer, hockey, rugby, swimming, dancing, netball, volleyball. Learning of motor skills knows as motor learning which is defined as a set of rules or schemas to perform a skill and the whole procedure has to be undertaken through the learning process. When learning takes place there must be a change in the behaviour of an individual, improves performance, but before performance can be improved there must be lots of practice. Let’s look at the soccer game as an example of gross motor skills , the majority of private schools include soccer game in the school CCA co-curricular activities every year because children of both genders have developed a high interest in the game of soccer, Children either participate playing soccer in school or at a soccer academy within their various communities. A research study at the Indiana High School Athletic Association (IHSAA) reveals that coaches/physical education teachers play an important role in the teaching of needed skills for children to learn, improve, and better their performance in the game of soccer. There were reviews on the acquisition of sports skills on the children’s stage by stage progress of skills learning, and the important role of the physical education teachers in facilitating the progressive learning process. Hodges, N. J., & Franks, I. M. (2002) explained how instruction, demonstration and visualisation are the best approaches to the teaching of motor skills. Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967) propose three principle stages of skill acquisition, namely the cognitive, associative, and autonomous stage. Physical education teachers, therefore, need a wide range of skills knowledge in order to accelerate the learning process to guide students through these three stages. Hall, C. R., Buckolz, E., & Fishburne, G. J. (1992) in their study explained the relationship between imagery and the learning, acquisition, and performance of motor skills. It was stated that imagery is intricately linked with motor behaviour.

DEMONSTRATIONThe demonstration is the most common method used by coaches/teachers to convey information to learners. It is said to be more effective than pure verbal information. The demonstration approach is an important process

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in learning, to help students learn correctly and to making the learning effective children need some sort of reference information a demonstration from the teacher in order to create a feedback response they observed during the demonstration. It recommended that if teachers are not comfortable or unable to demonstrate the specific skill with this approach, they can select one of the most capable pupils to take him/her through the skill, action, and then have him/her perform for the group. According to Coerver (2014) nevertheless, guidance for students is needed throughout to ensure effective learning. Teachers need to understand student’s needs and support them with adequate guidance to improve their skills for better performance to meet these needs, it’s a recommendation that demonstration approach should be applied in during the practice to give the pupils a clear picture of how the specific skill is performed. The demonstration approach is universally accepted method of teaching motor skills because the pupil’s observation and have a visual concept of the skill when it’s performed by the teacher with verbal explanation during practice.

Mental Imagery Feel it , see it , hear it and do it , skills learning is connected to the brain in the aspect of new information input to process and produce better performance .In other words, for skills learning and a cognitive mechanism such as mental imagery , mental practice are the key to the effective way of learning sports skills. Imagery, visualisation, mental practice and mental rehearsal have been used interchangeably. Researchers, sports coaches, and athletes describe mental imagery as a powerful training technique. Taylor, J., & Wilson, G. S. (2005). Mental imagery is referred to as visualising, hearing the sound, and experiencing the so- called ‘feel’ of the respective action through imagination. Recently, there has been a success story about the use of ‘game sense theory’ as an effective way of acquiring and improving sports skills. However, limited literature exists to date on the effects of this application in the acquisition of soccer skills. On the other hand, the use of mental imagery for skill acquisition is a new trend, but researchers, teachers and coaches need to do more investigation on mental imagery as a teaching approach for primary school pupils. Childhood development stage is a key period when changes occur as a child grows to be physically and mentally fit, emotionally sound, and ready to learn. At the kindergarten and primary school level, children acquire numbers of indispensable experiences that help their growth process, which is stored in their memory as a background knowledge or experiences which can also recall through various methods of learning.

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It has been largely used by sports psychologists, physical education teachers, sports instructors, and coaches as a tool for improving learning and performance of the children during acquisition of motor skills .It helps the pupils in imaging the skill or part of the skill during mental practice, it’s known as the seeing of the mind, the representation in a person’s mind of the physical outside world of the person. Mental imagery improves the acquisition of motor skills of the pupils and helps in performing a well-learned skill. Performing of any new motor skill always depends on learning; it requires the accumulation of new knowledge to be retained in the long-term memory and can be retrieved back to working memory for practice and performance.

There is much empirical evidence on the use of mental imagery, mental imagery can help pupils to acquire many skills such as learning how to play musical instruments, sports skills, and reading, listening, speaking and writing skills and also to improve pupils drawing skills and solving maths problems. Teachers, instructors and coaches need to implement the use of mental imagery in their classes during teaching and learning process. Imagery is a skill that helps learners to acquire, improve, motivate and develop confidence performing other skills. Below in figure 1 shows the diagram of an applied model of mental imagery use in sport Martin, K. A., Moritz, S. E., & Hall, C. R. (1999).

Learning theories on demonstration and mental imagery

Figure 1.An applied model of mental Imagery use in sport.

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There are various educational theories of teaching and learning, several experimental work and conceptual frameworks have been done in the past till now to explained children’s nature of learning. All these Learning theories and model has been proposed by different educational psychologists as a framework describing how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. Some of the theories are the cognitive learning theory, classification of educational objectives by Benjamin Bloom which was known as “Bloom’s taxonomy “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956). Albert Bandura (1977) the social cognitive theory and self-efficacy which proposed that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement and the learning model of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) which proposed that human memory has three separate components that help us to learn, stored and recall .In assessing the role of mental imageryand demonstration in the acquisition of motor skills in primary school different roles of mental imagery and demonstration were reviewed, such as the development of mental imagery, the use of imagery to develop physical and mental skill and the role of mental imagery to learn and master sports skills. The implimentation of demonstration, implication of wrong demonstration and effects of demonstration as a teaching method. Applying mental imagery and demonstration during acquisition of motor skills can enhance intrinsic motivation and student’s self-confidence during practice and performance of the specific skill with an opportunity to create new experiences. Self-confidence can be defined as the feeling of certainty that you are hundred percent equal to the task at hand, freedom from doubt; belief in yourself and your abilities. At the primary school level, the majority of students learning sports skills are considered a novice because they don’t have any idea of how well to practice and perform the sports skills, this is the point where the teacher /coach has to play their role by using mental imagery approach to help the students gain confidence practising and performing the skill and it all falls under teaching learning of new behaviour. Aligning the use of mental imagery and demonstration with Dr Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) which is used when designing educational, training, and learning processes. There are three domains of learning activities according to Bloom, B. S. (1956) Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge) Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self) Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (skills),a taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing, the new domain which is a revision of bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives can be seen below in Table 2. The stages of learning activities,

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which can be applied when using mental imagery and demonstration for pupils at the primary school Level to acquire motor skills.

Table 2. Bloom’s Taxonomy for teaching and learning Bloom’s Taxonomy for teaching learning and Assessment

Mental Imagery and Demonstration

Create Teachers will design lesson plan, construct an approach using video to create a vivid image of the skill or demonstrate the skill for the students to see the physical movement of how the skill is performed.

Evaluate Teachers need to make decision support and praise the students because at that point the students will also evaluate the information they observed during teacher’s demonstration or from the video .There is no right or wrong at this stage.

Analyse Students try to connect their ideas, analysing the specific skill image or physical movement.

Apply Students will apply the information observed, students mimic teachers demonstration and mental image.

Understand Teachers give feedback and correction to student’s skill practice for an understanding of the specific skill.

Remember Practice correction and teacher’s feedback will give students the opportunity to store the correct information on how the skill is performed in the long term memory and students can recall during a rehearsal for a performance of the skill

Researchers report that children in general don’t learn the same way. Some are faster learners than others; some are able learn on their own through trial and error while others wait for adult instructions before they can understand the movement or skill, and progress. During practice, students only learn if the demonstration method is meaningful, arouses their interest and can then ‘hold’ their interest. This is very important because it is the motivational factor to increases the desire for the students to keep attending the physical education classes and look forward to learn more . It has been said that achieving excellence in any domain as an individual, one has to spend time trying to improve performance through practice-related activities.

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According to Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993), to make practice more meaningful and having the full attention of students, the teacher for the training session has to show command and expertise of the skill technique at hand. Throughout daily practice students learn and gain the understanding of the game; if this is not well staged, the chances of an achieving excellence is jeopardized. The teachers act as the role models via the physical demonstration so the students are able to follow along and are able to mimic the respective movement or skill.

Teachers are therefore the most influential factor besides the students, the setting of the teaching and learning environment should be positive and condusive environment and the access to available equipment. According to Williams and Hodges (2005) although hereditary factors may always play a certain role in shaping an individual’s response, skills are highly modifiable and adaptable to practice and the students need to engage in practice to develop and refine their skills. It is possible that the development of personal expertise is dependent upon a complex formula between hereditary and correct environmental factors such as parental support and guidance by teachers in addition to the individual’s commitment and motivation to practice. Starkes, J. L., & Ericsson, K. A. (2003) stated that even though students may bring positive attitudes to the training scenario, they can be termed ‘raw material’, whereby teachers take on the significant task to help redefine skills, provide encouragement and motivation through their methods of teaching. In addition, the availability of access to equipment, and foremost the conducive environment are key to children’s skill development, improvement and better performance.

CONCLUSIONIn this article, we have presented the role of mental imagery and demonstration in the acquisition of fundamental motor skills and how it can be applied by physical education teachers and coaches in primary schools with the use of Bloom’s Taxonomy learning ,teaching and assessment . We have elaborated on the roles of learning theories, how children absorb information, process the information and retain the information. The role of teachers as the facilitator during the learning process, the importance of teaching pupils motor skills in the primary school and the importance of motor skills to pupil’s lifestyle.

In addition, we reported some empirical literature on mental imagery and demonstration, nevertheless, we hope this article can contribute to a better understanding of mental imagery and demonstration as teaching strategies for teachers to accelerate motor skills acquisition in primary schools. However, more research is required for a better understanding of mental imagery and

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demonstration as effective teaching strategies for the acquisition of motor skills in primary school.

REFERENCESAtkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed

system and its control processes. Psychology of learning and motivation, 2, 89-195.

Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1977). Social learning theory.Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Vol. 1: Cognitive

domain. New York: McKay, 20-24.Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role

of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological review, 100(3), 363.

Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human performance. Hall, C. R., Buckolz, E., & Fishburne, G. J. (1992). Imagery and the

acquisition of motor skills. Canadian Journal of Sport Sciences.Hodges, N. J., & Franks, I. M. (2002). Modeling coaching practice: The role

of instruction and demonstration. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20(10), 793-811.

Hodges, N. J., & Franks, I. M. (2002). Modeling coaching practice: the role of instruction and demonstration. Journal of Sports Sciences) 793-811.

Horn, R. R., Williams, A. M., & Scott, M. A. (2002). Learning from demonstrations: the role of visual search during observational learning from video and point- light models. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20(3), 253-269.

Martin, K. A., Moritz, S. E., & Hall, C. R. (1999). Imagery use in sport: A literature review and applied model. The sport psychologist.

Mensch, J., Crews, C., & Mitchell, M. (2005). Competing perspectives during organizational socialization on the role of certified athletic trainers in high school settings. Journal of athletic training, 40(4), 333.

Starkes, J. L., & Hodges, N. J. (1998). Team sports and the theory of deliberate practice. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 20, 12-34.

Taylor, J., & Wilson, G. S. (2005). Applying sport psychology: Four perspectives. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Weeks, D. L., & Kordus, R. N. (1998). Relative frequency of knowledge of performance and motor skill learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69(3), 224-230.

Williams, A. M., & Hodges, N. J. (2005). Practice, instruction and skill acquisition in soccer: Challenging tradition. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23(6), 637- 650.

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FRAMEWORK MATRIX: A STRUCTURED THEMATIC ANALYSIS IN INITIAL STAGE OF MALAY TEXTILE

DESIGN IDEATION IN UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA, MALAYSIA

Rainal Hidayat Wardi*, Ruzaika Omar Basaree, Maithreyi Subramaniam

Culture CentreUniversity of Malaya

[email protected]

Jaffri HanafiFaculty of Education University of Malaya

AbstractThematic analysis is an approach commonly used in qualitative study through text and visual interpretations. Scholars such as Braun Virginia and Victoria Clarke (2006) define the qualitative thematic analysis as an analysis in qualitative research that emphasizes, examines and records pattern or themes within the data. However, in design discipline, the analysis is varied because it merely uses visual representation. Initial ideation which was collected in the earlier stage of the textile design process has produced a certain quantity of ideas via creativity techniques using brainstorming (Osborn, 1957) and mind mapping (Buzan, 1974). Later, these ideas were analyzed, categorized and conceptualized through visual representation techniques. The common techniques used are visual thematic representations namely traditional mood board and concept board. Unfortunately, there was a crucial process before producing mood board that many of lecturers and students have overlooked. A proper design thematic analysis procedure should be developed to avoid poor selection of the design elements and imageries with actual design goal(s). This concept paper is intended to propose an innovative textile design thematic analysis framework that combines three aspects of requirement, namely; 1) Braun and Clarke Thematic

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Analysis Procedure, 2) Framework Matrix Approach and, 3) Structured Element of Design and Identity/Characteristics (Semantic). These three constructs are designed to be cohered as a conceptual framework. The main objective of this study is to conceptualize thematic development procedures in order to help textile design students to develop stronger thematic understanding thus enable them to effectively conceptualize their design idea.

Keywords: Framework matrix, thematic analysis, Malay textiles design ideation, semanti pattern

INTRODUCTIONDesigning textiles are often related to the process of creating designs onto fabrics. It deals with two-dimensional design with related imageries, design elements and principles, repetitions, and compositions. There are two major areas of textile namely interiors (soft furnishings, upholstery and carpets) and clothing (fashion and specific function for industrial use). This will involve a systematic design process that follows sequential procedures from ideation, theme development, idea development and proposed textile products. Suzanne (2008) stated that the field encompasses the actual pattern making while supervising the production process. The most critical part of the process was ideation, understanding and interpreting design theme.

This study is the continuation from previous researcher’s research findings, which focused on textile design process and cognitive learning strategy in Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Malaysia. The previous issue in textile design process was about cognitive strategy that wasn’t designed and implemented as part of the ideation procedure. Evidence proved that the researcher’s research findings was ‘partially’ successful to solve ideation issue due to certain circumstances. The main challenge was that the iterative design process needs to be continually reflected not only in one process cycle. Initial ideation was done in three cycles and to ensure consistent outputs were not easy as it was very much dependent on the intervention strategy and group commitment.

After generating a large number of ideas, the following process was to develop a thematic understanding based on a set of generated ideas (verbs/words) from the earlier stage of textile design ideation. At this stage, the theme development process was emphasizing on Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) such as categorizing, synthesizing, analysis and evaluation.

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This effort needs innovative problem solving approach because it commonly involves a concept of convergent thinking.

The existing approach for this stage was a random selection of imageries without proper justification why and how the images, elements, identity, icons, signs and symbols were selected. The decision was done eventually by students’ self-preferences towards their most satisfactory and convincing ideas. The needs of proper procedures towards the above mentioned selections are crucially important in order to avoid poor selection of imageries, irrelevant, inappropriate design theme and concept. A type of convergent problem solving tool is needed at this point and should be designed in order to have a proper thematic analysis format. The format is still in qualitative approach and Framework Matrix is seen as a potential one that can accommodate the concept of structured ideation in the framework. This method is derived from Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) using NVIVO text interpretation software.

Design IssueThe primary issue at this stage is the implementation of cognitive approaches to develop thematic understandings in design ideation. Based on the above discussion, traditional approaches to thematic solutions were only established in self-preferences analysis of imageries and other elements. This type of analysis drives to poor decision making thus creating inappropriate design concept(s). The answer to this critical issue is to design a proper theme analysis approach which covers planning, implementation and evaluation of thematic analysis. The secondary issue is the needs of structured or categorized elements as a guideline for ideation and thematic analysis. Without the guidelines, most of the ideas were out of the context, thus producing poor design concept.

Statement of ProblemThe approach of idea generation in textile design was very much dependent to the respective trainer/lecturer who was assigned to teach a design course. The absence of a standard ideation procedure has caused various styles of teaching approaches, which commonly derive from conventional practice. The disadvantage of existing practice was seen in terms of poor decision- making when choosing appropriate imageries and other related elements without justification on why and how those imageries were selected. Eventually, the initial ideas were totally out of the thematic context. (based on researcher’s non-participant classroom observation, September 2015).

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The existing thematic analysis was also stagnantly conducted and presented via mood boards with poor outcomes (visual and meaning). This was because of its characteristic that limits the potential of emerging ideas by straightforwardly inclosing it to the narrow framework.

The common issue faced by textile design students at this stage was inability to i) categorize the ideas to specific categories, ii) make the connection between the same and different elements, and iii) preserves the identity and characteristic of the subject matter. The use of framework matrix as a structured thematic analysis in teaching textile design has a great potential to enhance students’ ability to develop thematic understandings thus solving the design process related issue; therefore, an appropriate thematic analysis should be developed at the initial stage of the textile design process and to be implemented in teaching textile design.

AimThe aim of this research is to conceptualize thematic development procedures in order to help textile design students to develop stronger conceptual understanding towards design project so that they could formulate and rationalize their design idea better.

ObjectiveThe objective of this research is to design a proper format for analyzing design theme through the structured framework matrix with categorized design elements and its identity that can be used as a standard thematic analysis for all textile design courses.

Frame of ReferencesThe proposed framework matrix for this study was derived from two qualitative data analysis method, namely Logical Framework Approach (LFA) and Nvivo framework matrix. LFA has an identical approach with Nvivo framework matrix in terms of a summarization of the data and a rationale of the relationship in a specific structure. According to Jensen (2010), LFA is a project design methodology that provides systematic structure for identifying, planning and managing project. This method was once developed in the United State for U.S Agency for International Development (USAID) and being adopted/adapted by various international agencies such as the Department for International Development (DFID) and European Commission (EC).

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The approach empowers the fundamental components of a project should be compactly summarized and acquires structure and rationale of the relationship between project purpose and intended inputs, arranged activities and anticipated outcomes. The adaptability for this approach is encouraging creative thinking and also promotes participatory engagement between respecting parties through the project life-cycle. The variation of this approach is also known as Goal Oriented Project Planning (GOPP) or Objective Oriented Project Planning (OOPP).

A Logical Framework (LFA) is a simple 4x4 matrix act as an instrument to compactly describing the outcomes of the LFA project design process as it summarizes in standard format:i. What exercise will be conveyed out.ii. What means/resources/inputs (human, technical, infrastructural, and

so forth.) would obliged.iii. What potential problems could affect the success of the project.iv. How the progress and ultimate success of the project will be measured

and verified.

LFA consists of four basic levels and four columns, each of which relates to a specific crosscutting function as visualized in table 1.

Table 1: Logical Framework Approach

Intervention Logic Objectively Verifiable Indicator

Sources and Means Verification

Assumptions

Overall ObjectivesSpecific ObjectiveExpected ResultsActivities/Process

The Differences between LFA and Proposed Framework Matrix for Thematic AnalysisLFA approach is explicitly convergence and very focus on its objective by determining the objective(s) and expected outcome(s) as priority. It is also providing a structure which consists of categorical variables as a guideline for idea generation within the specific context.

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For design theme development, the proposed concept requires an identical matrix approach as LFA, but in a different format and procedure. It generates and assembles words/verbs for possible meaning (divergence) and interpreting it accordingly to the suitability of the design theme (convergence). The expected outcomes would be a meaningful factual statement results from the text interpretation.

A thematic analysis approach is applied to various disciplines as a recent study of the thematic analysis was from the field of Linguistic and Education by Anna F. DeJarnette and Gloriana Gonzalez (2016). Their study was based from a social semiotic perspective where the focus was on students’ use language as fundamental to mathematical meaning making. They applied thematic analysis introduced by Lemke (1988, 1990) to examine students’ use of geometric and contextual ideas while solving a geometry problem that required them to determine the optimal location for a new grocery store on a map of their local community. Students established semantic patterns to connect the problem context to geometry. The groups differed in how they used geometry in their discussion of the solution, in particular with how students used distance to describe the location of a new grocery store. Overall, students’ knowledge of the problem context served as a resource for them to establish geometric meanings. Thematic analysis, which describes the connections in students’ talk between out of school and discipline-specific knowledge, highlights ways in which instruction can build upon students’ prior experiences for the purpose of learning in school.

The approach was also applied to computer science study. A research was conducted by Teruel et.al (2016) which focusing on awareness interpretation for collaborative computer games. According them, collaborative computer games have evolved from single-player to massively multiplayer awareness-demanding games, usually involving collaboration to achieve team goals. As a consequence of such evolution, these players should be provided with awareness information that enables them to perform collaborative tasks with other team members. The objective of their research was the analysis of current awareness interpretations in order to develop an awareness interpretation that collects the awareness needs of such games.

The analysis was conducted by a step-by-step Thematic Analysis of current interpretations that led them to extract the most relevant awareness elements defined in existing interpretations. The developed awareness interpretation was empirically evaluated by means of several surveys aimed at assessing whether the implementation of the interpretation elements in a game would improve the players’ enjoyment.

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As a result, the Thematic Synthesis Analysis concluded that none of the current awareness interpretations can deal properly with collaborative computer games, specifically due to collaboration and social and group dynamics. This Thematic Synthesis Analysis led them to coin Gamespace Awareness, a new awareness interpretation based on a combination of the previously analyzed awareness interpretations, which is suitable for collaborative computer games. The interpretation was positively evaluated for two games, namely a first person shooter and a real-time strategy game.

Bloom Taxonomy Cognitive Domain and Convergence Bloom’s taxonomy is a hierarchical model that classifies human cognitive differences. The selection of this taxonomy model was based on several key factors related to the thematic analysis. Based on the model, Higher Order Thinking Skill (HOTS) consists of the action in analyzing, synthetizing and evaluating. These action verbs are aligned with the process of thematic analysis as illustrated in Figure 1. The idea of convergent thinking emerges from HOTS as a thinking process or method to find an answer or particular solution. According to Guilford (1967), convergent thinking allows individual to use existing knowledge to the integration of logic and order to produce a common idea or answer. Problem solving is made based on knowledge, experience, rules, principles, theories, laws or existing formula. Chua Yan Piaw (2004) stated that convergent thinking is focused to one answer, simplifies various answers to a correct answer by logic. The implication of Convergent Thinking is explained in the conceptual framework below.

Conceptual ModelThe diagram explains the implementation concept of thematic analysis. The proposed concept consists of integrated factors (constructs) as follows;

Braun and Clarke Model of Thematic Analysis ModelBraun and Clarke (2006) model is proposed as a guideline for a thematic analysis procedure to support framework matrix activity. It is necessary for both students and lecturers to familiarize with the process by comprehending each and every attribute and its importance. This effort is to equip students with a set of knowledge about thematic analysis procedure before it is mapped in the framework matrix. Both (model and framework matrix) are practically functioned as a problem solving tool. The model emphasizes on the instruction while framework matrix emphasizes on the application. Braun and Clarke

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(2006) proposed that the thematic analysis consists of six steps that should be followed in sequent. The systematic steps begin with familiarization with the data, coding, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes and writing. These attributes are commonly used in the various qualitative data analysis, especially for text interpretation. In this research, the proposed data analysis is not related to observation or interview data. It is just a large number of ideas (verbs and words) recorded from the previous idea generation activities. Therefore, Braun and Clarke model is used after idea generation stage.

Modification and Simplification of the Selected AttributesThe conceptual framework requires some modification and simplification of the attributes as indicated in figure 1. From six attributes, there would be four to be highlighted in order to suit the framework matrix approach. The rationales of selecting only for four attributes are explained specifically as follows;i. Coding – Coding is a general approach to qualitative analysis that

involves in identifying and generating a pattern or important features

Figure 1: Proposed Conceptual Model

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of the data. It is also a process of analysis rather than data reduction as stated by Braun and Clarke (2013). For thematic analysis purpose, coding would be conducted through identifying the same or similar words or verbs from grouped brainstorming data. To make it more focus, coding could be specified into structured elements such as colors, shapes, forms, textures and lines. This process involves framework matrix as a proposed tool to categorize the pattern.

ii. Searching for Themes – This step is a following process after coding activities that involve synthesizing and analyzing the data. For thematic analysis purpose, searching for themes implicate the effort of finding coherent and meaningful pattern in the data (Braun and Clarke, 2013). Analyzing pattern with framework matrix is expected to make the analysis more focus and the outcomes should be classified accordingly to the pre-determined structure.

iii. Reviewing Themes – This step involves reflection whether the theme tells a convincing story about the data and defining of each individual theme and the relationship between the themes (Braun and Clarke, 2013). It could be done by integrating two themes together or to allocate it into two or more themes. This effort involves re-categorizing, analyzing and synthesizing the data.

iv. Defining and Naming Themes – This step requires students to write in detailed analysis about the final theme and re-defining the theme. At this step, it also requires students to name the final theme accordingly to the category.

FRAMEWORK MATRIX APPROACHThe method of framework matrix derives from qualitative data analysis invented by Liz Spencer and Jane Ritchie (2002). The method is different from other qualitative data analysis, as it does not rely on the coding and indexing as main approach. The framework matrix approach is now available in NVIVO version 9 onwards. Numerous qualitative researchers have gained its benefit in helping them practically recognizing and analyzing the data.

For thematic analysis, this method focuses in organizing and managing the data through summarization, flexible and unique matrix output, which enable students to analyze data by case and theme. Instead of recognizing the themes, this feature enables students to specifically segregate the case, theme and sub-theme into structured components. The structure consists of design elements that were used as pre-determined themes to be addressed. Framework matrix is designed to make thematic analysis easier by cross-

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referencing the theme from one to another. Secondly, to see how different themes relate to each other for a particular individual by looking across a row and thirdly, compare the experiences of different individuals by comparing one row to another (Nvivo Framework Matrices, 2013).

Table 2: Standard Framework Matrix from NVIVO 9

Theme 1 Theme 2 Theme 3Case 1 Summary Summary SummaryCase 2 Summary Summary SummaryCase 3 Summary Summary Summary

Modification of the Standard Framework MatrixThe concept needs simple modification from the standard framework matrix. As Table 2, the columns of the theme will be replaced with elements of design while the rows of the case will be replaced with the students’ group. The summary is unchanged.

Structured ThemesStructured themes are designed to help students to focus on the specific themes (elements of design) as pre-defined at the initial stage. The structured themes ensure that the thematic analysis activity is applied within the context or framework. Elements of design are an essential requirement in designing textile as it literally involves with imageries, colours, textures, lines, shapes and forms. The idea of having structured theme emerges from researcher’s research finding that formulate that individual and group brainstorming activities should have a specific structure in order to produce a large number of ideas within the context. The concept of structuring the ideas accordingly to the specific attributes are now can be applied to analyze design theme systematically.

Identity and CharacteristicIdentity and characteristic of the subject matter is crucial part, as it needs to be explicitly preserved. This theme category is designed to ensure that the characteristic of the subject matter is well defined as a principle knowledge,

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therefore to avoid inappropriate design concept in a later stage of the design process. For instance, there would be a question(s) such as “What are the identities of the Chinese New Year Festival?” The answer may vary and could be in a form of objects, symbols or signs such as lions dance, zodiac animals sign, gods of prosperity, lanterns, mandarin oranges, red envelops, temples, family values and etc.

Elements of DesignElements of design are the structured categories that functioned as a guideline in a thematic analysis. From the large number of ideas, students could easily recognize and categorize the idea into these categories. Therefore, the ideas are well organized into a specific themes and the process of thematic analysis would be much easier by relating and synthesizing it to other ideas from different groups. The characteristics of design elements are tabled as follows.

Table 3: Characteristics of Design Elements

Design elements are commonly used in various design forms. For this category, students are provided with the characteristics of five design elements as their guideline. They have to match words or verbs from the set of ideas and map it into the frame matrix. Therefore, the thematic analysis process would be much organized within the specific context compared to non-structured where the context is broad, scattered and ambiguous.

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Table 4: A Proposed Framework Matrix

PROCEDURES The proposed framework matrix is designed accordingly to the standard of NVIVO 9 (2013) format with some adjustments. It is also fit for group activities. Table 3 indicates themes are categorized into five design elements which purposely for organizing words or verbs from the set of ideas. The procedures are explained as follows;

Asking QuestionsThe questions are derived from the same questions used in group brainstorming and mind mapping that also aligned with research question(s). Exploratory types of questions are designed to stimulate thematic analysis process. In mapping the ideas on the matrix, we can give an example of the questions below;i. What are the identities of Malaysian Batik?ii. What are the most prominent motifs in Malaysian Block Batik?iii. What types of lines are used in Royal Pahang Songket?iv. What types of shapes are used in Telepuk Motif?v. What types of techniques are used in Kelarai?vi. Describe the characteristics of Terengganu Songket.

These types of questions would stimulate the idea especially in idea mapping activity, therefore, it is important to have an appropriate question for this purpose.

Mapping the IdeaAccording to table 3, the first left column consists of students’ group where they have to map the ideas accordingly to the themes. The large paper format is advised, as it is suitable for group activities. As working in a group,

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students should describe the characteristic of design elements based on their accumulated ideas in the column matrix. There are five themes that need to be mapped and described accordingly to the theme’s guidelines. At this stage, we are expecting large numbers of descriptions from the matrix up to 50 to 100 descriptions per group.

Patterning the MatrixAfter the idea mapping is done, the following process is to find similar verbs or words from the provided themes and crosschecked with all groups for identical connotations. This process is termed patterning the matrix. The synthesized themes are then to be re-analyzed in order to identify should any other emerging themes are formed during the process. In certain cases, an additional theme emerges, known as a sub - theme (s). If this happens, the framework matrix format would have and additional column for sub-theme(s). Patterning the matrix also synchronizes themes and sub-themes by integrating two themes together or to allocate it into two or more themes. This effort involves re-categorizing, analyzing and synthesizing the themes.

Finalizing the ThemesThese themes are again to be sequentially arranged accordingly to the identity/characteristic and design elements. Every group will now finalize the themes by swapping their framework matrix to the other groups. This effort is to provide inter-group idea exchange by giving additional descriptions to the themes if necessary.

InterpretationsThe last process of thematic analysis is an interpretation of the constructed themes and sub-themes to the meaning. It is absolutely a challenging part of all processes due to various interpretations and thoughts. At this point the construct of identity and characteristic is functioning as a principle reference for interpretation purpose. The interpretation could be done by connecting identity or characteristics of the subject matter to the generated themes and it ought to be mutually matched between identity and themes. If it does not, the ‘meaning’ would be misinterpreted and could cause poor understandings of the overall design concept.

The final themes should be described in a statement and then to be translated into visual form using mood boards. Mood boards are finally produced from a proper thematic analysis. This is a proposed chronological

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approach that is believed to solve one of the critical issues in textile design thematic understandings.

CONCLUSIONThe proposed framework matrix is seen as an alternative approach to the traditional thematic analysis. It covers the most practical analysis to understand design theme by using structured framework matrix. The researcher believes that this text interpretation tool used in NVIVO can also be used to interpret textile design ideas. The critical issue that focuses on building an understanding of the design theme has a potential to be solved by applying this proposed tool. By connecting, categorizing and synchronizing the ideas, students are expected to establish Higher Order Thinking Skill to solve design theme issues.

The proposed framework matrix is expected to benefit lecturers and students to solve design theme related issue. It is a practical tool that bridge ideation and development of design theme. In ideation, we use divergent thinking to find possible answers while framework matrix can do both divergent and convergent at the same time. In terms of applicability, this tool is not only to solve design related issue(s), but it can be applied in any other qualitative analysis with some adjustments to the categorized themes.

This tool is also a user-friendly as its format and function is easily to adapt and understand. The layout consists of the specific themes in columns that need to be fulfilled with descriptions as the guideline is provided in separate sheets. Working in a group is seen as an effective activity in terms of communication. Students are encouraged to involve with group activity to ensure maximum output from collective decisions among group members. Last but not least, this tool is result-oriented format as it generates an immediate result right after the activity.

REFERENCES Bloom, B., Englehart, M. Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956).

Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive

domain. New York, Toronto: Longmans, Green.Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology.

Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3 (2). pp. 77-101. ISSN 1478-0887.Chua, Y. P. (2004). Creative and critical thinking styles. Serdang, Malaysia:

University Putra Press.

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Clarke, V. & Braun, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners. London: Sage. Buzan, T. (1974). Use your head. London: BBC Books.

DeJarnette, A. F., & González, G. (2016). Thematic analysis of students’ talk while solving a real-world problem in geometry. Linguistics and Education, 35, 37-49. DOI: 10.1016/j.linged.2016.05.002

Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw-HillJensen, G. (2010). The logical framework approach. Retrieved from http://www.dochas.ie/Shared/Files/4/BOND_logframe_Guide.pdf.

Lemke, J. (1988). Genres, semantics, and classroom education. Linguistics andEducation, 1(1), 81–99.

Lemke, J. (1990). Talking science: Language, learning, and values. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Osborn, A. F. (1957). Applied imagination. New York: Scribner’s.Ritchie, J., & Spencer, L. (2002). Qualitative data analysis for Applied Policy

Research. London: Sage Publication.Teruel, M. A., Navarro, E., Gonzalez, P., Lopez-Jaquero, V., & Montero, F.

(2016). Applying thematic analysis to define an awareness interpretation for collaborative computer games. Information and Software Technology, 74, 17–44.

Nvivo Framework Matrices. (2013). QSR International Nvivo Framework Matrices Guideline.

Nvivo 9. (2013). QSR International Nvivo Data Analysis Software Version 9. Retrieved from http://www.qsrinternational.com

Suzanne, W. S. (2008). Definition of Textile Designing. John Wiley & Sons Inc.

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INTEGRATING EARLY ALGEBRAIC THINKING IN THE MALAYSIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL

MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM

Piriya Somasundram*, Sharifah Norul Akmar Syed Zamri (PhD) & Leong Kwan Eu (PhD)

Faculty of EducationUniversity of Malaya

[email protected]

AbstractIn recent years, there has been strong urge from mathematics researchers to integrate algebra in primary school level. Introducing algebra in primary school level does not mean teaching abstract form of x and y in primary school. Researchers have argued that algebra underpinned in arithmetic and relates many fundamental principles in primary school mathematics. Classroom discussions and appropriate selection of tasks may foster algebraic thinking. Teaching students to think algebraically in early years of education will build a strong foundation to solve algebra problems in later grades with conceptual understanding. Algebraic thinking should be infused while teaching arithmetic. Early algebraic thinking then bridge the gap between arithmetic and algebra. Thus, it is essential to discuss about algebraic thinking in primary school level to create awareness to educators and curriculum developers in Malaysia. In line with the recent international trend that emphasise on introducing algebraic thinking in primary school, this concept paper presents importance and theoretical perspective of algebraic thinking. This paper also discussed the integration of algebraic thinking in international mathematics curricula, elements of algebraic thinking that can be incorporated in primary school level while teaching arithmetic and present Malaysian primary school curriculum state in infusing algebraic thinking.

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INTRODUCTIONThroughout the years algebra has been depicted as a major complicated subject in school mathematics (Van Amerom, 2002). Poor performance of Malaysian students in algebra was well reflected in results of TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study). The results from TIMSS study provides a comprehensive view of Malaysian students’ achievement in algebra which can reflect the Malaysian education system and practice. Performance of Malaysian students in TIMSS especially in the domain of algebra has been always lower than outstanding Asian countries that have highest ranking in TIMSS such as Singapore, Korea, and Japan (Mullis, Martin, Foy, & Arora, 2012). Particularly, Table 1 shows that the Malaysian students’ achievement in domain of algebra in TIMSS that has been decreasing from 1999 to 2011.

Table 1Achievement of Malaysian Students in Domain of Algebra in TIMSS 1999, 2003, 2007 an d 2011

Year 1999 2003 2007 2011Average Scale Score 505 495 455 430

In Malaysia, formal algebra only begins in Form one (grade seven), secondary school (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia [KPM], 2011). From standard one to standard six in primary school the students were only exposed to arithmetic. Chapter seven of Form one mathematics text book introduces variables in the form of algebraic expressions. This case supports the claim made by Cai & Moyer (2008) that most of mathematics curricula separate arithmetic and algebra. The two topics are being treated as two distinct chapters. There is no connection between topic of arithmetic in primary school and formal algebra in secondary school.

However, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) in United States of America has been giving high priority for algebra beginning from pre-school level. NCTM asserted that from pre-school to grade 12, algebra is underpinned in arithmetic. The concept of function, for instance, can be taught through classroom discussions using numerical patterns in primary school level (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2000). Consequently, studies exploring the ability of primary school students to think algebraically begun to increase (English & Warren, 1998; Gan & Munirah, 2014; Warren, Cooper, & Lamb, 2006). In addition, studies have been conducted to explore kinds of instructional tasks which can develop

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students’ ability to think algebraically in earlier grades together with evaluation of algebraic thinking skills that currently posed by primary school students (Haldar, 2014; Jacobs, Franke, Carpenter, Levi, & Battey, 2007; Rittle-Johnson & Alibali, 1999; Warren, 2003). International mathematics education field has recognised the importance of thinking algebraically in early years of school. Knowing the importance of algebraic thinking, this paper takes a step forward to present an overview of early algebraic thinking which acts as a bridge to connect arithmetic and algebra. This paper will create an awareness of algebraic thinking in early years to mathematics educators and curriculum developers in Malaysia.

Importance of Early Algebraic ThinkingGenerally, in many countries mathematics curricula have separated arithmetic and algebra (Cai & Moyer, 2008; Carraher, Schliemann, Brizuela, & Earnest, 2006). Arithmetic always gets focus in primary school while algebra will be focused in middle and high schools. To be precise, primary school mathematics curriculum focuses on numeracy and calculation skills. Even though students excel in arithmetic, yet they find progression from arithmetic to algebra is tough because it needs a lot of complex adjustments (Kieran, 2004). Transition from arithmetic to algebra indicates “ending” of arithmetic” and “beginning” of algebra. This is where early algebraic thinking comes into play. It helps to improve the struggle established by strict separation of arithmetic and algebra (Carraher et al., 2006). Body of literature has identified in many mathematics curricula, arithmetic always has been separated from algebra. Thus, early algebraic thinking has been proposed to connect arithmetic and algebra.

Early algebraic thinking focused on conceptual understanding. Conceptual knowledge of arithmetic is important to build better understanding in later year of studies (Rittle-Johnson & Alibali, 1999). Relational thinking, for instance, should be emphasised when teaching arithmetic (Carpenter, Levi, Berman, & Pligge, 2005; Jacobs et al., 2007). 67 + 83 = __ + 82, for example, students can solve this problem by only computation. However, relational thinking may assist the students to identify that 82 is one less than 83 thus, adding one to 67 will solve this problem. Possessing such algebraic thinking skills to identify the relations to simplify problems are necessary for more complex problems in later grades of school. This kind of strategy described as relational thinking (Stephens, 2008). Relational thinking helps children to carry out computation in easier and efficient way rather than calculating in step-by-step sequence (Jacobs et al., 2007).

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Generalisation is another important element of early algebraic thinking. It refers to the capability of identifying the basic number properties and generate a general statement (Hunter, 2013). Basic number properties are such as commutative, associative, distributive, zeroes and ones properties. Mathematics researchers have shown evidence that integrating generalisation in primary school can provide greater support for understanding of equations and variables which are two main aspects of algebra (Jacobs et al., 2007; Kaput, 2008). Generalisation in arithmetic context is focusing to relations between numbers and operations (Haldar, 2014). 10 - 5 + 5 = 10, for instance, is one of many ways to represent number 10. It underpins the generalisation that there will be no effect on a number when add and subtract the same number. Generalisation also provides opportunities to develop more efficient strategies that embedded in conceptual knowledge (Jacobs et al., 2007). Jacobs and colleagues (2007) have proven, grade four and five students could demonstrate distributive property to solve (9 x 57) + 57 = o by just calculating 10 x 57. This scenario demonstrates how understanding of general relationship of addition and multiplication supports generalisation development using conceptual understanding of number facts, addition and multiplication.

Warren (2003) has identified four central aspects to describe understanding of early algebraic thinking; “i) relationships between quantities, ii) group properties of operations, iii) relationships between the operations, iv) relationships across the quantities” (pp. 123-124). These aspects obviously show the relation of algebraic concepts and topics at middle and high school level. In middle and high schools teaching and learning, there is a common assumption that students are equipped with basic aspects based on previous experience in arithmetic. Therefore studies on early algebraic thinking suggesting that learning algebraic thinking in conjunction with arithmetic would benefit students to build stronger foundation for formal algebra learning.

Early algebraic thinking not only limited to aspects of arithmetic structures as explained by Warren (2003). It is also extends to patterns (Warren & Cooper, 2005; Warren, Cooper, & Lamb, 2006). Recognizing, extending and generalising patterns inevitable process of algebraic thinking. Symbolic and verbal generalisation required in order work with patterns. These skills prepare the students to see the connection between arithmetic (unique situation) and algebra (general situation).

Theoretical Perspectives of Algebraic ThinkingOne of the theories that supports development of early algebraic thinking is Anderson’s (1983) ACT-R framework. This is based on bigger picture

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of information processing theory supports development of early algebraic thinking. ACT-R abbreviation of adaptive control of thought-rational framework of cognitive development concerns on how human cognition works. He asserted that learning takes place in three stages in memory. First stage is known as declarative then followed by knowledge compilation and final stage is procedural. Facts about a task such as knowledge about doing a subtraction is referred as declarative knowledge. Second stage is knowledge compilation which focuses on making information retrieval more efficient. Third stage, involves condition-action pairs which are called as productions (Anderson, 1983).

Figure 1. A general framework for the ACT production system, identifying the major structural components and their interlinking processes. (Anderson, 1983, p. 19)

Besides this, three types of memories are involved too as shown in

Figure 1. They are working, declarative and procedural memory. Short term memory which holds volatile elements known as working memory while long term memory which stores information permanently are declarative and procedural memories. Basic facts are stored in declarative memory. In the development of early algebraic thinking, for instance, basic facts are facts that related to arithmetic operations such as addition and multiplication (i.e.,

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2 + 4 = 6, 3 × 5 = 15). In production memory, on the contrary, productions will take place. Productions are “condition-action pairs that specify that if a certain state occurs in working memory, then particular…actions should take place” (Anderson, 1987, p. 193). In the domain of early algebraic thinking, productions could be basic facts of arithmetic while the declarative knowledge would be actions related to conceptual understanding of arithmetic structure.

According to Anderson’s model, the environment produces the information and then goes into cognitive system through perception. Then it will be encoded and working memory will keeps it. This model implies as the student recognised the arithmetic operations which actually encoded in working memory. However merely doing this will be meaningless. Hence, the information in perception transmits to the declarative memory, where operations will become a signal for arithmetical activities. Due to limited storage capacity of working memory it leads to temporary storage of perception and enables faster retrieval. At the end, perceptions will be stored in declarative memory for longer time of duration. This is where other objects and events will be linked. This connection is the foundation to retrieve complex information from declarative memory.

Like in the case of figural pattern generalisation, first two or three figural patterns will be given and students will be required to find the subsequent or nth pattern. When first three terms of patterns were given and required to find the subsequent pattern, firstly working memory will receive this information and then will transmit to production memory. The production memory initiates the action of figuring out the subsequent pattern in the working memory when conditions for the pattern match with the subsequent pattern. Finally, as a result of cognitive activity the student will able to draw the subsequent pattern on the paper. On the other hand, more information about sequence of the pattern will be retrieved from the declarative memory and transmit to production memory through working memory if the conditions failed to meet the criteria of given pattern sequence. This information retrieval and matching condition-action pair process will loop until reaching a solution.

Declarative knowledge can have a negative effect on behavior (Anderson, 1983). If a learner obtained knowledge incorrectly or not processed correctly, an incorrect procedure can be performed. Children’s equal sign interpretation would be a good example to explain this because conceptual understanding of equal sign plays an important role as foundation for formal algebra (Jacobs et al., 2007; Kieran, 1981; Knuth, Alibali, McNeil, Weinberg, & Stephens, 2011). According to Kieran (1981), a relational symbol which indicates the sameness of both sides is referred as equal sign. In most cases, students often has operational understanding about equal sign,

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like “add up the numbers” or “the answer” (McNeil & Alibali, 2005, p. 70). Operational understanding only enable students to compute and find correct answer (i.e., 5 + 3 = __), but this skill won’t lead to solve more complex problems in future. Lack of relational thinking hinder students to see the algebraic element of equality and they struggle to memorise algorithms to transform equations (Jacobs et al., 2007). Therefore it is important to ensure learner obtained knowledge correctly.

Early Algebraic Thinking in International Mathematics CurriculaAlgebra not only been an obstacle for Malaysian students. It also has gained attention as an area to be improved internationally. Therefore, many countries have proposed and implemented early algebraic thinking in their mathematics curriculum. In Canada, patterning activities are included in the mathematics syllabus (Ministry of Education, 2005). Patterning activity begins from grade one. Students are required to identify, describe, extend, and create repeating patterns. The syllabus emphasise on exposing young children to repeating patterns and growing and shrinking patterns with concrete materials and pictorial displays. Students should be able to identify the properties of pattern and recognise relationships. Then students are exposed to equality and variables introduced as unknowns in grade five. The curriculum ensures students able to develop making generalisation ability and in-depth understanding of patterns and algebra. It is apparent that the curriculum introduces patterns from grade one and gradually introduces important concepts of algebra such as equality and variables in the later stages.

Same goes to mathematics curriculum in Australia. Patterns and algebra begin from stage 3 in New South Wales (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2012). It focuses on patterns and relationship in the early stage of primary school. The curriculum beliefs that to yield better understanding of algebra, students should be exposed to concepts of patterns, relationships, and unknowns in variety of contexts starting from primary school level. Functions gradually introduced to students by providing activities like “guess my rule”. It requires one student to develop own rule about numbers and another student should guess the rule. These kinds of class activities will foster algebraic thinking by developing conceptual understanding of number properties and arithmetic.

Likewise, in New Zealand, numbers and algebra begins from year one (Ministry of Education, 2007). The curriculum focuses on ability of students to create and continue sequential patterns based on ones, twos, fives and so on so forth. Later in year five the students were required to develop rule in

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number patterns and work on unknowns. The tasks selection emphasised on the properties of operations. For example, the students requires to use multiplication facts to work with addition and multiplication (i.e., 42 ÷ 3 is the same as 30 ÷ 3 = 10 plus 12 ÷ 3 = 4, so 42 ÷ 3 = 14; or 42 ÷ 6 = 7 (known fact), so 42 ÷ 3 = 14).

Common Core State Standards in United States of America also has given very high priority for early algebraic thinking (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers [NGA], 2010). Students are being exposed to elements of algebraic thinking right from kindergarten to grade five. It focuses on pattern and numbers and operations properties. Students are expected to analyse the property of numbers and interpret numerical expression without computation. They also get exposed to functions informally by doing activities involving patterns and rules.

Preceding section discussed about the awareness and integration of algebraic thinking in primary school level mathematics curriculum internationally. In Malaysia, mathematics curriculum for year four for instance, has four strands namely; i) numbers and operations, ii) measurement and geometry, iii) relationships and algebra, and iv) statistics and probability (KPM, 2013). However, there is no any elements of early algebraic thinking. Introduction of ratio and proportion in year 4, 5, and 6 categorised into relationships and algebra strand. There is no any progressive introduction to algebra involving patterns, relationship, unknowns and properties of operations and numbers. Therefore, it is time to look at incorporating early algebraic thinking elements into Mathematics curriculum in primary school level.

What is Algebraic Thinking?According to Kaput (2008), many agreed that strong symbolization and generalisation skills are essence of algebraic thinking. He classified these two distinct aspects into three strands namely; generalised arithmetic, modeling and functions. He defined symbolising aspect as “systematically symbolising generalisations of regularities and constraints” (p. 11), while he defined generalisation as “syntactically guided reasoning and actions on generalisations expressed in conventional symbol systems” (p. 11). Kaput’s categories comprised all aspects of algebraic thinking skills described in the literature of early algebraic thinking.

Generalised Arithmetic. Arithmetic proceeds from known to unknown while algebraic thinking is identifying the unknown and involves working with unknown quantities (Van Amerom, 2002). Algebraic thinking only can be developed through conceptual understanding of operations on

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mathematical objects in place of procedural understanding which focuses on operations on numbers and producing an answer (Haldar, 2014; Hunter, 2013; Van Amerom, 2002). Generalised arithmetic can provide a space for in depth understanding of algebraic equations (Haldar, 2014). Generalised arithmetic involves generalisation about the arithmetic operations properties that hold true for all numbers. Kaput (2008) divided generalised arithmetic further into i) efficient numerical manipulation which involves simplifying calculations using number relations with compensation strategies and ii) generalisation which is utilising number properties like the commutative property, associative property and properties of ones, zero.

Modeling. Kaput (2008) defined modeling as “the application of a cluster of modeling languages both inside and outside of mathematics” (p. 11). It comprises tasks involving equivalence, open number sentences, and working with variables. According to Rittle-Johnson and colleagues (1999), many primary school students find 3 + 4 = 5 + 2 does not make sense. They had tough time to solve the equation presented in the form where operand was on the right side of equal sign (i.e., 5 + 4 + 7 = 5 +__). Relational thinking provides a conceptual understanding of equivalence that “the same as” while operational symbol only provides procedural understanding of equivalence that “do something”. Students should have the conceptual understanding of equal sign by seeing it as a symbol for relation not as an indicator to perform certain operations. Viewing equal sign as denoting to perform computation might be a hindrance for students to master algebraic thinking in later years of education. In algebra students will encounter algebraic equations which have operations on left and right of equal sign (i.e., 6x - 10 = 4x + 2). Therefore, viewing equal sign as relational symbol is very important.

Open number sentences are not new to primary school students. They are always exposed to solving number sentences like “15 + __ = 20”, “__ + 8 = 12”, and “ 24 - __ = 13. Solving open number sentences are young students’ first exposure to algebra in early years (Carraher et al., 2006). These type of number sentences are algebraic in nature and expose students to develop their conceptual understanding of arithmetic operations.

Variable is very crucial aspect of algebra (English & Warren, 1998). Various researches have been carried out to investigate students reasoning about variables (Knuth et al., 2011). For young students’ understanding and relational view of equivalence also lead to better understanding of variables. They can readily solve the variable problems by thinking how many are needed to make the quantities same or the situation fair.

Stephens (2008) investigated year six and seven students’ progression from arithmetic to algebra in variable context using samples from Australia

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and China. He used number sentences with one or two missing numbers to identify contingency of relational view on equality and the ability to work with equality with literal symbols. He used a questionnaire with three different types of questions. First type was number sentences with one missing unknown (i.e., 104 – 45 = o – 46). Second type was arithmetical sentence with two unknowns (i.e., 72 – o = 75 – o) and then the last type was similar to this except includes literal symbols (i.e., c – 7 = d – 10). The results showed students who were used computational strategies in solving first type number sentences were unable to solve second and third type of number sentence. In contrast, students who were solved first type number sentences using relational strategies successfully solved second and third type questions. This shows a clear evidence that relational thinking is essential in dealing with unknowns. Students with relational view able to solve unknowns even before experie ncing formal algebra.

Function. According to Kaput (2008), function is “the study of functions, relations, and joint variation” (p. 11). Functions often referred as middle and high school topics in algebra (NCTM, 2000; Warren & Cooper, 2005). Functions play an important role in most mathematical investigations and it also has been noted as difficult for many students in all grade levels (Warren, Cooper, & Lamb, 2006). However, researches have shown evidence that young students are able to demonstrate functional thinking (Warren & Cooper, 2005; Warren, Cooper, & Lamb, 2006).

Functional thinking can be introduced to young students using patterning activities. Patterns could be in figural or number form. Working with patterns is the student’s first experience with algebraic thinking (NCTM, 2000). Working with patterns is fostering the ability to recognise, describe, extend and create patterns (Warren & Cooper, 2005). Patterns are some series of figures or numbers that can be predicted some form of regularity. A “rule” could be constructed to define the series of figures or numbers.

Generally, students are exposed to repeating patterns right from pre-school. Repeating pattern activities usually will be in the form of numerical (i.e., 2, 4, 7, 2, 4, 7, 2, 4, 7) or figural (i.e., ̄ , o, ¡, ̄ , o, ¡). Hence, these activities would be appropriate to introduce generalisation by asking them what would 10th or 20th figure or number would be (Warren & Cooper, 2008). The next level of patterning activities would be linear patterns where by it grow or shrink in predictable way. Often linear patterns presented in the form of input and output tables (Warren, Cooper, & Lamb, 2006). According to Warren and Cooper (2005), functional thinking also enables students to understand the operations and inverse relationship. When students are required to find the

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input by using given “rule” and output, they will begin to explore further to look arithmetic as change and make link between operations.

The Integration of Algebraic Thinking in Malaysian Primary School CurriculumIn Malaysia, formal algebra only begins from first year of secondary school (i.e., Form one) (KPM, 2011). Not to deny Malaysian primary school text books do comprise some elements of algebraic thinking. The text books do provide open number sentences and numerical pattern exercises. For example, number patterns (pola nombor) sub topic included in chapter one of year four text book (KPM, 2013). Though comprise patterns activities, there is no emphasis given for development of algebraic thinking. These activities were limited to find subsequent or preceding one or two terms. While to infuse algebraic thinking, number patterns activities should provoke students to think of ‘rule’ involved and generalise it to find any arbitrary terms. The pattern activities should encourage students to perform near and far generalisation.

A case study conducted by Gan and Munirah (2014) in Sarawak using sample of five year five pupils, showed that they are able to exhibit some characteristics of algebraic thinking in patterns activities. They were able to look, recognise and extend the patterns but not beyond that. The results showed that they are yet to demonstrate generalisation skills which is the most important element of algebraic thinking. (Gan & Munirah, 2014). Hence, it is not surprising if the middle school students’ poor performance in TIMSS might be caused from of lack of algebraic thinking since primary school.

Malaysian primary school mathematics text books also have number sentences with missing numbers and introduce unknowns as anu. However, it is questionable how students solve those questions; by using mere memorisation of inverse operations or with conceptual understanding of operations and relation al thinking. There is no evidence to show how Malaysian primary school students attempt these questions and how their teachers conduct discussion on these exercises. Therefore, it is difficult to say to what extent the primary school teachers in Malaysia currently infusing algebraic thinking in arithmetic.

To date very limited studies have been conducted in Malaysia in the area of early algebraic thinking. A study by Gan (2008) investigated 13 year five pupils’ ability to work with algebraic elements related problems and identified the evidence of the algebraic thinking capability in Sarawak. He conducted clinical interview by presenting the students with pattern generalisation and word problems involving unknown quantities. The findings showed that

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Malaysian students are able to think algebraically. However, their ability to make generalisation, make use of various representation and symbol sense seemed to be confined and restricted to develop their algebraic thinking.

CONCLUSIONPreceding discussion explained introduction of algebraic thinking in primary school level plays an important role as determinant of success in later learning of formal algebra. Learning to view equal sign relationally, functional thinking by able to work with functions and in-depth understanding of operations properties build strong foundation for formal algebra. Based on Gan’s (2008) findings, Malaysian primary school students yet to develop intensive ability to think algebraically. This inability might be resultant from traditional curriculum design and teaching and learning process which are only focuses on algorithms and computation with the ultimate aim being is to find answer.

Hence, this paper has reviewed and highlighted the urgency of algebraic thinking development in Malaysian primary school level. It has further provided essential strands and theoretical framework that could be integrated in Malaysian context. This review has shed some light on what is thinking algebraically in primary school level and how it can be integrated into curriculum. For an example, teaching compensation strategy in solving number sentences involving operations on both sides of equation (i.e., 5 + 2 = 4 + ___) will help the children to think relationally and simplify complex problems in formal algebra in future. It is time for local curriculum developers and educators to look into infusing algebraic thinking in curriculum and instructional strategies at primary school level.

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some insights from international comparative studies. In National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (pp. 169-193). Reston, VA: NCTM.

Carpenter, T. P., Levi, L., Berman, P. W., & Pligge, M. (2005). Developing algebraic reasoning in the elementary school. In T. A. Romberg, T. P. Carpenter, & F. Dremock (Eds.), Understanding mathematics and science matters (pp. 81-98). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

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Carraher, D. W., Schliemann, A. D., Brizuela, B. M., & Earnest, D. (2006). Arithmetic and algebra in early mathematics education. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 37(2), 87-115. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30034843

English, L. D., & Warren, E. A. (1998). Introducing the variable through pattern exploration. The Mathematics Teacher, 91(2), 166-170. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27970471

Gan, W. L. (2008). A research into year five pupils’ pre-algebraic thinking in solving pre-algebraic problems (Doctoral thesis, University of Science Malaysia, Malaysia).

Gan, W. L., & Munirah, G. (2014). A study of Malaysian year 5 pupils’ pre-algebraic thinking. Asia Pacific Journal of Educators and Education, 29, 105-124.

Haldar, L. C. (2014). Students’ understandings of arithmetic generalisations (Doctoral dissertation). Available from Proquest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3640454)

Hunter, J. M. (2013). Developing early algebraic reasoning in a mathematical community of inquiry (Doctoral dissertation, Plymouth University). Retrieved from https://pearl.plymouth.ac.uk/handle/10026.1/2921

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ISSN 0126-5024 Jilid 40, 2016


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Dicetak oleh Penerbit Universiti Malaya50603 Kuala Lumpur

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