Fotografi ialah proses untuk menghasilkan gambar foto

melalui tindakan cahaya. Pola-pola cahaya yang

dipanculkan atau dipancarkan oleh objek-objek

dirakamkan pada perantaraan peka atau cip storan

melalui pendedahan tempoh tertentu. Proses ini

dilaksanakan melalui peranti-peranti mekanik, kimia atau

digit yang dikenali sebagai kamera. (wikipedia ms).

Seni, proses atau pekerjaan mengambil atau

menghasilkan fotograf. (kamus dewan)

Photography (IPA: [fә'tɒgrәfi] or IPA: [fә'tɑːgrәfi][1]) is the process and art of recording pictures by means of capturing light on a light-sensitive medium, such as a film or an electronic sensor. Light patterns reflected or emitted from objects expose a sensitive silver halide based chemical or electronic medium during a timed exposure, usually through a photographic lens in a device known as a camera that also stores the resulting information chemically or electronically. Photography has many uses for both business and pleasure. It is often the basis of advertising and in fashion print. Photography can also be viewed as a commercial and artistic endeavor.

The word "photography" comes from the French

photographie which is based on the Greek φώς

(phos) "light" + γραφίς (graphis) "stylus",

"paintbrush" or γραφή (graphê) "representation

by means of lines" or "drawing", together

meaning "drawing with light." Traditionally, the

product of photography has been called a

photograph, commonly shortened to photo.

Perkataan fotografi berasal drpd perkataan Greek, iaitu photos

yang bermaksud cahaya dan graphein iaitu melukis.

Camera obscura ini mula-mula dicipta oleh ahli sains Muslim

bernama Abu Ali Hassan Ibn Al-Haitham dan disifatkan dalam

buku beliau bertajuk Kitab al-Manazir ("Buku Optik", 1015-

1021).

Saintis berbangsa inggeris Robert Boyle dan Robert Hooke

kemudiannya mencipta camera obscura yang mudah alih

sekitar 1665-1666.

Pada 31 januari 1839, William Henry Fox Talbot berjaya

menemui proses negatif & positif yang dinamakan calotype.

1851, Fredrick Scott Archer memperbaiki kaedah calotype

dgn mencipta collodion untuk disapukan ke atas kaca yang

disalutkan dgn bahan yg sensitif dgn cahaya.

James-Clerk Maxwell memperkenalkan asas fotografi warna

di Royal Institution, London.

1888, George Eastman dr Amerika mencipta kamera tangan

Kodak.

Tokoh Abu Ali Hasan Al Haitham yang juga dikenalisebagai Alhazen di barat, merupakan Bapa Optik Moden. Beliau merupakan pakar fizik yang terunggul melaluisumbangan terhadap kaedah optik dan saintifik. Abu Ali Hasan dilahirkan pada 965 Masihi di Basrah dan mendapatpendidikan di Basrah dan Baghdad.

Abu Ali Hasan juga merupakan manusia pertama yang memperincikan secara tepat pelbagai bahagian mata danmemberi penjelasan saintifik mengenai proses penglihatan. Abu Ali Hasan menyangkal teori penglihatan Ptolemy danEuclid yang menyebut bahawa mata menghantar sinaranvisual kepada objek yang dilihat. Menurut Ali Abu Hasan, sinaran berasal dalam objek yang dilihat dan dan bukandalam mata.

Jenis Fotografi

Black-and-white photography

All photography was originally monochrome, most of these

photographs were black-and-white. Even after color film was

readily available, black-and-white photography continued to

dominate for decades, due to its lower cost and its "classic"

photographic look.

Monochrome photography implies the act of recording

light in a single color or wavelength. Though there are many

wavelengths of light with which this might be achieved,

monochrome photography generally refers to black and

white photography

Black and white

photography

Color photography

Photography that uses media capable of representing colors

which are produced chemically during the photographic

processing phase.

It is contrasted with black-and-white photography, which

uses media capable only of showing shades of gray, and does

not include hand colored photographs. Some examples of

color photography include prints, color negatives,

transparencies and slides, and roll and sheet films.

Early colour photograph

The first permanent

color photograph, taken

by James Clerk Maxwell

in 1861.

An 1877 color photo by

Louis Ducos du Hauron, a

French pioneer of color

photography.

Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared photography

Full-spectrum photography is a subset of full-spectrum imaging, defined currently among photography enthusiasts as imaging with consumer cameras the full, broad spectrum of a film or camera sensor bandwidth. In practice, specialized broadband/full-spectrum film captures visible and near infrared light, commonly referred to as the “VNIR”

Ultraviolet photography is a photographic process of recording images by using light from the ultraviolet (UV) spectrum only.

In infrared photography, the film or image sensor used is sensitive to infrared light. The part of the spectrum used is referred to as near-infrared to distinguish it from far-infrared, which is the domain of thermal imaging. Wavelengths used for photography range from about 700 nmto about 900 nm. Usually an "infrared filter" is used; this lets infrared (IR) light pass through to the camera, but blocks all or most of the visible light spectrum (the filter thus looks black or deep red).

Uses of full spectrum photography are for fine art photography, geology, forensics & law enforcement, and even some claimed use in ghost hunting.

Full Spectrum Image,

Palace of Fine Arts

Infrared

image of the

Mississippi

River

A GALEX image of

the spiral galaxy

Messier 81 in

ultraviolet light.

Digital photography

Digital photography is a form of photography that utilizes

digital technology to make digital images of subjects. Until

the advent of digital technology, photography used

photographic film to create images which could be made

visible by photographic processing. Digital images can be

displayed, printed, stored, manipulated, transmitted, and

archived using digital and computer techniques, without

chemical processing.

10 MP Nikon D200 (Nikon dSLR) and

scanner, which converts film images to

digital

The Canon EOS

350D

The Canon PowerShot A95

Alat untuk mengambil gambar foto (kamus dewan).

Kamera ialah alat yang digunakan untuk menangkap imej

sebagai gambar foto yang pegun atau satu susunan imej

bergerak (filem atau video). Istilah ini serta kamera masa kini

berevolusi dari camera obscura, frasa bahasa Latin bagi "bilik

gelap", suatu mekanisme awal bagi memaparkan imej, yang

mana seluruh bilik yang berfungsi sebagai sistem penghasilan

imej tepat pada masa (wikipedia ms)

Kepelbagaian Jenis Kamera

Bagaimana cahaya melalui lensa

ke penilik

Pengenalan

Factors that affect the total exposure of a photograph include

the scene luminance, the aperture size (f-number), and the

exposure time (shutter speed); photographers can trade off

shutter speed and aperture by using units of stops. A stop up

and down on each will halve or double the amount of light

regulated by each; exposures of equal exposure value can be

easily calculated and selected. For any given total exposure,

or exposure value, a fast shutter speed requires a larger

aperture (smaller f-number). Similarly, a slow shutter speed,

a longer length of time, can be compensated by a smaller

aperture (larger f-number).

Dail kelajuan shutter terletak di atas kamera.

Padanya terdapat angka-angka yang menunjukkan kelajuan.

Cth: 1,2,4,8,15,30,60,250,1000, dan 2000.

Sebenarnya nilai angka ini menunjukkan pecahan dalam saat.

Angka 2 menunjukkan kelajuan ialah ½ saat dan bagi angka

2000 ialah 1/2000 saat.

½ ¼ 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/125 1/250 1/500 1/1000 1/2000

1. Kelajuan Berkurangan

2. Tempoh cahaya masuk lebih

lama

3. Nilai cahaya=X2

1. Kelajuan bertambah

2. Tempoh cahaya masuk lebih

pendek.

3. Nilai cahaya=X ½

Shutter terletak di bahagian dalam kemera.

Nipis, diperbuat drpd besi atau kain.

Kebanyakan kamera mempunyai kelajuan shutter sehingga

1/2000 saat.

„B‟ ialah BULB bererti kelajuan yang melebihi 1 saat, sesuai

untuk pengambaran pd waktu malam.

Shutter speed is one of several methods used to control the

amount of light recorded by the camera's digital sensor or

film. It is also used to manipulate the visual effects of the final

image beyond its luminosity.

shutter speed dial

Slower shutter speeds are often selected to suggest

movement in a still photograph of a moving subject.

Excessively fast shutter speeds can cause a moving subject to

appear unnaturally frozen. For instance, a running person

may be caught with both feet in the air with all indication of

movement lost in the frozen moment.

When a slower shutter speed is selected, a longer time passes

from the moment the shutter opens till the moment it closes.

More time is available for movement in the subject to be

recorded by the camera.

A slightly slower shutter speed will allow the photographer

to introduce an element of blur, either in the subject, where,

in our example, the feet, which are the fastest moving

element in the frame, might be blurred while the rest

remains sharp; or if the camera is panned to follow a moving

subject, the background is blurred while the subject remains

sharp.

The exact point at which the background or subject will start

to blur depends on the rate at which the object is moving, the

distance it is from the camera and the focal length of the lens

in relation to the size of the digital sensor or film.

Slow shutter speed and penning

When slower shutter speeds, in excess of about half a second,

are used on running water, the photo will have a ghostly

white appearance reminiscent of fog. This effect can be used

in landscape photography.

Zoom burst is a technique which entails the variation of the

focal length of a zoom lens during a longer exposure. In the

moment that the shutter is opened, the lens is zoomed in,

changing the focal length during the exposure. The center of

the image remains sharp, while the details away from the

center form a radial blur, which causes a strong visual effect,

forcing the eye into the center of the image.

Kesan Kelajuan Shutter

sparks coming from coals

(exposure time 15 seconds)

street at night (exposure time 30 seconds)

Kelajuan yg pantas akan mendedahkan sedikit cahaya dan

boleh memberhentikan dan menggkakukan sesuatu

pergerakkan.

Kelajuan yang lemah akan mendedahkan lebih banyak cahaya

dan tidak sesuai untuk menghentikan pergerakkan sesuatu

objek.

Aperture

Gelang apertur berfungsi utk. kawal kemasukan cahaya.

Gelang perlu dipusing utk. dpt. lubang @ saiz yg.

dikehendaki.

Saiz apertur diukur dalam nombor „f‟ @ „fstop‟.

Saiz apertur yg. Kecil membenarkan hanya sedikit cahaya

memasuki kamera (melalui lensa) berbanding dgn. apertur

besar.

Setiap nombor „f‟ disusun dlm. bentuk/bidang skala apertur

2,2.8,4,5,6,8,11,16. Semakin besar nombor „f‟, semakin

kecil saiz bukaan apertur.

Dedahan merupakan jumlah cahaya menerusi lensa ke filem

yang dikawal oleh gabungan kelajuan shutter dan saiz apertur.

Kombinasi dedahan pula bererti kombinasi antara kelajuan

shutter dan saiz apertur untuk merakamkan imej fotografi.

Untuk mengawal nilai cahaya dan dedahan-kepekaan filem,

kecerahan cahaya dan lama atau masa cahaya dibenarkan

masuk ke dalam kamera mestilah dipertimbangkan.

Dept of Field (DOF)

In optics, particularly as it relates to film and photography,

the depth of field (DOF) is the portion of a scene that

appears sharp in the image. Although a lens can precisely

focus at only one distance, the decrease in sharpness is

gradual on either side of the focused distance, so that within

the DOF, the unsharpness is imperceptible under normal

viewing conditions.

For some images, such as

landscapes, a large DOF may be

appropriate, while for others, such

as portraits, a small DOF may be

more effective.

The DOF is determined by the subject distance (that is, the

distance to the plane that is perfectly in focus), the lens focal

length, and the lens f-number (relative aperture). Except at

close-up distances, DOF is approximately determined by the

subject magnification and the lens f-number. For a given f-

number, increasing the magnification, either by moving

closer to the subject or using a lens of greater focal length,

decreases the DOF; decreasing magnification increases DOF.

For a given subject magnification, increasing the f-number

(decreasing the aperture diameter) increases the DOF;

decreasing f-number decreases DOF.

Dept of Field

f/22 f/8

f/4 f/2.8

When focus is set to the hyperfocal distance, the DOF

extends from half the hyperfocal distance to infinity, and is

the largest DOF possible for a given f-number.

The advent of digital technology in photography has provided

additional means of controlling the extent of image

sharpness; some methods allow DOF that would be

impossible with traditional techniques, and some allow the

DOF to be determined after the image is made.

At f/32, the background is

distracting

At f/5.6, the flowers are

isolated from the background

At f/2.8, the cat is isolated

from the background

Sujana Mohd. Rejab (1993) Fotografi, Penerbitan, Kuala

Lumpur, Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd.

Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (1983), Fotografi,

Ampang, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka

Iskandar Ab Rashid & Zaitun Ismail (2006), Fotografi, Batu

Caves, Venton Publishing (M) Sdn. Bhd.

http://www.basic-digital-photography.com/

http://www.scrapjazz.com/topics/Photography/Lessons/1046.php

http://www.silverlight.co.uk/tutorials/toc.html

http://www.shopping.com/xGS-22554153~NS-1~linkin_id-6019813

http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Ali_Hasan_Ibn_Al-Haitham

http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotografi

http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotografi_digital

http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurugambar

http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamera

http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piksel