E

HAYATI BT. KIPRAW

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULF€LMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FUR THE

DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE

FACULTY OF COCNITrVE SCIENCE AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

UNTVERSXTY MALAYSIA SARAWAK

19938

SEKALUNG BUD1

Bismlllahirrahmanirrahim, Alhamdulillah, syukur kehadrat Allah s.w.t kerana dengan izinnya, maka usaha saya untuk menyempurnakan tesis ini berhasll juga akhirnya. Terlebih dahulu. saya lngin merakam jutaan terima kaslh kepada Kerajaan Negeri Sarawak dan Lembaga Pelabuhan Rajang, Sibu kerana telah memberi saya peluang untuk meneruskan pelajaraan saya ke Peringkat Sarjana (Pembangunan Sumber Manusia) Saya juga berbanyak berterimakasih kepada keluarga saya yang telah membantu saya rnelalui berbagal cubaan sepanjang pengajian saya Juga kepada kedua-dua penyeha saya, Dr. Haji Abang .Ahmad Ridzuan Abang Awit dan Dr. Gabriel Tonga dl atas teguran dan nasihat mereka untuk menja&kan tesis in1 lebih sempurna. Tidak lupa juga saya rneakamkan penghargaan yang tldak terhingga kepada Encik Anthony Valentine diatas bimbingan dan tunjuk ajar yang beliau telah berikan untuk menghasilkan satu tesis yang terbaik. Akhir sekali, semua ahli-ahli "action research group" dan "action learnlng set" yang telah sanggup mengongsikan bersama ide-ide yang bernas clan pengalaman mereka semasa sea-sesz perbincangan dijalankan Penghargaan saya tujukan juga kepada semua yang telah membantu penghasilan kertas projek ml, samada secara langsung atau tidak

Semoga apa yang kita telah usahakan akan dirahmati Allah s.w.t

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SEKALUNG BUD1 TABLE OF CONTENTS LISTS OF TABLES LISTS OF FIGURES ABSTRACT ABSTRAK

CHAPTER 1. lNTRODUCTION Introduction Statement of problem Purpose of Study Objectives of study Research questions Significance of study Assumptrons, scope and limttatxons of study Chapter summary

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Work performance Worlrer's abihty .Marching people and jobs Program planning I>esignlng the program Contingency based program plannlng n ~ u d ~ l

Knowles program planning model Patrick Boyle's Model Leonard Nadlcr s Model

Approaches to instructional design ADDIE model The action learning model.

Chapter Summary

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METIiODOEOGY introduct~on Site/ backgroundi need for stud)

S ~ t e Background Need for study

Purpose of the study Justification of the action research method Characteristics of action research The processes of action research Actlon research and action learning Action research a s adopted in thls s ~ u d y Action learning in the research Chapter Summary

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS OF THE STUDY Introduction Purpose of Study Research Ques t~ons Flnchngs - Beg~nning the actlon research project

Entry Forming an actlon research group Development of goals Tralnlng of the actlon research group The research agreement

M i n ~ cycle 1 and 2 Mlni cycle 3 and 4 Chapter Summary

CHAE'TER 5 CONCLUSIONS lntroductlon Summary Background of the problem Research questions Research deslgn and strategy Assumptions, Scope and iimitatlons of study

Conclusions based on the results of an actlon research method conducted a t Rajang Port Authority

The use of actlon research method Characterlstlcs of actlon research method Recomrnendatlons and suggest:ons

LIST OF TABLES

Page

2 I Boyle's Three Program Planning Models

3.1 Twelve characteristics of action research

3.2 The initial action research group

5 .1 Action research process involved 1n the study

LIST OF FIGURES

The worker, the work environment and the general environment 7

The contingency-based program planning (CBPP) modei .i 2

Nader ' s Critical Events Model 1 5

ADDIE Model A 8

The analysis phase of ADDIE model 19

The design phase of LZnDIE model 20

The development, phase of AUUlE model 2 1

'I'otal r e s ~ a r c h group comprlsirw of action rt .s~arch group and actron lear.nmg group mt.mbers 4 3

First ant1 second cycle of t h r aetlon rclsearch process in the study 46

Third and fourth cyclc? of the ar:tlon research process in the study 47

First and second cycle of the action research process i14 the study 56

Third and fourth cycle of t,he action research process 112 the study 56

ABSTRACT

This study explored the use of action learning, a component of action research, in improving the effectiveness and efficiency of operation clerks operational services in Rajang Port Authority. Unlike the traditional and conventional method. action research has its own uniqueness. This include solving of problems in the context of real life situations, injecting a research riguur to exercise, and thus contributing to the practice and the development of s 1 science knowledge; highly collaborati.ire, where a team who owns the problem collectively addresses the problem o r the thematic concern; and re-educative, where findings from the study can generate strategic change implications for the organ n. The most unique characteristic in action research is the cyclical process involves cycles of

observation and reflection. In these cycles of' action research s the group members to develop a plan, to act, t o observe and to an and to modify it based on the needs of the group members and

the requirements of the organisation and situations. A record on the processes of each cycle enables i ts strengths and weaknesses to be reviewed so that modifications and strategies can be developed for future cycles. From this study, i t was found that action learning could be used to plan and design a training program. However, this study could chieve part of the program planning process when the training program or ulum designed by the action research group in this study could not proceed to the implementation phase due to the delay in recruiting target, participants for the study. The researcher 1s that the subsequent phases in the program planning process could be completed in the near future.

.

Vii

Kajlat? 1111 movel td~k petlgptttcratl pemhela/arati tltidakarl, kompotlen ke,r)atla kujrcut fittdnk~~tl lifittlk n7etirttgkt~1k11/i keni~ln~plla~~ dc~ti keherkesattm~ ketyn hap Pen? bcmtn 7ildbrr (kL.rntrl) uperirn dl /r,embagu Pelnhtrhm Raj~ulg. Berb~rttrr'rt~g riolgatr k~lctjcrh /rcrdt.\lotwl, ktr/rml rntd~7k~7ti n~eniprrttyar kerrtrlkmi ter.+e,~JI~-r tenrtr~irklcrlt n~elrhatkatt pem fokir cnli nrcrs~7ldr dalcinr korrfeks keudc~an .w he~m; dettgiw dl~rltlg! U I I S I I ~ ~ L ~ I C N I

n~e~rcr'nlatn; ~rrelrhatkirrt trs~rha herklmrl,rrlml purg tt~hlr tiat1 niuhri ttretg~elr.so~kcrn n~a.salah; JCNI pembe/ujmntt semrrk~ lttr~rik menihntrl~r mmtbr~titik pekm r~tldr~kafi ~triz~eg~k-h[~,yl Or~CIIiI.T~.Sl tcrlrhc~t. Yatrg utr~kttya, proses hag/ krtarat~ kajtat~ rnel~hcrtkc~t~ zitz.wr-trlulrr perattcangnll, irtldakcur, permerhatiatt datl pertmmbatigat~ .~ennria. Iirrrw rtu m nrcmholehkmt crlzlr-nh/r k~m~prrlnt~ ntenrbetlrtik yelati, bertntu'nk, tmemrrharr dcvl kemtrtlratr mernper~rmhcrng semlila seler~tsi~n met~grihahsrmr pelcrrz hercia'clrcrrkmr k e p d n krhetldak air11 krrrnpt~latt, orgutlnasr dutr kecrdaatr semma. C'atatnn-caru/oti yir,!g d~brrat pa& proses krfarnit urr jrrgo membolehkati kekirntntl datt kelentahatliiyn clrkq~ sentrrla .rrq?aya pr0.se.r krtarntr selerzrstqw d q a t tl~uhahstrccl. Ilorrpada knjta~r nrr, dldL7patr bahm~a kmdah knjla?? tnrdakaft dmi pemhelcr~arat~ titldnkatl boleh dtre/mm oleh ah//- crhlr k-itt-rmy~trlcrrl koj1t7)l tlfldakat~. Wnlnrr hnprrtatrn/~~rn, .s+/nrth rtlntm Xeberkesmtcvl krredah rt11 dr tialntn kcyratr l11r trdak daput cli/entuknrr kernlta gcrgnl rttt~rrk dlak~at1c7Xnt1. Itll nrt~n~uridczt~gkotr krtnrprrl~of scrsclratt (I)e\e~.ta krtrsro) bellrni drrrnlhrl hekerjo p d n nlara kalrati 1111 d~a f rn~ka t . CYU/~II/IIIII denirk~tvi, pet?gkajr yakltl nkati drrpnt t??etit.r~~skotl t~.mhntya hngi nlemrnrrh~ ftrva setet.trv~~n th ~it~srlnt?i /~ro\cs pertlfiartlg(vl propiat71 kallhmr pat ftr nltr u7 jarrg fertlcknt it11

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Introduction the background of the study, the need, its

in the study which is “exploring the clerks to improve the effectiveness

and efficiency of their operational services in Rajang Port Authority.”

Statement of problem Performance is perhaps best understood as the achievement of

results. the outcomes (ends) to which purposeful activities (means) are directed. It is synonymous with behaviour, the observable actions taken and unobservable decisions made to achieve work results. There are several types of Performance of course. Hum performance is a result of human skills. knowledge, and attitudes. M ine performance is the result of machine activities. Company performance or department performance is the result of the organisational activities. For any organisation to function effectively, it must be aware of the skills the organisation possess within it and any deficiency that may contribute to the malfunction of the organisation.

In today’s dynamic world of far reaching and relentless change. organisations must be able to identify their places in th recognise that they are under constant, change as individuals out of jobs. This is necessary to prepare the organisations would not end up a casualty of change. Organisations of today. therefore, must be able to keep up with the pace of change and be on the move with the surrounding changes taking place around them.

change is inevitable, and taking it into stride, in Port Authority, started with the construction of the

rt. Bearing in mind that Tanjung Manis Port is located in the Timber Processing Zone (TPZ) area, the port was developed to accommodate the expected growth in timber and timber products exports in the Rajang Basin.

The Tanjung Manis Port Development Project started in the early years of 1990, when Japan International Corporation Agency (JICA) conducted a master plan study on the development of Rajang Port Authority. The study also inc the viability of opening berths in Tanjung Manis, a deep seaport of the Rajang River. After the berth and to p r ing the area. Since Tanjung Manis centre was 1 the Rajang Basin, Rajang Port Authority was gi he port. Plans went

d a new port in Tanjung Manis in October 1997, at least for the first phase.

gically not far from th , a paper was formulated to

Introduction

The management at this point, however had decided that the port would be initially operated by existing clerks from Rajang Port Authority based in Sibu. After a period of a year more or less, the newly recruited clerks and drivers for Tanjung Manis Port be sent down to man the port.

Altogether, there were 20 vacant posts identified for the project - one Port Officer, 1 senior traffic officer, 1 t r d i c officer, 8 clerks, 8 drivers and I typist post. This meant that the new stdf who would fill the above mentioned posts will have to be given proper training before they begin their work in Tanjung Manis Port. Looking at this set-up, it was thus important to note that the new s t d recruited for Tanjung Manis Port should be trained in their work before they can be deployed to operate the port. Training was important for the new staff in order to prepare them to be effective and efficient in their work.

Effective and efficient - traditionally, these two aspects of performance, that is effectiveness and efficiency, are often used as the basis to assess how well an organisation is doing. These two terms have no universally accepted definitions. But efficiency is usually understood to mean the ratio between the resources needed to achieve results (inputs)

e values of results (outputs), Some have said that the central n of efficiency can be pose ly : “Are we doing things right?” In

this question, the phrase “doing right” means without unnecessary expenditures of time, money and ef€ort. Effectiveness on the other hand, usually means the match between results achieved and thos desired. Its central question is : Are we doing the right thi phrase. “rights things typically means “what others expect or need from the organisation, group or individual.”

Having said that. coming back to the Rajang Port Authority, it was thus important to address the issue at hand, that was to provide a mechanism to disburse the skills and knowledge of the new clerks in Tanjung Manis Port SO that they can do their work effectively and efficiency when the time came.

Rajang Port Authority is recruiting new staff sometime in the second quarter of 1998 in order to man a newly completed port under the jurisdiction of Rajang Port Authority, that is the Tanjung Manis Port. The operations of a new berth, or a new port for that matter, would require many resources ces. The avaijability of

the port is considered a very important issue , The project has completed. The iss

ation. It was a t

training aspect of the project,.

2

In tso d u c t ion

Purpose of Study Looking at the immediate problem that was at hand in Rajang Port

Authority, there was indeed a need , at least to develop a training program for the new clerks to be posted to Tanjung Manis Port in order to ensure their effectiveness and efficiency of their operational services there. This was somehow attributable to the fact that the training curriculum for the Induction Program for the clerks in Rajang Port was last developed in 1983. Bearing that in mind, thus the purpose of this study was to explore the

y to optimise the work performance of clerks in Rajang Port Authority by preparing the new clerks €or Tanjung Manis Port with an effective training program for disbursing the relevant skills and knowledge as required by the new clerks for Tanjung Manis, using action ,research as a method to conduct the study.

Objectives of the study This study was conducted with the following objectives :

1. To provide clerks in Tanjung Manis Port with the relevant skills and knowledge to enable them to be more effective in their work

2. To design a training program which will enable new clerks in Rajang Port Authorit,y to be more effective and efficient in their work

3. To review the existing training curriculum for the clerks Induction Course designed in 1983

4. To study whether action research can be successfully used in planning a training curriculum

Research questions

formulated research questions as follows : In order to achieve the above mentioned objectives, the researcher

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the current training programs for operations clerks in Rajang Port Authority? Is action research effective in planning a training program? How could action learning be includ the approach or a

How much learning could the participants gain through action learning ?

f a n effective training program for operations clerks?

Significance of the study This study involved a total of about 20 people who were identified

seniors in the various sections in Rajang Port Authority. The study involved officers from the Oper on, Security Section, Finance Section and also from the Contributions and participation from all invo practised all these years in Rajang Port Authority when it came to curriculum planning or program planning for the Induction Training Program for new staff. This was because the development and design of a

3

Introduction

* rogram was dune indiv ually by the different senior the different sections departments as we call it in Rajang

Port Authority. As mentioned earlier, the development and design of a training

program is usually done in isolation by various appointed officers in their r a new training program in

esearch is applied as a rson, now the exercise

ted goals coming together to f the training program will be

is study alone, has somehow induced a sense of bonding to those who had joined the action research group and the learning sets. Having been given consent by top management, this exercise, it is hoped that this exercise will be of much added value to the organisation.

Assumptions, Scope and limitations of the study The focus of this study was on exploring the use of action learning,

which is a subset of actlion research in trying to optimise the performance of new clerks for Tanjung Manis Port. I-I efficiency and effectiveness of the clerks

ne in synergy arne organisation.

The area of discussion in thi In duct ion train i

Manis Port. The discussion will members assumed to be expert in t from the organisation would meet and discuss regularly and come up with a value added training program at the end of‘the research.

In this study, there was also a time limitation of only 6 weeks of action group meeting. This 6 weeks was again spread over a period of about 4 months. Looking at the situation whereby the researcher is based in Sibu, it is assumed that during the ‘separation’ from her action research group. not much ca could be done.

Feedback a datians fram the action group and also the learning sets are assumed to be been made with the group’s best ability.

Chapter Summary The chapter has highlighte

used in the study.

4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction This chapter reviews available related literature on the project

study, This chapter is divided into several sections. The first section gives a broad perspective of performance and development of organisations and then focuses in on the issue of matching people and job, highlighting the importance of training and development to produce able workers or employees, The next section reviews related literature in the area of‘ program planning, dwelling into a score of models and approaches available for planning a training program including the literature on action learning, a subset of action research, as used in this study.

Work performance It is important that an employee should perform well in their work.

This is because the performance of the employees will reflect the overall performance of an n. It is important to a m be able to separate erformers from the poor because if we do not treat, these two separately, there is our employees to be good performers. In fact, an employee may be de-

with you, leading to the

enlightened know of the consequences of being with them the available assistance and the fee the information on how to s

Many authors have defined performance. ineludmg Landy (1985) who describes performance as way[sf of describing success and are “predicted measurels] fur judging the effectiveness of persons, organisations, treatments, or predictors of behaviour of results, and organisational effectiveness” (Smith 197

M o d (1984 p. 15) structured performance in this general schema by the basic postulate :

on. Poor performers, on

I Performance = Worker x Environment I In other words, performance requires both a person and an

way. Since it is the worker’s motivational dispositions and abilities that are relevant in the context of work, Morfgoes on to write :

and they must interact in s

Performance = ( Motivation x Ability ) x Work Environment

In a structured work situation, Schneider and Locke (1971) suggests 4 ~ main categories of conditions for performance. They are indicated in Figure 1.1: conditions intrinsic in the work, like the different

Literawe Review

tasks constituting the job; conditions extrinsic to the work, such as physical working conditions; agents extrinsic to the worker, llke managers and supervisors and an agent intrinsic to the that is the worker him - or herself. Elements identified under age nsic to the worker is that of motivation and ability. For this study, the focus is on abihty of the worker. Ability here broadly refers to what a person can do and it includes aptitudes ( what a person is cap e of learning), skills and knowledge.

Worker’s ability The worker, employee, the manager - the working individual -

he job certain aptitudes, abilities and skills. In the realm of performance”, as referred by Cronbach (1984) , we are

in what a person can do under optimal conditions given high motivation level and excellent training. This is dfierent from the majority of personality traits of Cronbaeh’s realm of “typical performance” where what matters is what a person is likely to do.

and vocational abili es. General abilitie Ability in this context can be categorised into two - ge

efimd a5 broad abilities that

o has a job that is gle words and numbers

numbers enable people to understand what goes on around them, to read newspapers, to read instructions on how to operate a new machine and to complete income tax returns. They make it possible to learn on one’s own.

The vocational abilities are different from general abilities in that they are always directly relevant to work of SOME? kind. Qunnette (1976) distinguishes between two categories of vocational motor. Cognitive abilities pertain to “awareness an elements of our environment. The mechanic for ex know how the machine works. We must also have take it apart and put it t her again. The motor skills of a fork 1if.t driver, for instance, can be measured by means of work performance samples obtained in a mock up warehouse or a real warehouse where the driver must move goods.

6

Total Situation

The structured work environment and the environment beyond it

Structured Work Environment

work environment

....

intrinsic agent

.._ .....

conditions intrinsic to the work:

- work tasks - amount of work - opportunities for success - tools (means)

conditions extrinsic to the work:

- physical working conditions - spatid - temporal - compensation - interpersonal atmosphere

agents extrinsic to the worker: - management - supervisors - co-workers - customers

general environment

p hy sical : - pollution - conservation

economic: - goods - services

social: - close and arm's length relationship

PERSON ENVLRONMENT

Fitz I. The worker. the work environment. and the general environment

Saurce: Schneider and Locke, 1971)

7

Literature Review

Matching People and Jobs Proper matching of people and jobs is a critical step in opthising work

performance. productivity, and work satisfaction. This task can be approached people to jobs or one can fit jobs s can be stuched by focusing on

people, on the environment and on the interaction of the two. We can look at people closely to determine what they bring to the job. On the other hand, we can also look a t the demand for abilities and skills generated the changing technoneconomic structure or, on the level of the individual , at the requirements of a particular job.

The problem in fitting persons to jobs is to select from the available candidates, within and outside the organisation. those who can do a given set of job best. It is not just a matter of finding the best person for the job. Sometimes the best people are already working for the organisation and are more effective in their present jobs than the would be in new ones. In other cases, the best person filling the new job may keep another employee out of it, who, while second best, might be much more effective in the new job than the old one.

The problem is one of matching people and jobs so that the joint performance of all employees in all jobs will be maximised. The objective of optimal deployment of human resources is attained by a variety of personnel

nel decisions. Some of these decisions involve the hiring of new employees given the results of formal 01 informal job analysis. job specification and human resources planning designed to provide a picture of

f new employees are needed. the firm will typically proceed to ants by advertising. The next step is usually to select from a

s those who best meet the requirements of a smaller

This selection decisions are based on interpersonal differences. Applicants are compared with each other and those scoring highest on

rable criteria are accepted. At this point, intra-personal difference are usually looked at more closely. The particular strengths and weaknesses of applicants are considered as placements decisions are made, that is, as the applicants are assigned to particular training programs or jobs.

een personnel and jobs is not satisfactory, training t have been hired or who have no basic skills in the

job as in the case of a new employee. Where personnel selection provides the human parts that enable the organisation to produce, training on one hand

hly with each other and with other

ons of training and development. In essence, training and development within organisations is the acquisition of skills, knowtedge and attitudes which enables people to achieve their current and future individual and corporate objectives. In the same way as there are many definitions: there are many different ways to achieving this acquisition of skills, knowledge and attitudes. Examples include external and in-house courses, coaching and mentoring and training on the job.

t ways (Chapanis, 1976): One c The process of fitting people a

8

Literature Re~iew

Why is training and development so important? It is because organisations are made up of people and it is through their endeavour that the organisations achieves its o es and is succ sfut. Training and

the organisation by to improve their performance of

following a chosen career path; e waste and error: and achieving

the success of the employees will then

e to the success

the organisation; ac improving the quality job satisfaction. Whe overflow to the whole organisation.

Program Planning What is a program? A program is a set of organised learning activities

designed to achieve planned learning outcomes in a titutes the outcomes result from the deliberative more learners and a pro, Oram ner. Educators

rm curriculum based on the Latin ing “the course sf a race” (Egan, 1978) to denote a program.

What is program planning? Program Planning is a comprehensive process in which program planners, exercising a sense of professional

ant contexts design

ho are responsible collaborating with

es. or for helping responsibility for

stabi4ising and achieving planned learning outcomes. Program e under endless job titles. They are trainers. human rce development (HRID) professionals, training and developme ionals, program

s, sta.€€ development specialists, employee developers, and team

nsibifity designate specific strategies to engage of learning outcomes and plan relevant a

planner ? They are indivi

rs. They are also called administrators and program o s in for community agencies, and the public school

is also occasionally an education institutions. Pr sibfiity borne by expected to plan

cutives, and team 1 t the tone for team

build higbperformance and learning organisations (Senge

costs or benefits o coincidence rather repeated. Those that do not turn ou

9

--

Literature Review

ty rather than rigidity in program planning. Program planning of this in that “phases overlap and some activities fit

es”. Program development represents a synergistic process .

This contingency based about the actual practices of the the steps of any planning

esign process.

e activities necessary to shape effective esigning programs, successful program es needed to se

10

can be effective with learners who are initially unfamiliar with the subject matter.

To formuiate learning procedures, program planners select appropriate ways t,o deliver planned learning experiences by using various methods techniques and devices.

In program planning. models are aplenty to choose from. The following literature will explore some of the well known models in program planning.

The contingencv based nrogram ~ l a n n i n g model The contingency based program planning (CBPP) model focuses on

how program planners enact their roles. Three approaches may be used - directive, collaborative and non-directive. Directive approaches rests heavily on program planners acting as directors of learning. Collaborative approaches are participatory and program planners act as program facilitators, Non- directive approaches are carried out by the learners themselves while the program planners serve as consult,ants to participants in building their own programs.

In the directive approach in the CBRP model, program planners control and direct, what other learn. Such program planners oversee the each step of the learning process which often means that Obey can limit learners limit,ed involvement in the process. Program plariners are called to meet t;hc needs, to conduct a needs assessment,. to formulate objectives. to make or by instructions keyed to the objectives, to test the instruction. to deliver it and to evaluate the results. Directive approaches place the primary burden of program planning squarely on program planners. Directive approaches are exempiif'ied in many t,raditional instructional syst,em design IISD) models and pedagogical practices in which professional educators or trainers make decisions for the learners (Rothwells ad ICazanas.l992). While one program planner can make decisions quicker than a group of learners. directive approaches may also work a t cross purposes with the goal of building employee involvement. participation and teamwork.

Collaborative approaches are participatory. They call for negotiation. dialogues and co-operation among program planners, learners and other stakeholders. Program planning is a joint vent,ure. .4lP interested party work together eo identify which needs exist. They also work as partners to conduct needs assessments, to formulate objectives, to make or buy instruction keyed to the objectives, to test instruction. deliver it, and to evaluate the results. Program planners act as learning facilitators whose primary focus is on the learning process rather than instructional cont,ent. Hart (1992) explains that '^ the facilitaior must know the group members' attitudes, commitment, skill and experience. The content of the group's experience is the group itself'. Its objective is to accomplish it,s chosen goal,, thus the facilitator does not have a set design but must instead have many met,hods and techniques available to be used wit,h the group as it goes through the five stages of [small group] development". Program planners who act collaboratively aim to build learner ownership in the planned learning experiences in which they participate.

Nan-directive approaches to program planning are carried out by the learners themselves. Learners assume responsibility for their obvw

instxuctional, personal and proi'essional development. and learning. 'rhey identify occasions when they experience a learning need, conrluct t,heir own needs assessments, formulate their own objectives, make or buy learning experiences tied to the object;ives, test the inst:ructio11, pursue planned Iwzrning activities they had chosen, and evaluate results. non-direct,ive approacht?~ place the primary burden for program planning on the learners. Program planners become resource and enabling agents as well as learning consultants. They may however, bear responsibility fir monitoring learner progress, evaluating learning outcomes and reporting results to relevant audiences. Their primary role is to guide learners and other stakeholders on how they should perceive about how they should proceed. The rt:sponsibility for program planning however, rest largely with the learners. Example of non-direet,ive approaches action learning (AL), problem based learning, goal-based scenario and self dirt?ct.ed learning (Cunningham, 1994: Inglis 1994)).

In one approach to action learning, the organisat.ion forms a team to solve a problem. crystallise the vision, achieve a goal, or grapple the issue. Team members are briefed {.he vision, goals, or issue. They are supplied with constraints on time, money and people. However, team members, not, program planners are responsiblt? for identifying the objectives, ident.ifying the learning stxatttgies, finding the learning resources, and experimenting wit.h solutions to tliffieult problems. Eventually, team membcrs are individually and collt?ctively debriefed about what they hat1 learnotl f'rorn t.he experience and what they feel they need to learn in the: future. Program planners in this process, serve as eonsu1tanl.s t,o built1 team cohcsivencss. Figure 2.1 ctepitrts the contingency based program planning model as describecl earlier.

1 Nondirective approaches

Collaborative approaches

Program

tkcilitator

Figure 2.1:The contingency-based program planning (cbpp} model

Literature Reviav

Knowfes Program Plmnit~g Model Knowles (1980) builds on four principles tn his p r o g m plmting iliodel

that distinguish pedagogy which he defines as the art of science and of teaching fro111 nrrdragolt)~ which he defines as the art of szience and of t lelp~n,~ others to learn. Knowles distinguishes between pedagogical arid andrapogical asstunptions In such areas as the concept of the learner, the role of the learner's experience, the learner's readiness to learn. the oricrltatlon to learning. Knowles offers seven steps for program planning. (1) establishrng a cllmate conducive for learning; (2) creatlng an organisational structure for pa~ticipative planning, (3) assessing learning needs; (4) establishing instrucbonal objectives, (5) des~gilng learnlng objectives, (6) carrying out the activities, and (7) reassessing learn~ng needs - evaluating results.

Pattick Bovle's Mode! BoyIe (1981) made a valuable contribution by descnbing three program

planning model which he called the developnlental model, the institutional model and the infonnational model. Each r~iodel offers different steps from wh~ch to choose in carrying out die progam planning process

The developinental model whrch closely resenlbles the prograin plann~ng modcls proposed by Knowles, lists elght steps by which programs should be pia311ed ( I ) identifying the basis of the program, (2) analyslrrg the situation affechng the community arid dlentele, (3) identif~lng the desired outcomes. (4) identifS~ng the resources and support necesaq to cam, out the program, (5) des~cging an rnstructional plan, (6) prepmng a plan of actloll; (7) establlsh~ng accountability for resources: and (8) comrnurllcahng the balue or the prugTam to such stakeholders as learners, managers, and others nho stand to gain from it

To apply the ~nst~tutional model, the program planners should cany out f i ~ e steps: (1) define the target learners md other clients. ( 2 ) clan@ progam content, (3) identify the instructional approach, (4) prov~de Instruction; and ( 5 ) evaluate the results.

To apply the infonnahond model, program planners should take three steps ( I ) detennine what content is available, needed or desired, (2) provlde information or knowledge, and (3) detennlne the extent of tile d~mbut ion of content Table 2 1. illustrates Boyle's Three Program Piann~ng ~nodels.

Leonard Nadler's Model Nadler's (1985) propram planning model is intended for u~orkplacc training

applicatton but it may be adapted to accommodate other program planning situation. Nadter believes that identifying all of the steps in progar11 planning is futile because issues outside the model may influence the plaruling process. He also belteves however, it is posslble to identify cr~tical progam planning events. ainong them are: ( I ) identifj.ing organisational needs; (2) specifying job perforn~ance; (3) identifying learners' needs; (4) determining objectives (5) build the cunrjculuni (6) select~ng instruction strategies; (7) obtaining instruchond resources; and (8) conducting fraining.

Facto

rs

Dev

elo

pm

en

tal

Pri

mar

y g

oal

Def

ine

and

sol

ve in

divi

dual

, gr

oup,

or

com

mu

nit

y p

robl

ems.

So

urc

e o

f ob

ject

ives

Use

of

know

ledg

e

Invo

lvem

ent

of th

e le

arn

er

Rol

e o

f th

e p

rog

ran

nn

er

Sta

nd

ard

s of

ef

fect

iven

ess

Dev

elop

ed p

rim

aril

y o

ut

of n

eed

s or

p

rob

lem

s o

f th

e cl

ient

.

Kno

wle

dge

or

con

ten

t is

use

d to

aid

in

solu

tion

ort

he

prob

lem

; it

is a

mea

ns

to a

n

end

.

Invo

lved

in

det

erm

inin

g p

rob

lem

OT

nee

d

and

th

e sc

ope

and

nat

ure

of t

he

pro

gra

m.

Fac

ilit

atin

g th

e en

tire

ed

uca

tio

nal

pro

cess

fr

om n

eed

ide

ntif

icat

ion

thro

ug

h t

he

eval

uat

ion

pro

cess

. O

ther

rol

es i

nclu

de

pro

mo

tio

n,

legi

tim

atio

n, a

nd

co

mm

un

icat

ing

th

e r

esu

lts.

Eff

ecti

ve d

eter

min

ed b

y th

e q

ual

ity

of t

he

pro

ble

m s

olut

ion

and

th

e d

egre

e to

whi

ch

indi

vidu

als,

gro

ups,

an

d c

omm

unit

ies

deve

lope

d p

rob

lem

sol

ving

ski

lls.

Lit

erat

ure

Rev

iew

Pro

gra

m T

yp

es

Inst

itu

tio

nal

Gro

wth

an

d i

mp

rov

emen

t o

f an

ind

ivid

ual's

b

asic

abi

liti

es,

skil

ls,

know

ledg

e,

com

pete

ncie

s.

Dev

elop

ed p

rim

aril

y f

rom

th

e di

scip

line

or

fiel

d o

f kno

wle

dge

and

fro

m e

du

cato

r.

Mas

tery

of c

on

t,m

t or

know

ledg

e is

th

e fo

cus.

P

rog

ram

s fi

re f

ocus

ed o

n ho

w t

o ac

hiev

e th

is

end.

Invo

lved

in

imp

lem

enti

ng

the

lear

nin

g

expe

rien

ces.

Dis

sem

inat

es k

now

ledg

e th

rou

gh

in

stru

ctio

nal

pro

cess

.

Eff

ecti

vene

ss n

etG

rmin

ed b

y h

ow w

ell

the

clie

nt m

aste

red

th

e co

nte

nt

or d

esir

ed

com

pete

ncie

s.

Info

rmati

on

al

Exc

hang

e o

f inf

orm

atio

n.

Der

ived

pri

mar

ily

fro

m n

ew

info

rmat

ion

ava

ilab

le f

rom

res

earc

h

find

ings

, new

law

s, o

r ne

w

regu

lati

ons.

Co

nte

nt

is t

ran

sfer

red

to

the

clie

nt f

or

imm

edia

te u

se.

Invo

lved

pri

mar

ily

as

a re

cipi

ent

of

the

know

ledg

e.

Pro

vide

s an

swer

s to

req

ues

ts f

or

info

rmat

ion.

Eff

ecti

vene

ss d

eter

min

ed b

y th

e n

um

ber

ofp

erso

tls

reac

hed

, fi

nd b

y

how

mu

ch i

nfo

rmat

ion

was

d

istr

ibu

ted

.

Tab

le 2

.1 :

Bo

yle

's T

hre

e P

rol.

rram

Pla

nn

ing

Mo

del

s

So

urc

e: B

oyle

, P

(181

. p.

7)

14

Literature Review Qd, ill*

$ 0 J * , ' 6 s,[,$ff j ; te A3 \&$( f rrrlf

i j 2 : Y&,\$$: i i ' '

Nadler's model highlights the relationship between each crl€i%g! ' ""' 1^''L4k*

event, evaluation and feedback. Figure 2.2 illustrat,es Nadler's critical event model.

The first step in applying Nadler's model is identifying organisational needs. When approaching ~it~uations in which program planning appears to be appropriate, program planners should pose three important questions: (1) do performance problems exist? (2) can the cause(s) of performance problems be distinguished from their symptoms; and (3) are the cause(s) of performance problems traceable to deficiencies of knowledge, skills of attitude, deficiencies of management or the combination of the two. In identifying specific job performance. Nadler suggest that program planners should a t least undertake one form of job analysis to obtain information about job related performance. At least three forms of job analysis are possible, the first being t,ask analysis based on observation where workers are observed while performing their job. The value of task analysis is that it is very detailed and is based carefully on the work; secondly, analysis based on task simulation where performers competent in their jobs are asked to perform in an artificial set'ting where they will be observed and subsequently analysed. Such an approach maybe easier to arrange but unfbrtunat,ely also iess realistic: t,hirdly, analysis based on int,erview where performers describe to a program planner what they do, how they do it. and how successful performance is measured.

Figure 2.2: Nadler9s critical events model

Sozlrce : Nadler Land Z Nadler ( 1994 p. 15)

Literature Review

This method is often combined with other methods because performers may sometimes forget to mention or may even be unaware of (:rit,ically important activities. behaviours or outcomes. However, analysis based on interyiew may also serve t,o validate the results of' other methods.

In order to identify learners' need, program planners should collect information on how many learners are likely to participate in the program, where they are allocated? how much education. experience, txaining and work they have had related to the program topic, what requiremtmts have they specified for successfu1 job performances well as information on participants cultural and language proficiencies, levels of motivation to learn. physical and mental characteristics and interest,s and prejudices (JViggs. 1985). Once all t,hese information has been collected, program planners can compare actual to desired levels of' learner knowledge: skills and attitudes. Such analysis can distinguish deficiencies that are fundamental, important and useful from those that are not.

Based on the deficiencies identified in the learners' need. program planners can then decide on t.he general program, instructional and program objectives. The general program objectives justify investigative resources to solve performance problems, They clarifji what. purpose is to be served by clesigning anti delivering approach plilnnerl learning experience. 'They also communicate to managers the importance of the programs so they will support the effort and supply the resources necessary lo make it successful.

Next will be building the program. Sometimes program planners action as instrucfionai design experts can work with subject matter experts to organise what is to be learned. Planned instruction can be sequenced ~Irfferent ways such as in psychological order. job related or procedural order. logical order. or groblem oriented or issue orientecf order. If' instruction is organised in psycho1ogii:al order, the cont,ent is secluenced t,o facilitate learning from the past t o present,. simple to complex, known to unknown. if instrucr.ion is organised in approach job relared order, the content is present.c?d to learners in the same order in which the tasks or decisions are performed on the job. 1,ogical order means t,he content is sequenced in building blocks, perhaps based on limited assumptions about what. learners already know. If inst,ruct,ion is organised in approach problem oriented of issue oriented order, the content is usuatly described induct,ively: beginning with approach practical problem so that learners can discover the problem's solut,ions.

Selecting instruct,ional ~t ra t~egies follows the step of building curriculum Having formulated what is to be learned, program planners can then decide how the learning process can be facilitat,ed. They should setect methods and matc?rials that. can be used t,o achieve the objectives. They should consider seven issues when selecting these methods and materials: (1) t,he objectives. The reason is because the instructional methods ant1 mat,erials should support and be harmonious with desired learning skills; (2) the content. Content of what is to be learned will affect the choice of methods or materials to be learned; (3) the instructors. The years of