chemistry, processing technology and bio energy

Proceedings of CHEMISTRY, PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY & BIO

ENERGY CONFERENCE

PIPOC 2009 International Palm Oil Congress Palm Oil – Balancing Ecologics with

Economics

MALAYSIAN PALM OIL BOARD

MINISTRY OF PLANTATION INDUSTRIES AND COMMODITIES, MALAYSIA P.O.Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Tel: 03-87694400 Fax: 03-89259446 www.mpob.gov.my

Abbre. Title: PIPOC 2009 Int. P.O. Cong. – Chem, Process. Tech. & Bio Energy Conf. © Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 2009 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.

This unedited proceedings consist of two components: a) Formatted Copy b) Direct Copy

The papers in this unedited proceedings are not arranged according to sequence. Please check in each section in relation to the programme.

Published in 2009 by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board.

C O N T E N T S

PLENARY LECTURE PL3: Visionary Concepts in Palm Oil 3 Processing M.R.Chandran

SESSION 1:

ADVANCES IN PALM OIL MILLING TECHNOLOGIES

LP1: Innovation in Palm Oil Milling 7 Technology - FELDA Experience Abdul Halim Ahmad

C1: Coalescense Clarifier for Oil 8 Clarification Mohamad Sulong; Ronnie C.W. Tan and Krisada Chavananand

C2: Recent Developments in 9 Continuous Sterilization Sivasothy Kandiah

C3: The Way Forward in the Palm Oil 35 Milling Process with the Advent of TILTING STERILIZER® Loh Thim Thak

C4: Maximizing the Recovery of 54 Dry Shell and Kernel via a Four Stage Winnowing Column Rohaya Mohamed Halim; Nasrin Abu Bakar; Mohd Basri Wahid; Choo Yuen May; Abdul Halim Ahmad; Ma Ah Ngan; Ridzuan Ramli and Ravi Menon

SESSION 2: CLEANER AND EMERGING

TECHNOLOGIES FOR PALM OIL REFINING AND PROCESSING

LP2: Value Addition from Crude 77 Palm Oil: Integrated Production of Palm Biodiesel, Phytonutrients and Other Value Added Products Choo Yuen May; Harrison L.N. Lau; Ng Mei Han; Yung Chee Liang; Yahaya Hawari; Puah Chiew Wei; Rusnani A. Majid; Andrew K.C. Yap; Ma Ah Ngan and Mohd Basri Wahid C5: Technological Developments to 89 Increase the Efficiency of the Clarification Process and to Determine the Oil Potential in Fresh Fruit Bunches Edgar E. Yáñez and Jesús A. Garcia C6: SAGE Microbial In-situ 102 Desludging System for Effluent Ponds Andrew S. B. Liew C7: 3DT TRASAR Boiler 111 Technology in Palm Oil Industry Lei Wen; Tim Loh and Khu Sang Chia

SESSION 3: SCIENCE OF PALM OIL

LP3: Possibilities of Using 115 Sub-critical Water to Convert Glycerin to Valuable Materials and Energy and to Produce Biogas from Palm Oil Mill Effluent Hiroyuki Yoshida C8: Preparation and Evaluation of 116 Novel Targeted Palm Oil Vitamin E Therapeutic System Ju Yen Fu and Christine Dufes

C9: LC-MS/MS Analysis of Lipid 124 Hydroperoxides Teruo Miyazawa, Shunji Kato and Kiyotaka Nakagawa C10: Developments in the 132 Utilizations of PFAD Abdul Gapor Md Top; Mohamd Sulong; Rosnah Mat Soom; Noorshamsiana Abd Wahab and Astimar Abd Aziz

SESSION 4: BIOMASS CONVERSION AND

UTILIZATION LP4: New Revenue Opportunities 135 Arising from the Waste Streams of the Oil Palm Industry David Milroy C11: Variation in Physical and 138 Mechanical Properties of Oil Palm Trunk Relevant to Solid-wood and Composite Products Kamarudin Hassan; Jamaludin Kasim and Anis Mokhtar

C12: Characterization of Inorganic 139 Constituent Parts in the Aerial Parts of the Palm Species Volker Thole; Jessica Parzy and Brigitte Kohler C13: Oil Palm Shells Conversion 141 to Higher Value Products Alexander Gómez; Sonia Rincón and Wolfgang Klose

SESSION 5: RENEWABLE ENERGY

LP5: Biogas from Palm Oil Mill 159 Effluent: From the First Biodigesters in the 80’ to the CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) Projects Post- 2000 Philippe Conil and Baptiste Kervyn

C14: High Efficiency Methane 180 Fermentation System Lynda Lian C15: Technology for Bioethanol: 201 Rusian Technology a Novel Mechano-enzymatic Approach to Bioethanol Production from Empty Fruit Bunch Materials Anatoly Politov; Olga Golyazimova and Oleg Lomovsky C16: Waste to Wealth – Biomass 203 to Fuel Sivapalan Kathiravale; Mohd Abd Wahab Yusof; Christian Koch and Muhamad Arif Vicknesewaran C17: Waste Spent Bleaching Earth 205 to Energy Jyothi Hadli SESSION 6: ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY

LP6: EU Legislations and the 221 Implication on RSPO Mamat Salleh C18: A Review of Three CDM 223 Biogas Projects Based on Palm Oil Mill Effluent in Southern Thailand Tantitham, S; Khlaisombat, P; Clendon, J H; Campbell-Board, M and McIntosh, B C19: Rehabilitation of Merotai 234 Oil Mill Tertiary Effluent Treatment Plant Yosri, M S; Shawaluddin, T; Ahmad Jaril, A; Shahrin, S and Sulaiman, S

C20: Towards a Practical 245 Sustainable Palm Oil Industry Steven Chong

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SESSION 7: BIOFUEL FROM OIL PALM

LP7: Latest Development of Oil 251 Palm Biofuel: Issues and Challenges Mohd Basri Wahid; Choo Yuen May; Lim Weng Soon; Faizah Mohd Shariff; Harrison Lau; Loh Soh Kheang and Wan Hassamuddin Wan Hassan C21: Biofuels – Moving from First 263 to the Next Generation Connie Lo C22: ISCC Certification Scheme in 270 the Framework of the EU RED Norbert Schmitz C23: Characterization of Palm 279 and Rice Bran Oil Biodiesel to Assess the Feasibility for Power Generation T. Eevera; P. Balamurugan; K. Rajendran and S. Chittibabu C24: Development of Production 290 Process of Bio-diesel and Utilisation in High Speed Diesel Engine Watchara Permchart and Somporn Tanatvanit C25: Stationary Engine and On-road 296 Tests for Assessing the Performance of Palm Oil Biodiesel in Colombia Jesús Alberto García; María Antonia Amado; Jaime Augusto Torres; Julia Raquel Acero; Jose Luis Sarmiento; Mónica Cuéllar and Daniel Cabuya

ABSTRACTS OF POSTERS

CP1: Quantitative Vitamin E Analysis 309 Using Eight Tocochromanol Isomers Zhang Yan; Yap Chin Hong; Lee Smith and Yee Leng Yap

CP2: Mathematical Modeling and 310 Simulation of Biohydrogen Production from Palm Oil Mill Effluent by Anaerobic Fermentation Atif AA Yassin; Fakhru’l-Razi A; Ma Ah Ngan and Ismail H Hussein

CP3: Structural Characterization 316 of Triaclyglycerols from Palm Oil Using Direct Infusion Electrospray Ionization-MSn Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry Thang Yin Mee; May Hong Ping Li; Jaime Yoke Sum Low; Nalisha Ithnin; Mohamad Sanusi Jangi and Teh Huey Fang CP4: Renewable Energy: Biogas 317 and CDM Martin Schmidt CP5: Study of Operating Conditions 319 for Biodiesel Production from Sludge Palm Oil Using Chemical Reactor Adeeb Hayyan; Md. Zahangir Alam; Mohamed E.S. Mirghani; Nassereldeen A. Kabbashi; Noor Irma Nazashida Mohd Hakimi; Yosri Mohd Siran and Shawaluddin Tahiruddin CP6: Study on Effective Utilization 322 System of Palm Oil Waste (Empty Fruit Bunch) in Malaysia Yoon Lin Chiew; Tomoko Iwata; Motoko Yamanari and Sohei Shimada CP7: SAGE Automated Non 323 Chemical Water Treatment System for Boiler - Update Andrew S. B. Liew

CP8: Biopolymer and Speciality 332 Chemicals Based on Oil Palm Feedstock Tjahjono Herawan CP9: Palm Biodiesel: A Lubricity 333 Improver for Diesel Fuel Yung Chee Liang, Choo Yuen May, Ma Ah Ngan and Mohd Basri Wahid

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CP10: The Study of Bleaching Clay 334 Properties on the Relationship between Spectral Measurements at 269 nm and Deodorized Oil Color David D. Brooks

CP11: Palm Pressed Fibre Oil 341 Extraction (PFOE) Technology and Deoiled Fibre Applications Goh Kee Seng

CP12: Correlation between 343 Percentage of Ash Reduction and the Reduction of Potassium and Sodium in Water Washing Pre-treatment on Empty Fruit Bunches Oil Palm Wastes N. Abdullah; F. Sulaiman and N. Che Khalib CP13: Rapid Method for the 351 Determination of Moisture Content in Biodiesel Produced from Insects’ Oil Using FTIR Spectroscopy Mohamed E. S. Mirghani; Nasreldin A. Kabbashi; Md. Zahangir Alam and Isam Y. Qudseih CP14: Palm Pressed Fiber Oil: 353 A Novel Opportunity for DAG? B.K. Neoh; Y.M. Thang; M.ZA.M. Zain and A. Junaidi CP15: Biodegradation of Kerosene 354 by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Three Strains of Bacillus sp. F. Aram; D. Mowla; Y. Ghasemi; F. Dehghan NajmAbadi and A.Niazi CP16: Biodegradation of Paraffin 355 Wax and Normal C30 By Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Three Strains of Bacillus sp. F. Dehghan NajmAbadi; D. Mowla and F. Aram

CP17: Possibility of Using Dielectric 356 Barrier Discharge for the Removal of Nitric Oxide from Palm Oil Based Biodiesel Siti Aiasah Hashim; Wong Chiow San and Mhd Radzi Abas

CP18: Mechanical Properties Effect 357 on the Quality of Lumber from Oil Palm Trunk Anis Mokhtar; Kamarudin Hassan and Astimar Abdul Aziz

CP19: Evaluation of Rate Equation 358 for Methyl Esters Formation in Base Transesterification of Crude Blend of Edible and Nonedible Oils Modhar Khan and Suzana Yusup CP20: Ultrafiltration of Residual 361 Fibre Oil/Hexane Extract by a Polymeric Membrane Rusnani Abd Majid; Abdul Wahab Mohammad and Choo Yuen May CP21: Performance of 363 Microcrystalline Cellulose from Oil Palm Biomass in Tablet Form Rosnah Mat Soom; Astimar Abdul Aziz;Wan Hasamudin Wan Hassan and Ab Gapor Md Top CP22: The Effect of Biofuel Blends 364 on Diesel Engine Performance and Emissions Ropandi Mamat; Astimar Abdul Aziz; Wan Hasamudin Wan Hassan; Ramdhan Khalid and Muhammed Abdul Rahman

CP23: A Prelimenary Study on 365 Enzyme-Assisted Oil Extraction from Palm Oil Mill Sludge Noorshamsiana Abdul Wahab; Mohamad Sulong; Astimar Abd Aziz and Mohamadiah Banjari

CP24: A Case Study of the Production 367 of Crude Palm Kernel Oil Using the Life Cycle Approach Vijaya, S; Ma, A N and Choo, Y M CP25: Cellulose Acetate from 368 Oil Palm Biomass Wan Hasamudin Wan Hassan; Rosnah Mat Soom; Anis Mokhtar and Astimar Abdul Aziz

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CP26: Preliminary Findings: 369 Preparation of Tocotrienols Emulsions by High Shear Processing Ng Mei Han and Choo Yuen May CP27: Catalytic Conversion of 370 Palm Fatty Acid Distillate for the Production of Methyl Ester A. W. Nursulihatimarsyila; H.L.N. Lau; Y.M. Choo and Mohd Basri Wahid CP28: Synthesis and Properties of 371 Biobased Polyurethane/Montmorillonite Nanocomposites Teuku Rihayat

CP29: Enzymatic Activation of 372 Lipase in Fresh Fruit Bunch for the Production of High Diacylglycerol Oil Nabilah Kamaliah Mustaffa; Harrison Lau Lik Nang and Choo Yuen May

CP30: Hydrogenation of Palm 373 Oil Methyl Ester Using Nickel Catalyst Nor Faizah Jalani; Nabilah Kamaliah Mustaffa; Nur Sulihatimarsyila Abd Wafti; Harrison Lau Lik Nang and Choo Yuen May CP31: Effects of Contaminants on 374 Cold Soak Filtration and Cold Filter Plugging Point Of Palm Oil Methyl Esters Harrison Lau Lik Nang and Choo Yuen May CP32: Fractionation of Palm 375 Oil Methyl Esters with Urea Nur Azreena I CP33: Short Path Distillation: An 376 Environment-Friendly Process to Produce Palm Phytonutrients Chiew Wei Puah; Yuen May Choo; Ah Ngan Ma and Cheng Hock Chuah

CP34: Briquetting of Empty 377 Fruit Bunch Fibre and Palm Shell Using Piston Press Technology A.B.Nasrin; A.N.Ma; Y.M.Choo; L.Joseph; S. Michael;S.Mohamad; M.H.Rohaya and A.A.Astimar CP35: Determination of Actual 378 Status of Flue Gas Emission from Palm Oil Mills Muzzammil N and Loh, S K CP36: Effect of Physical Parameters 379 on Bioethanol Production from Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB) Asyraf, M; Loh, S K and Nasrin, A B

CP37: Palm Shell Gasification in 380 Pilot Scale Compartmented Fluidized Bed Gasifier: Preliminary High Temperature Performance and Challenges V.S. Chok and S. Yusup CP38: Optimization of Fast Pyrolysis 381 of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB) Mohamad Azri Sukiran; Loh Soh Kheang and Choo Yuen May CP39: Zero-Discharge Wastewater 382 Treatment for Palm Oil Mill Effluent Lai Mei Ee; Lim Weng Soon; Choo Yuen May; Yap Ken Chong; Zhang ZhenJia and Loh Soh Kheang CP40: Monitoring of Process 383 Performance during the Commissioning and Subsequent Operation of the Biogas System at Tee Teh Palm Oil Mill Loh Soh Kheang; Mohamad Azri Sukiran; Ma Ah Ngan and Lynda Lian

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CP41: Current Status of Biogas 384 Utilization in Palm Oil Mills Loh Soh Kheang; Mohamad Azri Sukiran; Vijaya Subramaniam and Lim Weng Soon CP42: Life Cycle Inventory of 385 Transportation of Refined Palm Oil and its Fractions Fauziah Arshad; Sumiani Yusoff; Yew Ai Tan and Yuen May Choo

CP43: Carbon Reduction 388 Opportunities in the Malaysian Palm Oil Industry Chow Mee Chin CP44: Aaerobic (UASB) and 389 Aerobic (MBBR). A Total Solution to Palm Oil Related Wastewater Yahaya. H; Ma. A.N and Raymond Wee

PL3 Visionary Concepts in Palm Oil Processing

M.R.Chandran Platinum Energy, Sdn.Bhd.

ABSTRACT

Although oil palm had its origin in Africa, it has become an important agro-business

sector in Malaysia, making it the leader of choice. The Malaysian palm oil industry has

emerged over the past four decades as a global leader in the oils and fats market and is

being increasingly acknowledged for its leadership and innovative roles. The industry

continues to be a major pillar of the economy: the upstream sector alone provides

employment to over 570,000 people, whilst many more derive their livelihood from the

downstream industry and associated services. It is also estimated to contribute in excess

of RM50 billion in export earnings this year.

So it is natural for others, who wish to venture into oil palm cultivation to look upon

Malaysia to provide new technologies related to palm oil processing. Malaysia no doubt,

has come up with some R&D breakthroughs to its credit during the past twenty years, but,

the general consensus within the industry is that the achievements related to palm oil

processing technologies and machinery developments have fallen short of expectations

when compared to the rapid innovative strides taking place in competing annual oilseed

crops.

In the competitive world of oils and fats where the bulk of the commodities are

interchangeable, pricing and to some extent product qualities have always been the

determining factors. Of late, the scenario is changing as concerns for food security and

the perceived adverse effects of such oil on the environment have emerged, and they have

serious repercussions on how the oil is to be traded henceforth.

These concerns have created widespread negative perception about the oil and may even

jeopardise the future of the oil if effective measures are not taken. Judging from the

current trend, the outlook can be anticipated to be fraught with even more sophisticated

issues, complex demands and varying requirements. Further crisis may aggravate if not

threaten the growing market share currently enjoyed by Malaysian palm oil.

To maintain the competitive edge, the industry must shore up and move up another notch

to a level where efficiency, food safety and concern for the environment are the buzz

words. The palm oil industry is in such a dilemma and it is time to take a good hard look

at the face of reality and come up with some radical solutions. Whilst there had been

some advancement in the oil palm industry in general (GAP, GMP, HACCP, RSPO etc),

the milling process unfortunately still lags behind. To be more specific, there is a dire

need to change the way in which the oil and kernel are extracted to keep up with the

dynamics of the business. Being food, there are even more compelling reasons why the

change is imperative and imminent. In short, the palm oil industry has reached a stage

where the mill needs to be transformed.

The current milling innovations are confined to only certain areas of processing and can

only be termed as incremental changes within the existing conceptual boundary. It cannot

be called ground breaking land mark inventions, something the industry is looking

forward to after a long spell of basic primitive processing technology that hardly deviated

from the original concept. Whatever changes that took place in the industry was mainly

for catering the need for a high fresh fruit bunch (FFB) processing capability rather than

for deliberately evolving new technologies that blends with today’s scientific

advancement.

It is quite obvious that the milling technology need a change for the better if it wants to

remain in business. This paper intends to examine all critical steps in the process flow

and discuss them to find out whether an alternate approach from the existing process

concept may accomplish the dual benefits of improved processing efficiency as well as

product quality assurance prescribed by international organizations. In addition, this

paper also intends to probe into unexplored areas in order to develop new concepts that

may look ridiculous now, but could become a reality in the near future.

LP1 Innovation in Palm Oil Milling Technology - FELDA

Experience

HJ ABDUL HALIM AHMAD – CEO FPISB

ABSTRACT

Although for decades, technology for the palm oil processing remained unchanged which is simply a mechanical process in nature, there are many innovative ideas that have emerged and being adopted for the purpose of improving the efficiency, easing out operational control, minimizing the environmental impact as well as addressing the rising costs and shortage of labor. Felda mills have evolved and kept abreast with the technological advancements and innovations to fulfill its social responsibilities and commercial challenges to ensure success of the national land development and settlement programs. The innovation in milling process can be categorized into several aspects such as the front portion modernization, selection of less pollutant and more efficient boilers and turbines, utilization of process automation and improvement in the extraction process with respect to machinery design and control. The global warming impact which fast becoming trade issues, is another catalyst for more innovations with opportunities of turning the waste into wealth through generation of green energy from the effluent plant. Advancement in the ICT industry also helps to ease Felda in managing its large number of 70 mills spreading all over the country at the click of the button where real time mill performance and control can be scrutinized and monitored on line. This paper will give some overview of various innovations that have taken place in Felda mills and the benefits and experiences obtained as the organization continues to embrace new and modern technology in its pursuits towards fulfilling the vision to be the benchmark of the industry.

C1

Coalescense Clarifier for Oil Clarification

Mohamad Sulong1, Ronnie C.W.Tan2 and Krisada Chavananand3

ABSTRACT

Crude palm oil clarification using a coalescing type clarifier was evaluated. Two units of

coalescer are in operation for more than two years in a typical 60 tonnes FFB/hr palm oil

mill. An oil coalescer clarifier is designed to accelerate the merging of oil particles to

form a large number of droplets with greater diameter. This increases the buoyant force

in the Stokes Law equation, resulting in fast rising of oil droplets in less residence time.

With the insertion of coalescing pack in the clarifier, the oil content of 6 – 8% in the

underflow was achieved with the process residence time of 1.2 to 1.5 hours. Overall the

clarifier requires less footprint for installation and is constructed of food grade material,

comply to the requirement of code of good milling practices for palm oil mill.

1 Malaysian Palm Oil Board 2 Concept Engineering Sdn Bhd 3 Vichitbhan Palm Oil Co. Ltd

C2 Recent Developments in Continuous Sterilization

Sivasothy Kandiah+

ABSTRACT

The past few years have witnessed the emergence of a new process for

continuous sterilization based on crushing the fresh fruit bunches using

a double-roll crusher and sterilizing using steam at low pressure.

Stripping of fruits from bunch stalks is significantly better than with the

conventional sterilization process. Following the first commercial-scale

implementation about eight years ago, the system for continuous

sterilization has been further refined and improved. Processes

downstream to the continuous sterilization process have also been

modified to maximize oil and kernel extraction. Mills using continuous

sterilization can be operated at close to steady-state conditions, making

it unnecessary to make frequent adjustments to compensate for the

types of process fluctuations encountered in a conventional mill. A new

paradigm is emerging for the design and operation of mills based on

this technology that facilitates significant manpower reduction.

Combining the continuous sterilization process with a new zero-dilution

clarification process facilitates approximately fifty percent reduction in

the amount of effluent discharged from the palm oil mill. Such

significant reduction makes it viable to treat all of the raw palm oil mill

effluent (POME) by co-composting it with empty fruit bunches (EFB). A

new paradigm is emerging that emphasizes the use of zero-discharge

technology for effluent treatment.

+ Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB)

INTRODUCTION

There is increasing awareness of the need for the palm oil industry in Malaysia

to upgrade to remain viable and competitive in the light of various new challenges,

including more stringent environmental regulations, labour shortages and competition

from other lower-cost palm oil producing countries. Efforts to transform palm oil

milling technology have recently been given a boost from a new process for

continuous sterilization. This process simplifies the milling operation and leads to

significant reduction in the number of process operators. Mills using this technology

can be more easily supervised and automated.

In mills using the conventional sterilization process, bunches are loaded into

cages and pushed into sterilizers, where they are cooked in batches using steam at 40

psig. The process arrests oil quality deterioration due to enzymatic activity. It also

facilitates the stripping of fruits from bunch stalks and the extraction of oil and kernel.

The use of steam at high pressure and intermittent pressure releases to achieve good

sterilization however makes it difficult to achieve continuous processing.

Figure 1 illustrates the concept for the new continuous sterilization system used

by more than 40 palm oil mills (Table 1). The closed-knit arrangement of the

spikelets in fresh fruit bunches (FFB) is first disrupted using a double-roll crusher.

The FFB are then heated using live steam at low pressure to facilitate continuous

processing.

Rotary valve

Continuous sterilizer

Bunch crusher Feed conveyor

Rotary valve

Discharge conveyor

Figure 1: System for continuous sterilization installed in POMTEC

Table 1: Mills using continuous sterilization system.

Country Number of mills completed

Number of mills under construction

Total number of mills

Malaysia 17 7 24

Indonesia 21 6 27

Guatemala 0 1 1

Liberia 0 1 1

Ivory Coast 1 0 1

Papua New Guinea 0 2 2

Thailand 1 0 1

Total 40 17 57

IMPACT OF CONTINUOUS STERILIZATION ON PROCESS EFFICIENCY

Although the new sterilization process is carried out using steam at low or

atmospheric pressure, it has been found to significantly improve the strippability of

bunches. The unstripped bunches have only a small percentage of the fruits originally

present in fresh fruit bunches. There are none of the highly unstripped bunches that

are commonly observed with batch sterilization systems.

The extent of cooking achieved by the continuous sterilization process is

insufficient to optimize the oil and kernel extraction by the rest of the milling process.

The fruits need to be further heated after stripping using a post-heating system.

Digestion is carried out using either the conventional vertical digester or the

new horizontal digester. The main advantage of using the horizontal digester is a

slightly lower oil loss in the presscake possibly due to improved drainage from the

digester (Table 2).

One approach that may be adopted for reducing the oil loss in the presscake is

to carry out the pressing in two stages (Tables 3 and 4). The first stage is carried out at

low pressure to minimize the breakage of nuts. This is followed by separation of the

fibre from the nuts in a depericarper and second-stage pressing on the fibre only,

carried out at higher pressure to extract as much of the residual oil as possible.

The OER and KER of mills using the continuous sterilization has improved

significantly following improvements to downstream processes in the mill and is now

comparable to, and in some cases better than, the conventional palm oil mill. Tables 5

to 7 show the OER and KER of mills in Malaysia using the continuous sterilization

process during the first six months of 2009. It will be observed that the OER in all

mills, except one, was above 20 percent.

Table 8 shows that Sungai Terah Palm Oil Mill is one of the top performing

mills in the state of Kelantan. Figure 2 shows that the OER of Sungai Terah Palm Oil

Mill has consistently been more than 20 percent over the period from January 2008 to

June 2009 and has been steadily climbing over the last few months. It is currently

being maintained above 22 percent. Figure 3 shows that the KER in this mill has

consistently been maintained above 6 percent over the period from September 2008 to

May 2009.

Tables 9 and 10 show the effect on OER and KER of converting from the batch

to the continuous sterilization process. Tables 11 and 12 show the effect on OER and

KER when old mills based on batch sterilization are replaced by new mills based on

continuous sterilization. In both cases, there has generally been an improvement in the

OER following the switch to continuous sterilization. In a number of mills, the

improvement in OER was more than 1 percent. In the case of Mill A, a steady climb

from 17.55 percent to 21.12 was achieved. The data also seems to indicate that there

is a higher likelihood of an increase in OER if the old mill is replaced by a new mill.

Table 2: Comparison of screw press performances in Kota Bahagia Palm Oil Mill (June 2007 to June 2008).

Press Number

Type of digester

Press cake analysis (%)

Moisture content

Oil content (wet basis)

Oil content dry basis)

1 Horizontal 42.81 3.69 6.45

2 Vertical 44.39 3.93 7.07

3 Vertical 45.20 4.10 7.48

4 Horizontal 44.14 3.87 6.93

Table 3: Two-stage pressing in Balingian Palm Oil Mill (June 2008).

Pressing stage


Moisture content


Oil content (dry basis)

First 40.05 4.97 8.48

Second 39.91 3.44 5.86

Table 4: Two-stage pressing in Melur Gemilang Palm Oil Mill (June 2008).

Pressing stage


Moisture content


Oil content (dry basis)

First 38.87 4.70 7.80

Second 34.56 2.86 4.31

Table 5: OER and KER of palm oil mills using continuous sterilization process in Malaysia (average for the period from January to June 2009).

Palm oil mill Commenced operation OER* KER*

Melalap 2008 23.42 3.65

Ulu Sebol August 2008 20.61 5.79

Sungai Terah November 2005 21.48 6.14

Mill A 2006 21.12 4.90

Mill B February 2005 20.00 5.26

Bukit Puteri March 2005 20.66 4.48

Kota Bahagia April 2007 20.29 6.01

Mill C April 2008 20.79 5.79

Melur Gemilang November 2007 20.92 4.57

Balingian December 2006 20.01 3.06

Mill D August 2008 21.06 5.02

Mill E October 2008 20.72 5.93

Mill F October 2008 18.92 5.70

Mamahat January 2009 20.62 3.96

Average 20.76 5.02

Table 6: OER of mills using continuous sterilization process (January to June 2009).

Mill January 2009 February 2009 March 2009 April 2009 May 2009 June 2009

Melalap 21.10 22.52 23.35 23.65 23.92 24.79

Ulu Sebol 20.41 18.41 20.75 20.82 21.30 21.62

Sungai Terah 21.02 20.74 21.16 21.14 21.85 22.63

Mill A 21.77 21.78 19.87 20.73 20.76 21.74

Mill B 20.03 20.02 20.02 20.03 20.03 19.85

Bukit Puteri 20.41 21.15 20.37 20.34 20.68 21.05

Kota Bahagia 20.07 20.30 20.21 20.24 20.32 20.51

Mill C 19.33 21.58 20.09 21.35 21.83 21.47

Melur Gemilang 20.16 21.08 21.03 20.80 21.10 21.25

Balingian 18.21 18.32 20.26 21.00 20.57 21.34

Mill D 22.71 22.88 21.70 21.80 22.03 23.11

Mill E 20.76 21.70 20.27 20.50 21.02 20.30

Mill F 18.51 18.81 18.23 18.80 19.00 19.69

Mamahat 19.40 18.96 20.97 21.62 21.81 21.74

Average 20.28 20.59 20.59 20.92 21.16 21.51

Table 7: KER of mills using continuous sterilization process (January to June 2009)

Mill January 2009 February 2009 March 2009 April 2009 May 2009 June 2009

Melalap 3.34 2.38 3.59 4.29 3.90 4.08

Ulu Sebol 5.97 6.13 6.04 5.68 5.56 5.35

Sungai Terah 6.30 6.54 6.31 6.22 6.48 5.17

Mill A 5.04 4.91 4.67 5.02 5.01 4.74

Mill B 5.01 5.10 5.42 5.45 5.41 5.12

Bukit Puteri 4.31 4.37 4.44 4.50 4.80 4.40

Kota Bahagia 5.20 5.73 6.32 6.72 6.14 5.63

Mill C 5.64 6.92 6.40 5.83 5.21 5.32

Melur Gemilang 4.54 4.58 4.54 4.50 4.68 4.54

Balingian 2.49 3.16 3.57 3.50 3.15 2.41

Mill D 6.56 5.71 5.43 5.91 5.45 5.08

Mill E 5.77 6.11 6.17 6.01 6.03 5.59

Mill F 6.83 6.06 5.51 6.16 5.85 4.64

Mamahat 3.75 3.44 3.95 4.38 4.65 3.86

Average 5.05 5.08 5.17 5.30 5.17 4.71

Table 8: Comparison of OER and KER of mills in Kelantan (average for the period

from January to June 2009).

Mill District OER KER

Sungai Terah Gua Musang 21.48 6.14

Mill 1 Tanah Merah 19.54 5.46

Mill 2 Kuala Kerai 19.74 5.60

Mill 3 Kuala Kerai 19.57 5.55

Mill 4 Gua Musang 19.66 5.40






19

19.5

20

20.5

21

21.5

22

22.5

23

Jan-08 Mar-08 May-08 Jul-08 Sep-08 Nov-08 Jan-09 Mar-09 May-09

Month

OER

Figure 2: Monthly Average OER in Sungai Terah Palm Oil Mill from January 2008 to June 2009.

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4.5

5

5.5

6

6.5

7

Jan-08 Mar-08 May-08 Jul-08 Sep-08 Nov-08 Jan-09 Mar-09 May-09

Month

KER

Figure 3: Monthly Average KER in Sungai Terah Palm Oil Mill from January 2008 to May 2009.

Table 9: Effect of mill conversion to continuous sterilization on oil extraction rate.

Palm Oil Mill 2005 2006 2007 2008 January to June 2009

Mill A 17.61 17.55+ 18.81 20.12 21.12

Mill E 19.16 19.68 19.55 20.27+ 20.72

Mill F 18.48 18.23 18.81 18.89+ 18.92

Kota Bahagia 20.31 20.38 20.22+ 20.20 20.29

+ Mill converted from batch to continuous sterilization.

Table 10: Effect of mill conversion to continuous sterilization on kernel extraction rate.


Mill A 5.18 5.05+ 4.89 4.86 4.90

Mill E 5.32 5.08 5.62 5.55+ 5.93

Mill F 6.06 5.88 5.74 5.48+ 5.70

Kota Bahagia 5.96 5.62 5.56+ 5.51 6.01

+ Mill converted from batch to continuous sterilization.

Table 11: Effect of mill change on oil extraction rate.


Mill C 19.11 19.44 19.49 20.42+ 20.79

Ulu Sebol 18.28 18.70 18.55 19.99+ 20.61

+ Old mill was shut down and FFB processed using a new mill based on continuous sterilization.

Table 12: Effect of mill change on kernel extraction rate.


Mill C 5.36 5.30 5.26 5.63+ 5.79

Ulu Sebol 5.67 5.18 5.46 5.58+ 5.79

+ Old mill was shut down and FFB processed using a new mill based on continuous sterilization.

IMPACT OF CONTINUOUS STERILIZATION ON MILL OPERATION

The steam pressure in a mill using the continuous sterilization process fluctuates

much less than in a conventional mill. By avoiding the use of multiple peak

sterilization cycles, the steam demand remains approximately constant, thereby

minimizing fluctuations in the steam pressure and electrical voltage and frequency.

Such fluctuations will normally lead to problems such as higher product losses, poor

product quality and reduced throughput.

Another advantage of using the continuous sterilization process is that the

constant steam demand allows steady-state fuel feeding to the boiler, thus avoiding

the variations in feeding needed to cope with the fluctuations in steam demand. Such

variations in fuel feeding tend to upset the air/fuel ratio in the furnace and is an

important factor responsible for black smoke emissions from boiler stacks.

By eliminating the use of sterilizer cages and rail tracks, the new process

facilitates the design and construction of mills having significantly smaller footprints

than conventional mills. Palm oil mills designed using the the new process are

generally more easily managed than conventional mills and require approximately 50

percent less operators. It can be observed from Table 13 that the manpower reductions

are more significant for large-capacity mills. Table 14 examines the savings in

process labour cost in a mill processing 30 tonnes of FFB per hour and handling a

yearly crop of 144,000 tonnes FFB. The mill process labour in a conventional mill is

usually divided into two shifts of approximately 25 persons per shift. Depending on

the monthly average wage, cost savings up to RM3.13 per tonne FFB processed can

be achieved by using the new process.

The mechanical reliability of the conveying system used by the continuous

sterilization system has been of particular concern over the last few years. The current

system, characterized by the use of double-deck scraper conveying system, is

susceptible to breakdowns due to chain breaks and derailments. The problem is being

tackled by checking the condition of the chain and sprockets regularly and replacing

them if there is any likelihood of a breakdown. By using a chain rated for a much

higher load than the normal load, the likelihood of chain breakage is reduced. The

chain tension is also checked and adjusted at least once per week to minimize the

likelihood of derailments. In some mills, hydraulic chain tensioners are being used.

By automating the feeding, the likelihood of breakdowns due to over-feeding is

minimized.

Table 15 provides an analysis of the breakdowns in some mills using the

continuous sterilization process. It can be observed that breakdown hours that can be

directly attributed to the continuous sterilization system constitute only a small

percentage of the overall breakdown hours, reflecting the progress that has been

achieved in the last few years. The lost processing hours due to major continuous

sterilization breakdowns is less than 0.5 percent.

Maintenance costs in mills using the continuous sterilization process will

depend on the lifespan of the conveyor chain used by the continuous sterilization

system. Due to improvements over the last few years, the lifespan of these conveyor

chains has been steadily increasing and it is now possible to obtain a typical lifespan

of about 2 years. It is estimated that the annual maintenance cost of the continuous

sterilization system based on a chain lifespan of 2 years is about RM0.78 (Table 16).

This implies a reduction in maintenance cost of about RM0.52 to RM1.72 per tonne

FFB processed compared to the batch sterilization system.

By avoiding the use of pressure vessels for sterilization, and cages and cranes

for the handling of bunches, palm oil mills are also made much safer for workers.

The continuous sterilization process provides the impetus for radical changes in

the design and operation of palm oil mills. It is felt that the potential of the new

technology for facilitating plant-wide monitoring and control of palm oil mills has not

yet been fully realized. It also appears timely to take a more holistic approach to

mordernizing palm oil mills by undertaking research into downstream processes that

can complement this new process to achieve significant improvements. A recent

development in palm oil clarification that facilitates significant reduction in the

quantity of effluent discharged from mills will be discussed in the next section.

Table 13: Number of process operators per shift.

Mill Rated throughput (t/h)

Number of operators per shift

Ladang Pasir Besar 10 8

Sungai Terah 20 11

Kota Bahagia 30 20

Bukit Puteri 20 10

Melur Gemilang 40 10

Balingian 45 12/13

PT SAI 45 12

Table 14: Impact of continuous sterilization process on process labour cost.

Average monthly wage (RM)

Process labour cost (RM)

Batch sterilization+

Continuous sterilization++

Cost saving (RM/t.FFB)

750 450,000 180,000 1.88

1000 600,000 240,000 2.50

1250 750,000 300,000 3.13

+ Based on 25 operators per shift ++ Based on 10 operators per shift

Table 15: Analysis of mill breakdowns.

Mill Period examined

Total processing

hours

Mill breakdown

hours

Sterilizer breakdown

hours

No. of major sterilizer

breakdowns+

Major sterilizer

breakdown hours

Lost processing

hours due to major

breakdowns (%)

Sungai Terah January 2008 to May 2009

6423.05 282.50 65.25 3 34.00 0.51

Kota Bahagia July 2008 to June 2009 5912.50 370.50 84.75 4 21.50 0.34

Ladang Pasir Besar January 2008 to May 2009

7611.00 994.25 61.00 5 39.50 0.46

+ Breakdowns lasting 4 hours or longer.

Table 16: Comparison of sterilization system maintenance costs.

Sterilization system

Lifespan of chain (months)

Chain replacement cost

(RM/t.FFB)

Other costs (RM/t.FFB)

Total cost (RM/t.FFB)

Continuous 12 1.00 0.28 1.28

Continuous 18 0.67 0.28 0.95

Continuous 24 0.50 0.28 0.78

Batch - - - 1.50-2.50

ZERO-DILUTION PALM OIL CLARIFICATION PROCESS

The treatment of POME to a final BOD of 20 ppm, as stipulated by the DOE in

environmentally sensitive areas, requires the use of technology that can be expensive.

The operating cost and the power consumption of such plants can also be very high.

One approach to making palm oil mills more environmentally-friendly is to modify

processes in the mill to achieve significant reduction in the amount of POME, making

it viable to treat the POME using approaches that were previously considered to be

not technically and/or economically viable. In the conventional clarification process,

the primary separation of oil from sludge is achieved in settling tanks using gravity.

For optimum separation, it is first necessary to dilute the crude oil with hot water to

reduce its viscosity. The separation is carried out using either horizontal or vertical

continuous clarifiers. Attempts have been made to use decanting centrifuges to reduce

the amount of water added to the press liquor to achieve efficient oil clarification.

Two-phase decanters have primarily been used in palm oil mills for separating

out the suspended solids, which may subsequently be dried using a rotary drier.

Installing them prior to oil clarification leads to reduction in the amount of water

needed to facilitate oil clarification. Nevertheless, they are normally used for treating

the underflow from the clarification tank since this leads to lower oil loss in the cake.

No significant reduction in the amount of POME is achievable in the latter case, since

water is still needed to facilitate oil settling in the clarification tank.

The use of a three-phase decanter makes possible oil clarification and separation

of the suspended solids concurrently. If press liquor is used as the feed to a three-

phase decanter, it is possible to replace both the clarification tank and sludge

centrifuge. This not only reduces the amount of water needed to facilitate oil

clarification significantly, but also greatly simplifies the clarification process.

Nevertheless, the oil loss was observed to be higher than with the conventional

process. Nowadays, three-phase decanters are normally used in large capacity mills,

with or without sludge separators, for treating the underflow from the clarification

tank. As in the case of two-phase decanters, no significant reduction in the amount of

POME is achievable since primary oil/sludge separation using clarification tanks is

still needed.

The use of a special two-phase decanter that makes possible oil/sludge

separation using a zero-dilution clarification process has recently been tested. Unlike

other two-phase decanters that focus on separating out the suspended solids, this

decanter’s main function is to achieve efficient oil/sludge separation. The decanter

does not have the drying zone found in a typical decanter. The amount of POME can

be reduced to about 0.4 tons per ton of FFB processed in a mill using the new

clarification process. Figure 4 illustrates the new clarification process. No settling

tanks are required in the new process.

MPOB is currently investigating the use of the above decanter system for

reducing the effluent discharged by mills using the continuous sterilization process.

The amount of condensate discharged by the continuous sterilization process is

significantly lower than the batch sterilization process. This is because the continuous

sterilization system is not subjected to the heating-cooling cycle typical of the batch

sterilization system. Also, the bulk of the sterilizer condensate is trapped and

discharged with bunches from the continuous sterilizer and is eventually discharged

from the mill with the sludge from the clarification process.

The amount of sludge discharged from the sterilization and clarification

processes can be reduced from about 0.6 tons per ton FFB processed in a conventional

mill to about 0.29 tons in a mill using the continuous sterilization and the new

clarification processes (Table 17). Studies carried out to-date indicate that the oil loss

from the new clarification system is lower than from the conventional system.

The new clarification system requires less floor space than the conventional

system. The cost of the complete clarification system is not significantly different

from that of the conventional system since clarification tanks and sludge centrifuges

are not required in the new system.

The clarification system can be quite easily automated, thereby facilitating

further reductions in the manpower requirements.

The shorter processing time used in the new clarification system should also be

beneficial to oil quality. Retention time in the decanter is in the order of seconds

compared to about 5 hours in the settling tank.

The reduced quantity of effluent makes it viable to treat all of the POME by co-

composting it with empty fruit bunches (EFB) using in-vessel composting technology

(Figure 5). This implies that additional cost is not incurred to set up an expensive

effluent treatment plant to treat the effluent to comply with stringent environmental

regulations. Further, since composting is an aerobic process, mills treating their

effluent by composting will qualify for income supplementation under the Clean

Development Mechanism (CDM) Scheme because the emission of methane gas

during effluent treatment is avoided. The use of flue gas from boilers for drying as

shown in Figure 5 will ensure that air pollution by palm oil mills is also significantly

reduced.

Figure 4: New clarification system incorporating two-phase decanter installed in POMTEC

Table 17: Clarification Plant Performance When Using the New Continuous Sterilization and Zero Dilution Clarification Processes.

Day % FFA in production

oil

% moisture in

production oil

% dirt in production

oil DOBI % moisture in sludge

% oil in sludge

(wet basis)

% oil in sludge (dry

basis)

Sludge to FFB ratio Oil loss

(% of FFB)

1 3.22 0.10 0.019 2.92 88.69 1.13 10.04 0.1993 0.2258

2 3.08 0.15 0.017 3.11 87.54 1.36 10.02 0.2878 0.3917

3 3.04 0.15 0.017 3.13 89.76 0.98 9.53 0.2979 0.2904

4 3.38 0.11 0.019 3.31 89.61 0.99 9.53 0.2745 0.2717

5 3.43 0.13 0.019 2.95 89.80 0.89 8.73 0.3080 0.2741

6 3.07 0.13 0.019 3.55 90.22 0.87 8.91 0.3071 0.2672

7 3.18 0.19 0.015 3.51 91.12 0.76 8.51 0.3499 0.2659

8 3.36 0.11 0.020 3.38 88.34 1.42 12.18 0.2941 0.4177

9 2.93 0.20 0.018 3.19 87.38 1.40 11.09 0.2610 0.3575

10 3.48 0.13 0.019 2.53 87.95 1.03 8.55 0.2875 0.2835

Average 3.22 0.14 0.018 3.16 89.04 1.08 9.71 0.2867 0.3046

continuous sterilization

pressing

stripping

digestion

screening

decanting

purificationcomposting

vacuum dryingdrying

fresh fruit bunches

empty fruit bunches

stripped fruits

fibrous solids

crude oil

press cake (to kernel plant)

oilsludge

dirt

crude palm oildried compost

sanddesanding

flue gas

post-heating

Figure 5: A new environmentally-friendly palm oil milling process based on

composting.

C3 The Way Forward in the Palm Oil Milling Process with

the Advent of TILTING STERILIZER® Ir. Loh Thim Thak*

ABSTRACT Currently Besteel Berhad is redefining the future of palm oil milling processes by introducing latest technology in sterilization known as the TILTING STERILIZER®. This equipment is a patented design by Besteel. Its operation and performance have been proven with a FFB filling capacity of 15-30 tones per charge and a throughput of 10-25 tones per hour. The brilliant design of the TILTING STERILIZER® eliminates the use of substantial amount of equipment in a conventional palm oil mill, leading to an overall lowering in the construction cost of palm oil mill by 9-12%. The design is simple and uses conventional technologies, thus making it easy and cost less to operate and maintain. With simple training the operators and engineers can operate the system effectively with minimum downtime and maximizing throughput. With fully automated features only 2-3 operators are required to operate the complete sterilization station. Its compact design provides great flexibilities in the arrangement design of both new mills and retrofitting. It can be easily incorporated into the existing mill arrangement for the horizontal sterilizer replacement and/or capacity expansion projects. For retrofitting projects the on going construction work has minimal impact on the existing production operation. TILTING STERILIZER® offers many advantages over other sterilizer systems. It carries out the sterilization process similar to that of the conventional sterilizer, but has the advantage in term of faster cycle time, oil loss in condensate is recoverable, consuming lesser steam, lower heat losses, and producing lesser waste water. Filling and unloading at a tilted position minimize impact damage to the FFB and ensuring a fast discharge. Even distribution of fruit bunches in the vessel and a well design steam distribution and venting systems ensure efficiency cooking is carried out at the shortest time. Pre-treatment of the FFB is not necessary.

* Operation Manager Besteel Berhad

1. Introduction

The high palm oil price has fueled the investment in more efficient palm oil processing technology to reduce labour dependence through automation of operations. The biggest challenges facing oil palm mills are the efficiency of oil and kernel extraction, product quality and environmental issues.

Sterilization in palm oil milling is the most important unit process because it is the initial and has a crucial influence on oil palm bunch fruitlets which determines the efficiency and effective of downstream milling processes and even the refining process in producing high grade palm oil. Improper processing can lead to high free fatty acids content resulting in increase cost in refining. The development of such technologies as continuous sterilization, vertical sterilizer and indexer system was the first step in improving oil palm mills processing by increasing efficiency and reduce labour dependence through automation. The patented Tilting Sterilizer is the latest of these technologies, and it can offer many more advantages in modern mill construction and milling efficiency, and reduce the investment, labour, and maintenance costs of palm oil mills.

The Tilting Sterilizer offers a sterilization process very similar to that of the conventional horizontal sterilizer but carry out in a much more efficient and economic manner. This is now a proven and accepted technology and has installations in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand.

This paper addresses the design, operation, performance, and installation of the Tilting Sterilizer, and the benefits it can offer to the mill owners.

2. Tilting Sterilizer

Sterilization means the use of high-temperature wet-heat treatment of loose fruit. The Tilting Sterilizer uses pressurized steam for cooking ensuring that the sterilization process is performed adequately by;

i. Destroys oil-splitting enzymes and arrests hydrolysis and autoxidation. ii. Weakens the fruit stem and makes it easy to remove the fruit from

bunches on shaking or tumbling in the threshing machine. iii. Solidify proteins in which the oil-bearing cells are microscopically

dispersed. The protein solidification (coagulation) allows the oil-bearing cells to come together and flow more easily on application of pressure.

iv. Weakens the pulp structure, softening it and making it easier to detach the fibrous material and its contents during the digestion process. The high heat is enough to partially disrupt the oil-containing cells in the mesocarp and permits oil to be released more readily.

v. Breaks down gums and resins (hydrolysis) so that they can be removed during oil clarification.

The working of the Tilting Sterilizer is illustrated in Figure1. The sterilization process is carried out in the same way as the conventional sterilizer with the vessel in a horizontal position. Once the steaming process and venting are completed, the sterilizer is tilted in an inclined position allowing the sterilized fruit bunches (SFB) be poured out under gravity through the bottom outlet into a collection hopper. While still in its inclined position, new fresh fruit bunches (FFB) are fed into it from the top inlet. When filling is completed the sterilizer is lowered to its horizontal ready for the de-aeration and steaming processes. After steaming is completed the steam valve closes, the exhaust and condensate valves open to depressurize the sterilizer. The doors then open, and repeat the tilting and pouring actions. Tilting action, door locking/opening and closing are carried out by hydraulic cylinders. Steam and condensate flow, and venting are controlled by pneumatic operated valves. The steaming cycle starts only with the vessel in the horizontal position, This eliminates the possibility of sterilization taking place while in a vertical/tilted position in which the fruit bunches lying at the bottom segment are subject to compaction due to weight of the bunches laying above, and thus have less accessibility to the pressurized steam. Such phenomena will give rise to uneven cooking of the fruit bunches concerned. In the horizontal position, it also avoided that the treated fruit bunches lying further down along the length thereof tend to get congested at the exit of the outlet (if sterilized in a vertical/tilted position) and resists gravity movement of fruit bunches lying above them and thus formed a blockage thereto, a situation generally referred to as bridging effect. Filling of the FFB is carried at a tilted position allowing bunches to roll down from the inlet to the bottom o f the vessel, lessening the impact damage that would have occurred should bunches are loaded with the vessel in a vertical position. Damaging the fruit kernels and delicate contents causes the release of certain enzymes which have the effect to deteriorate the oil quality of the fruits. Feeding the sterilizer is via a hydraulic operated telescopic chute from the sterilizer feed conveyor. The telescopic feeding chute extends into the inlet opening ensuring minimum spillage. A hydraulic operated gate controls the flow of FFB into the sterilizer. A position sensor signals the operation of the gate and is interlocked with the inlet door position. Sterilized FFB bunches are discharged into an auto feed hopper either in a single tilt operation or with multiple pour operation by controlling the tilting angle as required. The feed hopper capacity is designed to take one complete discharge. The design comes in three standard sizes with holding capacity from 15-30 tones of FFB. Table 1 showed the design and operation parameters of the Tilting Sterilizer.

Figure 1. Operation of Tilting Sterilizer

DESCRIPTION Size 15T Size 20T Size 28T Size 30T

Holding Capacity t (tonne) 15 20 28 30Throughput Capacity (t/hr) 11.25 15.00 18.00 20.00Shell Length (mm) 6000 6,300 7,200 7,800Diameter (mm) 2800 2,900 3,200 3,200Inlet/Outlet Door (mm) 1200/1500 1500/1500 1500/1500 1500/1500Plate Thickness (mm) 12 15 15 15Material Standard (Vessel/Door) JIS SS 400 JIS SS 400 JIS SS 400 JIS SS 400Working Pressure (kg /cm²) 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5Working Temperature (ºC) 150 150 150 150Insulation (50 mm thk rockwool c/w 0.7 mm Al cladding) Yes Yes Yes YesVessel Design Approval to Malaysia Regulation (DOSH) Yes Yes Yes YesOoulet Door Lining SS 304, 4.5mm t SS 304, 4.5mm t SS 304, 4.5mm t SS 304, 4.5mm tVessel Body Lining SS 304, 4.5mm t SS 304, 4.5mm t SS 304, 4.5mm t SS 304, 4.5mm tDischarge Mechanism Tilting/gravity Tilting/gravity Tilting/gravity Tilting/gravityTilting Mechanism Using Hydraulics Yes Yes Yes YesClosing & Opening Clutch Doors by Hydraulics Yes Yes Yes YesSteam System Managementt c/w valves Yes Yes Yes YesTotal Time Required (min /cycle) 70 to 80 70 to 80 80 to 90 80 to 90Feeding Time (min) 10 to 20 10 to 20 10 to 20 15 to 25Steaming Time (min) 45 45 55 55Discharge Time (min) 8 8 12 15Oil Loss in EFB (%) <3.2 <3.2 <3.2 <3.2Unstripped Fruit Bunch (USB,%) <1.5 <1.5 <1.5 <1.5Oil loss in condensate (OLWB) % <0.3 <0.3 <0.3 <0.3Hydraulic Pack Power (kW) 10 10 15 23

TABLE 1. TILTING STERILIZER SPECIFICATIONS

3. Design Features 3.1. Construction The vessel is designed to ASME pressure vessel code and satisfied with the statutory requirements of Malaysia (DOSH). A pressure gauge and a safety are provided. Steam

and condensate piping are routed with built in flexibility to take the thermal expansion during operation. For corrosion and erosion protection, a liner plate at the lower section of the shell and at the discharge end door is provided either in stainless or carbon steel, depending on the requirement of the customer. Steam supply and condensate removal is through a proven design, and easily maintain steam joint. The design ensures that thermal expansion load is not transmitted to the seal, and allows unrestricted differential movement between the fixed steam main and the tilting action of the sterilizer. Three saddles ensure minimum stress at the supports. The mid saddle formed the fixed point with the two end saddles free to take the thermal movement during operation. Inlet and outlet door openings are orientated in a position to ensure efficient filling and discharge of fruit bunches. The off centre discharge opening and a bottom sloping plate ensure smooth discharge of the sterilized FFB. The sloping bottom liner which is also a part of the condensate drain chamber wall is perforated with elongated slots which allow the flow of condensate to the drain nozzles located at the bottom of the shell. The tilted position during filling ensures minimum impact damage to bunches, and also allows filling to be done up to its maximum capacity. The design maximum tilting angle is 55° which is more than sufficient to allow easy discharge of the sterilized FFB. Heavy duty self align bearings are installed at tilting pivot points to ensure good alignment, trouble free operation, and low maintenance. The outer pivot bearing support plate can be easily dismantled for bearing maintenance. Steam supply, condensate discharge, and steam exhaust points are adequately provided, and with flow distributors to ensure efficient, fast and even cooking, and fast discharge of condensate and exhaust steam to minimize cycle time. 3.2. Hydraulics The standard design is for one hydraulic system operates two sterilizers. Each system consists of one power pack for both the tilting operation as well as for operation of the sterilizer doors and FFB feeding chutes. To ensure operation reliability and safety, and low maintenance requirement, the following main features are provided;

- Standard size heavy duty cylinders with bolted ends - Self aligned bearing at rod end - Traveling speed less than 2 cm/s - Manual operation to allow tilting to any degree - Variable piston pump - Counter balancing valve

- Suction and return lines filters - Stainless hydraulic tubing and steel braided flexible hose to cylinders - Parts can be dismantled easily for maintenance - Installation dimensions meet the requirements of ISO 6022 - Minimum tilting time = 1 min. 20 s - Minimum lowering time = 48 s - Hydraulic operation pressure < 180 bar

3.3. Steam and Condensate Systems Steaming is carried out in a manner similar to that of the horizontal sterilizer with steam injection from the top, and in addition from both sides. Steam distribution spreader running the whole shell length on the top and sides of the vessel are provided to ensure even steam distribution, helps in the air removal, avoid over-cooking the bunches immediately beneath the inlet nozzle, and causing undue erosion locally due to high speed steam flow. To ensure effective and efficient cooking, a steam path of not more than 1.5 m is maintained. Details of the arrangement are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. Steam injection is controlled by pneumatic operated valves. The initial phase of steam feed (called de-aeration) is directed from the top of the vessel via a inlet valve. During this moment of first steam, the other steam inlets on the sides are closed and the condensate and bypass valve opened. As air is denser than steam (saturated air at 50 C is approximately 2 times denser than steam at 100 C), this allows downward displacement of the air during the de-aeration period. Much of the first steam condenses on the cold bunches during the first few minutes and passes out with the air through the condensate pipe. It is difficult to recommend the precise duration of the de-aeration period required. This will depend on the size of the sterilizer and the speed of steam admittance. Provision is made in the control system for the operator to make the necessary on site adjustments for optimum operation. A relatively complete air removal will not only give a higher temperature but also improve the thermal conductivity since air is a very poor conductor of heat. After the initial de-aeration period, the condensate discharge valve is closed but leaving the by-pass valve opened. Steam then also starts to admit from the sides and to build up pressure in the sterilizer. The condensate together with a small quantity of steam mixed with air continues to escape through the bypass valve. During cooking at maximum pressure more air is liberated from the fruit bunches, thus keeping the bypass valve opened is necessary to allow a continuous removal of air and condensate. A well designed condensate collection system ensures efficient collection and drainage of condensate during operation. Condensate is discharged at the bottom of the sterilizer via a number nozzle of NB 150 mm. A covered condensate channel is provided along the full

length of the vessel. The perforated cover of the channel allows condensate to pass through but prevent blockage by the fruitlets.

Figure 2. Nozzle & Steam Spreaders arrangement (Cross Section View) Figure 3. Tilting Sterilizer General Arrangement

3.4. Safety Features Safety features are built in to ensure trouble free operation and safety to the operators. Various safety interlocks in the steam and hydraulic systems implemented include the followings;

- The doors are fitted with operation gear and hydraulic cylinders for auto opening and closing

- Auto tell-tale valve for safety interlock are provided - Steam inlet valve shall not open if the doors are not securely closed - Safety relief valves at the steam and hydraulic systems - Fill detection to prevent over filling - Mechanical stop for over-tilting - Mechanical lock at filling position

3.5. Operation and Control Tilting Sterilizer offers the fastest and safest way in sterilization of FFB. The steaming time is from 40 to 55 minutes. The feeding time is greatly dependent on the FFB conveyor capacity, and would take between 10 to 20 minutes. The discharge is designed to unload the entire fill in less than10 minutes into a SFB hopper which is sized to receive one entire fill of the sterilizer. An auto feeder regulates the flow of SFB into the SFB conveyor. A few factors affect the cycle time of the sterilization process. A 10 °C rise in the steam temperature will reduce the cooking time by a factor of 2, and steam temperature is directly related to its pressure. If some air is present in the sterilizer, the mixture of steam and air will have a lower temperature than steam alone. Also air is a very poor heat conductor. Hence cooking time will be longer with air present. Large FFB bunches will take longer to cook than smaller ones. The ripe bunches will take a lesser time to cook than a under ripe ones. Other factors affecting the cycle time include such factors as steam supply capacity, FFB filling, SFB discharge, and the discharge hopper capacity. Many authors have made investigation on the cooking time. O K. Owolarafe who did research on horizontal sterilizer steaming made investigations on cooking time for 75 to 90 minutes at pressure 3 bar and temperature of 140 C. It was found that the highest yield of oil was obtained at the sterilization on a time of 60 minutes.

Operation flexibilities are programmed into the system controller which allows the cooking time to be adjusted to suit the operation philosophy of each mill. The operation of the Tilting Sterilizer consists of a few basic steps which all together contributing to the cycle time. Typical operation steps in a sterilization process using tilting sterilizer of 20 t/h FFB capacity are summarized below with the approximate operation times;

i) On reaching zero pressure, the tell-tale valve opens and unlatches the door locking gear allowing the hydraulic cylinder to turn and unlock the door (1.5 mins)

ii) Tilting and discharge SFB (8 min.) iii) Filling FFB (18 min.) iv) Upper door closing (1.5 min.) v) Return to horizontal position (2 min) vi) Cooking (steaming) time (49 min)

There is further potential in improving the cycle time through optimizing the filling, discharge, tilting, steaming and venting operations. For a 20 t/h FFB capacity unit typical results obtained are as follows;

Holding capacity per cycle = 20 t/h Total cycle time = 80 min.

Throughput per hour = 15 t/h Oil losses in EFB < 3.2% Oil losses in condensate (OLWB) < 0.38% Unstripped fruit bunch (USB) < 1.5%

Each set of sterilizer is fitted with a cost effective control system which is highly reliable, ease of operation and easy to maintain. The PLC based control system together with limit switches and transmittals control the operation of the steam feed, venting, condensate discharge, and hydraulic systems. Interlocking features cover all operation and safety aspects related to closing and opening of clutch doors, feeding FFB, discharge SFB, steam supply, condensate discharge, and venting of steam and air. The PLC allows user interfaces to enable the the field operator to execute some of the monitoring and control functions. The modes of operation consist of Auto, Semi-Auto, Manual, Remote, and Local. The system is capable of performing

- single or multi-peaks sterilizing - allows operator to key in different time /pressure settings for operation - selection of individual or sequential or all sterilizers to operate together - touch screen Human Machine Interface - monitor current status, and view operation trends

The auto mode involves the synchronization and interlocking of the sterilizer operation steps of the sterilizers in operation, targeted output, steaming time, pressure, fruit ripeness, and various safety functions. A significant advantage of using Tilting Sterilizer is that it renders the batch sterilization process into a semi or full automatic continuous operation process from start to finish making it cost effective to automate the complete FFB handling and sterilization systems with a significant reduction in labour requirement. A plant wide control system can be used to monitor and control the mill from a control room.

A CCTV can be used to monitor operations and security. Remote monitoring from control room and periodic adjustments by field operators will be considered sufficient. Dedicated cameras provide close-up views and entire view of the entire plant are useful for continuous monitoring of the critical points of the production process. Operators are likely to be more productive if they perceive that management is watching them.

4. Implementation of Tilting Sterilizer Projects 4.1. General Arrangement The lesser space requirement of a Tilting Sterilizer allows flexibilities in the plant arrangement in both new plant design and upgrading of existing mills with add-on sterilizers. There will be minimum impacts on the existing mill operation as the retrofit/upgrading work can be carried out concurrently. Other superior features in plant arrangement include locating the screw press in ground level. As shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5, show the different in the space requirement of two designs, a space saving of 60% of the sterilization station area is achievable using the Tilting Sterilizer concept. Figure 4. Mill Arrangement Using Tilting Sterilizers

Figure 5 Mill Arrangement Using Horizontal Sterilizers In additional to space saving, the Tilting Sterilizer also offers an excellence opportunity in mill upgrading, and can provide the following benefits; Mill output increase Introduce state of the art technology Decrease of production costs through higher efficiency and improved competitiveness Optimal operation flexibility, short start up time Short interruption of production during installation Significant reduction in emissions, meet environmental targets Patented design guarantees no patent infringement and law sues Figures 6 and Figure 7 show the arrangement of the sterilizer feed and discharge systems. The sterilized FFB discharge hopper as shown is sized to receive the discharge of one full capacity load. The auto feeder would control the feed of bunches into the sterilized FFB conveyor.

Figure 6 Tilting Sterilization Station Arrangement Figure 7 Multiple Tilting Sterilizers Arrangement Figure 8 shows the arrangement of the upgrading work of a 45 t/h mill at Keratong, Pahang with the installation of three units of 18 t/h throughput capacity Tilting Sterilizers to replace the existing conventional horizontal sterilizers. The design and retrofitting work is planned such that existing mill operation is not affected and production can continue while upgrading work is carried out.

Figure 8. Replacement of Horizontal Sterilizers with Tilting Sterilizers at Keratong Figure 9 shows upgrading of mill capacity by installing 2 x 20 t/h Tilting Sterilizers. The existing conventional horizontal sterilizers at PT Pinago have a total capacity of 90 t/h, but the mechanical plants of the mill are designed with some over capacity. In order to boost the mill output, the two Tilting Sterilizers are added. Figure 9. Add-on Tilting Sterilizers at PT Pinago Figure 10 shows the replacement of existing conventional horizontal sterilizers with Tilting Sterilizers at a mill in Sabah. Four units of 18 t/h throughput capacity Tilting Sterilizers are retrofitted. In order to minimize the production shutdown, two units are installed at the first stage and the balance two units at the second stage.

Figure 10. Replacement of Horizontal with Tilting Sterilizers at Sabah Figure 11 shows the replacement of existing conventional horizontal with Tilting Sterilizers at Chumporn palm oil mill in Thailand. The current mill has three loading ramps in operation. The first stage of the upgrading work involved the installation of four units of 18 t/h throughput Tilting Sterilizers. The cages system of one of these loading ramps will be converted into using FFB conveyor feeding the Tilting Sterilizers. The next stage will be to replace the remaining cages systems with FFB conveyors linking with first stage system. Figure 11. Replacement of Horizontal Sterilizers at Chumporn POM

5. The Advantages of Tilting Sterilizer

Sterilization in palm oil milling is the most important unit process because its initial and crucial influence on oil palm bunch fruitlets will determine the efficiency and effectiveness of downstream milling process and even to the refining process in producing high grade palm oil. Improper processing would lead to high free fatty acids content resulting in increase cost in refining. The patented Tilting Sterilizer offers many advantages over other systems currently in use in the industry. A comparison of the advantages between the tilting, vertical and horizontal sterilizers are given in Table 2. 5.1. Lower Construction Cost With lesser process equipment required, and a more compact design using Tilting Sterilizer, the construction of mills will have significantly smaller footprints than that of the conventional mills, resulting in a lower capital investment cost. Typically a 60 t/h conventional mill would cost approximately MRM36 millions as compare to MRM32.5 millions for one which uses Tilting Sterilizers. The use of the Tilting technology is simple and uncomplicated by eliminates the use of sterilizer cages, rail tracks, overhead cranes, tippers, transfer carriages and tractors. There is also no need for monorail hoists to lift the cages to the threshing machine, and no need for tractors and hydraulic skid-steer loaders or wire-rope winches to move the fruit-cages around. Steam and power consumption will be lower resulting in the need of smaller boiler and turbine systems. The overall saving in the cost of mechanical plants would be approximately 2% (MRM 0.72 million). In term of plant area requirement for the sterilization station, using the conventional horizontal sterilizer would require an area of 3700 m2. In comparison to using Tilting Sterilizer it would need only 780 m2. Hence a saving of 22% in the construction plant area if Tilting Sterilizer is used. A smaller required plant area means a lower construction cost because of the smaller civil work, building area and building structure. This can result in an estimated cost saving of 7% which equates to approximately 2.5 millions Ringgits for a 60t/h FFB mill.

5.2. Smooth Handling of FFB and Minimum Damage to Fruit Bunches

The tilting design allows smooth filling/loading and unloading of the fruit bunches by having the sterilizer placed at a slanting position allowing them to slide in and out via special designed openings. There is no need to use water to cushion the impact during filling, and to use a mechanical mean to extract the sterilized fruit bunches as required in the vertical design. As the fruit and kernels are not subject to sharp impact forces when charging into the interior of the sterilization vessels, the fruit kernels and contents therein

are saved from any stress and bruises before the commencement of a sterilization process, hence resulting in lower oil loss.

5.3. Uniform Sterilization of Fruits

In the inclined position the distribution of the fruit bunches would be unevenly distributed with bunches at the bottom end being compacted by those lying above. Before sterilization starts, the Tilting Sterilizer is lowered into its horizontal position. This allows the fruit bunches to be more evenly spread out across the length of the vessel, allowing a more even steam penetration in all directions during cooking, and thus a fairly uniform sterilization action taking place for the complete length of the vessel. With a uniform sterilization cycle, there will be a minimum or no uncooked fruits (or uncooked tissues) which will release certain enzymes capable of causing damage to the oil bearing parts of the fruits themselves and hence affect the quality of the final palm oil products. The present of a uniform cooking environment also allow a shorter cooking time, and there is no need for a pretreatment process, i.e. crushing and pre-heating of the fruit before the sterilizer.

5.4. Simpler and Fast Unloading Operation Actions The Tilting Sterilizer offers a fast and safety way of in sterilization FFB. With cooking done in a horizontal position compaction of the fruit bunches at the outlet end and bridging effect would unlikely to occur in the sterilizer, thus allowing the sterilized bunches to be poured out easily. The tilting action during discharge will initiate a sudden movement of the fruit bunches producing an avalanche effect, causing them to slide down under gravity along the length of the vessel and finally out of the outlet exit. The discharge is smooth and orderly and does not require any and mechanical device or labor force to standby so as to attend to any possible blockage of treated fruit bunches at the exit outlet of sterilization vessels. This simple and fast unloading operation helps to reduce labor costs and increase productivity in sterilization process by reducing the cycle time. . 5.5. Lower Operation and Maintenance Costs Lesser machinery also means fewer operators needed and lesser maintenance work. The Tilting Sterilizer station needs only 2-3 operators to operate several units at a time. With full automation the operator could operate the sterilizers from the control room. The tilted sterilizer does not require any labour force to standby to attend to any possible blockage of treated fruit bunches at the exit outlet of sterilization vessels. There will be savings on diesel and tyres by not having the tractors, and less machinery to maintain. Fewer workers also mean lesser houses to be built on the plantation. Operating the Tilting Sterilizer need only simple training, the operators and engineers can easily operate the

unit effectively with minimum downtime and maximizing throughput. Overall the using Tilting Sterilizer requires lower operation and maintenance costs.

5.6. Higher Reliability and Availability

The simple uncomplicated design of the Tilting Sterilizer ensures a high level of reliability and availability in the sterilization process. The compact design and the efficiency arrangement of steam distribution, condensate and air removal ensure efficient cooking at minimum time. There is no need for water filling and transferring of cages means faster filling and unloading. A well designed discharge outlet, vessel lining and hydraulic system ensure that complete discharge can be made in 8-12 minutes.

5.7. Lesser Iron Contamination in Oil

Iron cages are prone to corrosion which then causes unwanted contamination to the palm oil or other vegetable oils to be extracted. Tilting Sterilizer vessels can be stainless steel lined and fresh fruit bunches carried in continuous conveyor belts are fed directly into the interior of the sterilization vessels through an inlet chute.

5.8. Cleaner Working Floor at Sterilization Station Slippery floor is a common occurrence in mills with the conventional horizontal sterilizer installations. This is caused by oil drips from fruit cages, causing damage to tail tracks, and create an unclean and unsafe environment for operator to work at. With Tilting Sterilizer technology there is not oil drips. Oil loss in condensate is collected and recovered. The Tilting Sterilizer system is tidy, safe, simple and easy to use guaranteeing a cleaner and safer working environment where operators will like to work in. 5.9. Produces Lesser Wastes Tilting Sterilizer system uses less steam and produces lesser wastewater and oil losses, thus is energy efficient, and causing less severe impact on the environment.

5.10. Efficient Steaming Process

The well design steaming system ensures efficient cooking, resulting in minimum unstripped fruit bunch loss, and eliminates the requirement of crushing and pre-heating of the fruit before the sterilizer. Tilting Sterilizer uses high-pressure steam for sterilization. There is enough heat in the steam to cause the moisture in the nuts to expand. When the

pressure is reduced the contraction of the nut leads to the detachment of the kernel from the shell wall, thus loosening the kernels within their shells. The detachment of the kernel from the shell wall greatly facilitates later nut cracking operations.

Descriptions Tilting Sterilizer Vertical Steriliser Conventional Horizontal Sterilizer

Oil LossLow as condensate is recovered separately for oil recovery

High due to due to compacted fruits at the bottom

Low, oil in condensate drips fall onto floor

Throughput 15 t/h (80 mins), based on 20t capacity unit 13 t/h (90 mins) 11 t/h (110 mins)

Cooking operation Single peak with multiple blow down

Single peak with multiple blow down 2 to 3 peaks

Cycle time 70 to 85 mins. SFB discharge in a single pour 85 to 95 mins. 100 to 120 mins

Steam consumption per tonne FFB Low Low High

Heat Loss Minimal Minamal Hgh, due large surface area

Space requirement Small, only 30 % of conventional system Small Large

Number of equipment Least Lesser More

Number of operator 2 to 3 2 to 3 4 to 5

Cost of investment (new plant) 9-12% lower than conventional mills Fair High

Maintenance requirementOnly scheduled maintenance of the clutch doors and hydraulics

Auger, clutch doors and water syatem

Many moving parts to be maintenance

Cost of operation Low Fair High

General operation & working environment

Simple to operate, safer, and cleaner environment

Added tasks like water filling system and auger discharge

Complex and many human dependent factors, oily working floor

Delays and downtime MinimalAdded time for water filling system and auger discharge

Transferring of cages

Amount of utilities used (water, power) Minimal Low More

Amount of waste water & recovery Minimum condensate Waste water from filling

plus condensate More steam condensate

Upgrading Plant

Small space required provides trmentous flexibilities in arrangement. Low investment

Small space required provides trmentous flexibilities in arrangement. Low investment

Difficult, need more space. High investment

Automation Fully automation from filling of FFB to unloading of SFB

Fully automation from filling of FFB to unloading of SFB

Difficult for complete automation

TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT STERILIZERS

6. Tilting Sterilizer Projects A 15 t/h FFB Tilting Sterilizer has been in operation in Tee Teh palm oil mill at Keratong since 2007. It performed better than envisaged and subsequently the Owner placed an order for 3 x 28 t/h units. In PT Pinago mill 2 x 20 t/h units are installed as add-on to the existing horizontal sterilizers. They have been in operation since July 1009. Other units ordered and are at various stages of construction are shown in Table 3 below. Among the big clients are Felcra and Chomporn Palm Oil Industry Ltd of Thailand.

Location Client Unit x FFB Capacity Status Remarks

Pahang, Malaysia

Tee The Palm Oil Mill 3 x 28 tones Operation since

Sept. 2009Replacement of

horizontal sterilizers

Pelambang, Indonesia PT Pinago Utama 2 x 20 tones Operation since

July 2009

Add-on to existing horizontal sterilizers for

capacity increaseSabah,

MalaysiaBerkat Sertia Sdn

Bhd 2 x 28 tones Installation Phae 1 replacement of horizontal sterilizers

Sabah, Malaysia

Berkat Sertia Sdn Bhd 2 x 28 tones Installation Phae 2 replacement of

horizontal sterilizersChomporn, Thailand CPI 4 x 28 tones Installation Replacement of

horizontal sterilizers

Perak, Malaysia Felcra 3 x 20 tones Construction Design change from

using vertical sterilizers

TABLE 3. TILTING STERILIZER PROJECT LIST

7. Conclusions The TILTING STERILIZER® is a proven technology for the way forward in more efficient, lower investment cost, and environmentally friendly palm oil milling process.

The brilliant design of the TILTING STERILIZER® eliminates the use of substantial amount of equipment in a conventional palm oil mill, leading to an overall lowering in the construction cost of palm oil mill by 9-12%. The design is simple making it easy and cost less to operate and maintain. With fully automated features only 2-3 operators would be required to operate the complete sterilization station. Its compact design provides great flexibilities in the arrangement design of both new mills and retrofitting. It can be easily incorporated into the existing mill arrangement for horizontal sterilizer replacement and/or capacity expansion projects. For retrofitting projects, the on going construction work would have minimal impact on the existing production operation of the mill. TILTING STERILIZER® offers many advantages over other sterilizer systems. It has the advantage in term of faster cycle time, oil loss in condensate is recoverable, consuming lesser steam, lower heat losses, and producing lesser waste water. Filling and unloading at a tilted position minimizes impact damage to the FFB and ensure fast discharge. It allows even distribution of fruit bunches in the vessel and the well designed steam distribution and venting systems ensure efficiency cooking is carried out at the shortest time. Pre-treatment of the FFB is not necessary.

References

1. Effect of processing conditions on yield and quality of hrdraulically expressed palm oil. by O.K. Owolarafe, E.A. Taiwo, O.O Oke

C4 Maximizing the Recovery of Dry Shell and Kernel via a

Four Stage Winnowing Column

Rohaya Mohamed Halim, Nasrin Abu Bakar, Mohd Basri Wahid, Choo Yuen May, Abdul Halim Ahmad, Ma Ah Ngan, Ridzuan Ramli

and Ravi Menon

ABSTRACT

Palm kernel is one of the products from palm oil mills. In a typical kernel recovery plant,

the separation of kernel and shell from cracked mixture is carried out using a

combination of a dry and wet separation system. In order to improve the conventional

separation method as well as to maximizing the recovery of dry kernel and shell, MPOB

in collaboration with Hur Far Engineering Works Sdn. Bhd. (HFEWSB) and Felda Palm

Industries Sdn. Bhd. (FPISB) have successfully developed an improved dry separation

system via a four stage winnowing column. This user friendly and compact separation

device uses forced draught principle instead of the usual induced draught.. The air flow

velocity in each separating column can be adjusted via the blower (damper) located at

the ground or an elevated level.

This system had its trial run and commercial performance evaluation at Kilang Sawit

Felda in Bahau, Negeri Sembilan. Parameters that were closely monitored during the

commercial trials were Kernel Extraction Rate (KER), dirt & shell content in production

kernel, kernel losses and maintenance costs. All data obtained after the installation of the

system were compared with the conventional system used previously in the mill.

From the monitoring exercise and analysis, it was found that the system was capable of

separating dry kernel that ranged from 30% to 40% (w/w of cracked mixture) with

average dirt and shell content in kernel at less than 4.7%. The total dry shell discharged

at column 3 and 4 ranged from 40% to 55% (w/w% of cracked mixture) with kernel

losses less than 1.4%. The system was also equipped with a unit of a small vibro claybath

to minimize the kernel losses by recovering the very fine kernel pieces generated from the

screw press. Therefore, the total kernel loss from dry and wet separation could be

minimized to 1.87%. It was also noted that the KER of the mill has increased

significantly up to 0.3% per month after the installation of the system. On the operational

cost, the system was capable of minimizing the clay and water consumptions by the

conventional system to a minimum. This system also reduces the waste effluent from the

mill promoting more environmental friendly technology for the oil palm industry.

This system also showed a lower maintenance cost as low as RM 0.03-0.06 per tonne

FFB processed compared to the RM 0.09/tonne FFB for the conventional system. The

details of all these commercial performances of 4 stage winnowing column are discussed

in this paper. The invention of 4 stage winnowing column is another breakthrough for

the betterment of palm oil milling process as well as environmental aspect.

Keywords palm kernel, palm shell, cracked mixture, winnowing column, extraction rate

Introduction

Malaysian palm oil industry has developed tremendously and continues to be one of the

major contributors for the socio-economic development of the country. Being amongst

the world’s largest palm oil producers, the industry continues to grow to meet the high

global demands for oils and fats. In 2008 Malaysia processed 88.53 million tonnes of

fresh fruit bunch (FFB) and produced 17.73 million tonnes of crude palm oil. Besides

that, the industry also produced 4.58 and 2.13 million tonnes of palm kernel and palm

kernel oil respectively.

Palm kernel which constitutes about 5-7% in fresh fruit bunch (FFB), is a secondary

product from palm oil mills. It is obtained from palm fruitlet after the removal of

mesocarp fibre and shell. The production of palm kernel starts with the cracking of palm

nuts using palm nut cracker followed by with the separation of shell and kernel in the

cracked mixture using a combination of dry and wet separation. In a typical kernel

recovery plant, two units of winnowing columns operated based on the dry separation

principle. They were used to remove the low tension dust particles, broken kernel and

other particles of the cracked mixture. The heavier mixture of shell and kernel is then

subjected to wet separation using either clay bath and hydrocyclone. Basically, the

separation ratio (weight basis) of dry to wet separation is 20:80 based on the total cracked

mixture fed into the kernel recovery plant.

The commercial dry separation system uses either forced or induced draught. The wet

separation process of cracked mixture is based on the difference between the specific

gravity of shell and kernel. The wet technique either through hydrocyclone or claybath is

considered less environmentally friendly as it requires a large volume of water and clay

which contribute towards a high production volume of waste effluent. Through this

conventional process, kernel is produced and collected in a wet condition and requires

drying operation prior to storage.

Previously, Sawipac introduced and commercialized a method of shell and kernel

separation using air method. In this system, a two-step operation was used whereby in

the first phase, the lighter shell pieces were separated and in the second phase, the kernel

as a main product and mixture of lighter whole kernel, broken kernel and heavier shell

were separated. The mixture of shell and kernel will be separated using the wet

separation to recover the broken and light kernel.

In order to enhance the recovery of dry shell and kernel in palm oil mills, MPOB in

collaboration with HEWSB and FPISB have successfully developed an improved dry

separation system via a four stage winnowing column. The details of the technology are

described in this paper.

The Technology

This invention relates to a specially designed winnowing system to improve the present

separation efficiency of the cracked mixture at the kernel recovery plant. A dry separation

system is used to separate a mixture of kernels and shells (cracked mixture) derived from

the oil palm nuts after cracking.

The dry separation system consists of a series of equipment: a four-stage winnowing

column, a cyclone, a blower fan and air lock. Each column was designed with different

parameters (e.g. air velocity, fan speed, column height, inlet and outlet levels, feeding

ratio, etc.) in order to achieve the desired shell and kernel ratio separation at each outlet

point. The four-stage winnowing column uses forced draught principle instead of induced

draught and the air flow velocity is adjusted via the blower (damper) located at ground or

an elevated level. Each column is operated by a 25 HP forced draught fan. This approach

simplifies the process and ensures ease of control, as well as possesses the ability of

eliminating the effluent generated from the wet separation system.

The system is also equipped with a unit of a small vibro claybath to minimize the kernel

losses by recovering the very fine kernel pieces. The presence of this mini claybath

depends on the mill’s requirement and the capability of the mill to recover the broken

kernels generated from the screw press. However, most of the broken kernels can be

recovered through a mesh plate screen (Figure 1) which were placed surrounding the

polishing drum. It was found that about 10 – 15 kg of broken kernel can be collected

hourly and conveyed directly to the kernel silo. The removal of small stone (Figure 2)

can be done by placing of 4 pieces of mesh plate screen (Figure 3) also at the polishing

drum. Therefore, it is not necessary for the mini claybath to be installed because the

separation of kernel and shell can be carried out using completely dry separation system.

Figure 2: Small stone (gravel) Figure 1: Screen for broken kernel

Figure 3: Screen for removal of gravel

Separation Principle

The separation system comprises a feed inlet with an airlock that admits the cracked

mixture into the separating column (velocity box) where it is subjected to an air flow

caused by a forced draught fan. The air velocity (based on Ampere value at each column)

is varied using an adjustable flap, located at the bottom of separating column until only

clean kernel descends through the discharge chute. This process is repeated in stage 2 but

with progressively lower velocity settings to ensure only clean kernel is discharged.

However, stage 3 and 4 will be biased for clean shell exit through the shell discharge

chute. Kernel shell mixture will discharge into the third stage and the final stage will

discharge some kernel fragments and shell through the kernel chute into a small hydro

clay bath separator (5HP motor) so that the smallest fragments of kernel can be

recovered.

The process flow diagram of the system and a description of the process system are

illustrated and summarized in Figure 4 and Table 1. The system installed at the mill

shown in Figure 5.

Figure 4. Process flow diagram of the four-stage winnowing column

Table 1. Optimum Process design & description of each winnowing stage

Stage/

Column Process parameters and description

1

• Fan speed: 2950 rpm

• Fan air inlet damper: 31 amps (3300 CFM)

• % of recovery: whole kernels (15-20%), dirt and thick shells (2-3%)

• Overhead products (shells and kernels) to Stage 2

2

• Fan velocity: 2740 rpm

• Fan air inlet damper: 30 amps (3200 CFM)

• % of recovery: small whole kernels (15-20%), big broken kernels

(8%), dirt and shells (3-4%)

• Overhead products (shells and small broken kernels) to Stage 3

3


• Fan inlet damper: 22 amps (2350 CFM)

• % of discharge: light shells (30-40%)

• % of kernel losses in dry shell: 0.3-0.6%

4


• Fan inlet damper: 22 amps (2350 CFM)

• % of discharge: light wet shells from the claybath (5-6%), dry shells

(10-15%)

• % of kernel losses in dry shell: 0.3-0.7%

Figure 5: Installation of the 4-stage Winnowing Column at the mill

Commercial Assessment of 4 Stage Winnowing Column

The installation of the 4 stage winnowing column was started on 1st May till 12th May

2008.in a 54 t/hr palm oil mill owned by FPISB in Bahau, Negeri Sembilan. The fine

tuning of this system was carried out starting from middle of May to July 2008 and was

optimized on August 2008.

The system performance was monitored continuous for 1 year. .During this commercial

trials, only a cracked mixture produces from 3 units of Rolek cracker (installed since

April 2006) was used as feed material to be separated using a 10 t/hr of winnowing

column (Figure 6) Cracking of palm nuts using Rolek cracker produced 30-40% of whole

kernel and 10% of broken kernel. The amount of uncracked and half cracked nuts is very

low which is <1% and 2% respectively ( Figure 7) A mini vibro-clay bath system was

also installed next to the fourth column in order to recover light kernel prior to a final

discharge.

Figure 6. Rolek Nut Cracker Figure 7. Cracked mixture from

Rolek Cracker

Parameters were closely monitored during the commercial trials including mass balance

of the system, throughput capacity, kernel extraction rate, consumption of clay, kernel

quality and losses, maintenance cost and power consumption as well. All the evaluations

were carried out by the mill’s technical staff and MPOB for one year duration. Results

were compared with the targeted performance of the system and the previous dry-wet

technique used by the mill. Details of the performance parameters were discussed in the

sub-section below. The targeted performance of using a 4-stage winnowing column is

summarized in Table 2.

Table 2 . Targeted performance of 4 stage winnowing column

Parameter Existing system

(%)

Proposed system

(%)

Kernel losses in dry shell

(on sample)

- <2.0

(4-stage)

Kernel losses in wet shell

(on sample)

Total losses

4.64

4.64

<1.0

<3.0

Dirt & shell in production kernel

KER

<6.0

5.5

<5.0

>5.6

Commercialization Facts & Finding

Determination of the throughput and mass balance

Determination of throughput capacity and mass balance of the system was carried out at

each discharge point including the claybath. Ratio of nuts to FFB process of this mill was

estimated at 12.5%. Based on sampling activities and analysis, it was found that the

system was capable of catering various throughput up to 11 tonnes/hour of cracked

mixture or 60 tonnes/hour of palm oil mill. Average throughput of the system during the

commissioning was 6.5 tonnes/hour. This shows that the system’s throughput is flexible

and variable thus suitable for future expansion of the mill. This study indicated that 61%

of total dry shell and kernel were separated and recovered from the cracked mixture.

Therefore, the amount of cracked mixture for wet separation was reduced to less than

40% compared to 80% previously. Total dry kernel collected from column 1 and 2 and

dry shell discharged from column 3 and 4 represented about 29% and 32% of the cracked

mixture.

In order to minimize the kernel losses, dirt and shell content in kernel and to maximize

recovery rate as well as to cater throughput variation of cracked mixture, the separation

process at each column was optimized by changing the velocity of air flowrate going into

the separating column.. This was done by adjusting the position of the damper (Figure 8)

located at the bottom of each separating column. Different air velocities indicated by

ampere (Amps) was studied for each column and results shows that, the separation

process was optimized at 28 amps for column no.1, 30 amps for column no.2, 20 amps

for column no.3 and 22 amps for column no.4 (Figure 9). Besides that, the quality of

cracked mixture was also playing the vital role to achieve the targeted performance and

the cracking efficiency of the Rolek cracker used in the mill was 99%.

Figure 9: Control Panel indicates

Ampere for each separating column

Figure 8: Damper

Kernel Extraction Rate (KER)

Cracking performance, efficient separation and installation of additional operational unit

play a significant role in obtaining high KER. The KER of the mill have shown

increasing and consistent trends after the commissioning of the system. Average of the

KER was 5.63% compared to 5.41% before the installation of the system. This figure was

also higher than average KER for FPISB mills as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10 : Comparison of KER performance of the mill and average of FPISB

mills

KER % of MILL & FPISB MILLS

4.40%

4.60%

4.80%

5.00%

5.20%

5.40%

5.60%

5.80%

6.00%

6.20%

Jan-0

8

Feb-08

Mar-08

Apr-08

May-08

Jun-0

8Ju

l-08

Aug-08

Sep-08

Oct-08

Nov - 0

8

Dec - 0

8

Jan -

09

Feb - 0

9

Mar - 0

9

Apr - 0

9

May - 0

9

Jun -

09

Month

KER

, % KER - MILLKER - FPISB

installation After installationBefore

Dirt & Shell in Kernel

From the sample analysis, the dirt and shell in kernel ranged from 3.89 to 5.43% or in

average of 4.67%. These figures were slightly lower compared to 4.69% of dirt and shell

in kernel produced using the previous system. During the fine tuning of this system (May

– July 2008) the dirt and shell content was not considered until the system optimized

starting from August 2008. Besides the efficient separation, the low % of dirt and shell in

kernel was also contributed by the superior quality of cracked mixture that enhanced the

dry separation process. Figure 11 shows the dirt and shell content in kernel from the 4

stage winnowing column.

Figure 11 . Dirt and shell content in kernel

Dirt & Shell (%) in Kernel

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Jan-08

Feb-08

Mar-08

Apr-08

Aug-08

Sep-08

Oct-08

Nov -08

Dec -08

Jan -09

Feb -09

Mar -09

Apr -09

May -09

Jun -09

Jul -09

Month

%

After installationBefore installation

Kernel Losses in Shell

In a typical kernel recovery plant, kernel losses occurred at a winnowing column,

hydrocyclone unit and claybath. The kernel losses of the mill have reduced significantly

from 5.23% to 1.87% after the installation of the system. This is due to total elimination

of the hydrocyclone unit from the kernel recovery plant and the reduction of cracked

mixture loading for claybath unit. The reduction of the kernel losses contributes directly

to the high KER of the mill and shows the efficient dry separation system by 4 stage

winnowing column. The comparison of the kernel losses in the mill and the trend of the

kernel losses after the use of 4 stage winnowing column were summarized and illustrated

in Table 3 and Figure 12.

Table 3. Summary of kernel losses before and after the installation of 4 Stage

Winnowing Column

Separation System Winnowing

Column

Clay Bath Hydrocyclone Average

Conventional

System (%)

0.52

2.24

2.46

5.23

4 Stage Winnowing

Column (%)

0.64 1.23 - 1.87

Figure 12. kernel losses in the mill

Kernel Losses in Shell

0.000.501.001.502.002.503.003.504.004.505.005.506.006.50

Jan-0

8

Feb-08

Mar-08

Apr-08

May-08

Jun-0

8Ju

l-08

Aug-08

Sep-08

Oct-08

Nov - 0

8

Dec - 0

8

Jan -

09

Feb - 0

9

Mar - 0

9

Apr - 0

9

May - 0

9

Jun -

09

Jul -

09

Month

Loss

es, %

After installationBefore

installation

Clay Consumption

A unit of mini vibro claybath was installed right after the bottom discharge point of the

fourth column. Light kernel and shell were fed into the claybath to recover very fine

broken kernel mainly generated by the screw press. The claybath caters for about 40% of

kernel and shell from the cracked mixture. Previously, about 80% of total cracked

mixture were separated via wet separation process.

From the study it was shown that the clay consumption of the mill has dropped from

2.99kg/ tonne FFB processed to 2.16kg/tonne FFB processed. In terms of cost saving, the

system reduced the operational cost of FFB processed from RM0.60/ tonne FFB to

RM0.31/tonne FFB processed. The significant reduction in the clay consumption and

operational cost were due to dry separation as most of the kernel and shell separation was

carried out by this technique and the presence of the mini claybath that minimized the

ernel losses and indirectly increased the KER of the mill.

aintenance Cost

nology concept, the system eases the maintenance activity and less

pervision.

k

M

From the commercial evaluation, the system showed a lower maintenance cost as low as

RM 0.03-0.06 per tonne FFB processed compared to RM 0.09/tonne FFB for the

conventional system. For 50 – 60 tonnes/ hour of mill capacity, the maintenance activity

is scheduled for every 2500 hours and 5000 hours of operation or once for every 5 to 6

months interval. For 2400-2600 hours operation, the system required minor services and

part replacements including the carbon steel liner plate for cyclone and transfer trunking

of column 1 and 2. There will be a major services and part replacement for the next 2500

hours of operation including replacement of liner plate for cyclone and trunking of all

columns as well as services of motor, bearing and impeller. With the aim to promote user

friendly tech

su

The Products

(dry kernels & shells) recovered from each winnowing columns are shown

Figure 13.

Big whole kernels from Column 1

Whole and broken kernels from Column 2

The products

in

Small shell en kernels from Column 3

Big shells and s kernels from Column 4

s and small brok mall broken

Figure 13. Dry kernels and shells from the winnowing column

Other Commercial Benefits of 4 Stage Winnowing Column

lectricity Requirement

the palm oil mills to reduce power consumption and eliminates

e use of hydrocyclone.

igh Recovery of Dry Shell

RM120/tonne. This dry shell is clay free thus preventing

linker formation in the boiler.

ompact & Tailor – Made Design System

tone) removal system and broken kernel recovery winnower at the

olishing drum.

E

The use of 4 stage winnowing column could reduce the power consumption in the kernel

station. The 4 stage winnowing column with mini clay bath unit requires about 163 kW

compared to 203 kW needed for a conventional system of shell and kernel separation.

This 40 kW saving helps

th

H

Another significant advantage of the system is the production of more dry shell as a

boiler fuel. Besides using as fuel for mill boiler, the shell could be sold to nearby

industries at an average price of

c

C

The system was compactly designed and requires small space for the installation or

retrofitting in the existing mills. The design is flexible and could be tailor-made to suit

the need of the mill. For a complete system, it offers additional features to be integrated

into the system in order to enhance separation efficiency and KER such as installation of

gravel (chipped s

p

Conclusion

corporate social

sponsibility for the betterment of the Malaysian palm oil industry.

cknowledgement

ocessing Division for their permission,

pport and encouragement to publish this paper.

assistance

om staff of Engineering & Processing Division of MPOB is also appreciated.

After a year of commercial monitoring performance, 4 stage winnowing column is

another breakthrough technology for the palm oil mills. The system enhances the

recovery of dry kernel and shell via dry technique and reduces the dependency of wet

separation technique of clay bath and hydrocyclone used by the mills. With the special

features offered, the system is not only beneficial to the millers in terms of profit, kernel

quality, operational and maintenance but it also promotes user friendly concept by

reducing the water and chemicals used by the wet separation. Thus, effluent discharge

from the mill as well as effluent treatment cost would be reduced. The success story of

this system shows the commitment and determination of MPOB and industrial

collaborators especially HEWSB and FPISB to share their expertise and

re

A

Authors would like to thank Y.Bhg. Datuk Dr. Mohd Basri b. Wahid, Director General of

MPOB, Y. Bhg. Datuk Dr. Choo Yuen May, Deputy Director General 1 of MPOB and

Dr. Lim Weng Soon, Director of Engineering & Pr

su

The authors would also like to express their thanks to all industrial collaborators

especially Hur Far Engineering Works Sdn. Bhd, Kilang Sawit Serting Hilir, Felda Palm

Industries Sdn. Bhd and Synn Palm Oil Sdn Bhd for their technical and in-kind

contributions during the on-site monitoring evaluation of the system. Technical

fr

References :

Products –

of the Palm

Statistics 2008 – 28 th Edition. Malaysian Palm Oil Board

Mixture Separation using

Engineering Buletin, MPOB

www.sawipac.com.my

1. B. Yusof, D. Arifin, A.N.Ma & K.W.Chan “ Palm Kernel

Characteristics and Applications” Malaysian Palm Oil Board (2005)

2. “Palm Oil Factory Process Handbook Part 1 – General Description

Oil Milling Process” Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (1985)

3. Malaysian Oil Palm

(2009)

4. Tong Nam Khong & Neo Teck Siong “Cracked

Sawipac Air Separator”

5.

C5

Technological Developments to Increase the Efficiency of the Clarification Process and to

Determine the Oil Potential in Fresh Fruit Bunches

Edgar E. Yáñez *; Jesús A. Garcia *

ABSTRACT

The average of oil losses in the clarification process is 0.52% oil / FFB, of which 50% is caused by the sterilization process and the other 50% is generated in the unloading of centrifuges or Decanters. Furthermore, the determination of the potential oil in FFB, has been a constant concern in the plants for profit, to explain trends changes in the oil extraction rate, but primarily to evaluate the oil potential for bunches suppliers. Under these considerations, studies were conducted to determine the mechanisms of sedimentation and the effect of dilution, characterizing the rheological liquor press as a Non-Newtonian Seudoplastic fluid, guided to get a simulation for this process, to establish effective design parameters for equipment in clarifying and establishing a methodology to quantify the oil potential in FFB, in a continuous process, practical and economical method. The results allowed reassess the concept of dilution liquor press, establishing a new dilution of 1.4 (% vol oil /% vol water), to increase the efficiency of oil recovery and reduce water consumption in the process until 10% of the total consumed in the plant. New design parameters were used to calculate an equipment that can recover up to 80% oil with a residence time of 30 minutes, with improvements in the quality of oil to 0.4% of acidity and a 18% reduction in the operating time of the centrifugal and also in energy consumption of the plant and processing costs. This process was automated to exercise permanent control in this indicator. The previous developments were used to generate a methodology for calculating oil potential in FFB, then to estimate the volume of oil produced by each batch of fruit sterilized supplier. The implementation on a commercial scale showed that the calculation of the potential is much closer to the real TEA at the mill, compared to the bunch analysis methodology designed previously by Cenipalma, allowing categorizing the suppliers by oil potential and applying a new method to buy the FFB. __________________________ * Division of Process and Uses, Cenipalma (Palm Oil Research Centre), Bogotá, Calle 20 a # 43 A 50 P4. Colombia (South America). Corresponding Author. E-mail address: [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

INTRODUCTION

The production of palm oil in Colombia in 2008 was 800,000 tonnes with a national average of OER of 20.5%. The average loss of oil during this period ranged from 1.35% oil/FFB for the Eastern region, 1.65% oil/FFB in the Central region and 1.72% oil/FFB for the northern region. Currently, the oil losses in clarification are the second largest in importance on the overall efficiency of the palm oil extraction process. The generation of wastewater is the main pollutant load in the process of oil extraction (Mora et al., 1998) and, as is usual in agro industrial processes, the water consumption and the generation of waste is high. In the case of palm oil mill, these will generate between 0.7 and 0.8 m3 of effluent per tonne of fresh fruit bunches (RFF) (Yáñez et. al., 2003). These effluents require large areas of treatment systems in order to reduce pollutant to comply with government regulations. With this, a permanent interest of the oil palm sector in Colombia has been to reduce the environmental impact of its agriculture industry, which has set technology strategies that share this goal. Thus as its research center, Cenipalma, raised a project that aims to reduce water consumption in the oil extraction process, maximizing your oil recovery.

The clarification process in palm oil mill is achieved through a static decanting

system that is mainly based on the difference in densities of oil and the mixture (press liquor) to promote separation. The dilution factor in water is largely responsible for the clarification efficiency. This promotes the separation of oil, due to a reduction in the viscosity, taking into account what is described by the Stokes´s law.

The most popular system of clarification in Colombia for its economy and

simplicity of operation is the static system, which ones is currently used by almost 100% of the mill. The design parameters used in this system were estimated based on characteristics of the fruit produced a long time ago, without any modification or adjustment to existing conditions. The press liquor dilution factor is one of the most variable conditions in the process, and largely responsible for the efficiency of clarification. Therefore, it is necessary to establish the appropriate level of dilution to the variations in fruit characteristics and processing capabilities to ensure high recovery of oil in the clarification process. This ensures a proper dilution and adjusted to actual conditions of processing, allowing rapid separation of oil, an overall increase in process efficiency and reduction of losses and the possibility of using smaller teams for clarification and reduction environmental impact by decreasing water consumption in the process.

Due to the rapid expansion of agribusiness for palm oil in Colombia and

competitiveness around the world during the last decade, the palm oil mills must be facing the challenge of increasing productivity in the oil extraction rate through improved processes and increased of the processing capacity installed. Additionally, they should control and improve the oil content in the FFB processed, focused on buying fruit based on oil content and not by weight. Studies by Cenipalma have shown a difference of up to 2.5% oil / RFF, between the oil potential in bunches with normal maturation and those that do not meet the criterion of maturity assessed in the reception of the mill. Therefore, developments in the oil extraction process and tools to control the oil potential in bunches processed in the mills must be implemented to increase the competitiveness of oil palm in Colombia.

2

METHODOLOGY

Several aspects were evaluated to analyze the effect of the dilution factor in the efficiency of oil recovery in the clarification process. To do this, reproducible methodologies were designed to evaluate the sedimentation of sludge and oil separation in laboratory tests. Determination of the efficiency and velocity of sedimentation of the press liquor at different levels of dilution.

The test consisted of assembly a scale model of clarification process to measure the sedimentation of the press liquor diluted to different volumetric compositions in a thermostatic bath at a controlled temperature of 90 ºC. A design of completely randomized blocks (DBCA) and eight treatments were evaluated with eleven replicates to be analyzed by a variance of 5% significance. This methodology was designed and evaluated in previous works to study the effect of magnetic fields on the separation of the oil clarification (Yáñez, et. al., 2004). To determine the efficiency and velocity of separation was measured by the rate of separation of oil volume for one hour. The efficiency of separation was determined as the percentage of oil in the test separately for total content in the sample, which was established by analysis with centrifuge for 10 min. at 3500 r.p.m. The treatments evaluated of press liquor diluted are in the range of 0.8 to 1.4 (% vol oil / % vol water) with a step of 0.1, including zero dilution as control for each mobile repetition.

The efficiency of oil separation was calculated as the volume of oil recovered

on total oil content in the sample, expressed as follows:

The velocity of separation was estimated as the volume of oil separated per

unit of time, for this case was considered as the measurement of this variable for the first 10 min. of the trial, expressed as follows:

Rheological study for mixtures of Liquor press and water

Was used a reometer and a viscometer Brookfiel DV III for assessing treatments in the range of 0.8 to 1.4 (%vol oil / %vol water) with a step of 0.2, with three replications for each. This yielded flow curves and viscosity from which it was possible to characterize the rheological fluid diluted Press liquor (DPL). The temperature at which developed the test was 45 º C approx.

3

Design and evaluation of an automatic control system for dilution of the liquor press

The control system is designed to maintain constant the dilution ratio of oil / water in the clarification process, given the influence of this variable in the dynamics of separation of oil and sludge. For this, was purposed the design of a feedback system with centralized monitoring and final elements of easy access to the mills. The parameters considered for this system were:

• Controlled variable: the dilution ratio of oil / water. • Set Point: best dilution (oil / water) found. • Variable manipulated: Water flow. • Disruption: variation in the flow of liquor from the press.

The evaluation of the control system was divided into two parts: Response time to the disturbance. Raised four levels that correspond to the operation of one, two, three and four presses similar processing capabilities, which is equivalent to assessing the disturbance generated in the system to work at 25, 50, 75 and 100% of the maximum capacity of the plant. The test consisted of changes in the level of flow every 12 min. During this time, he took three minutes each press liquor samples diluted to determine its volume. Changes in levels of operation were made from 100% of the maximum capacity up to 25% of it, and then repeated the procedure in the upstream up to 100% of the maximum capacity of the process. Reliability of dilution control. A test consisting in tracking the composition of the press liquor diluted every 20 min. three days during normal working shifts. This will set the level of correction and assurance of the level of dilution in the established set point. Study of design parameters for a Pre-Clarifier

Based on the findings of the sedimentation curve of the diluted liquor presses, which showed that approximately 80% of the oil is separated into a fraction of time (approx 15 min) significantly lower than conventional values, it was proposed to design and construct a pre-clarifier to evaluate its efficiency and the effect of geometric relationships in its design. Garcia, et. al., 2009, established the effect of the geometric relation as length:width of pre-clarifier design on the efficiency and quality of oil recovered.

RESULTS

Efficiency and velocity of sedimentation The data obtained for efficient separation of oil for each level of dilution, are

shown in Figure 1 in five groups tested with the LSD statistical test at a reliability of 95%.

4

Figure 1. Efficiency of the oil separation by dilution rate of press liquor.

The statistical group "d" had the highest values of efficiency for the entire experiment (see Figure 1). This group is comprised of dilutions 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 (% vol oil /% vol water). It is noted that compared to the level of dilution used traditionally to 1.0 (% vol oil /% vol water), treatment 1.4 introduced 50% more efficient separation of oil and the lowest water consumption in the range of dilution rated. Greater efficiency indicates a greater recovery of oil in the process of clarification and therefore a more efficient extraction process, which generates a lower oil content in the sludge discharge, allowing reduce the load of treatment systems effluent at the plant to make them more effective. Lower consumption of water in the clarification process in general and in the extraction of oil means lower volumes and equipment clarification, largest residence times and a reduction in the generation of effluents from the process. This allows building plants with more processing capability and reduced volume in the equipment for clarification, reducing the costs of implementing or expanding and increasing the efficiency of the clarification process. The reduction in water consumption is a very positive environmental impact in relation to the use of natural resources and the lower generation of wastewater, which would build capacity for treatment of minor, given the large area requirement this technology.

During the sedimentation of the sample of DPL, the velocity of separation of

the oil varies with time. In trials it was possible to determine that the highest velocity of separation was obtained during the first 10 minutes of the entire process of sedimentation. The velocity of separation to the level of dilution tested, are presented in Figure 2. Statistically, five groups were established for data velocity separation level of dilution, using LSD to a 95% reliability.

5

Figure 2. Velocity of the oil separation by dilution rate of press liquor.

The statistical group "e", consisting of treatments 1.3 and 1.4 (% vol oil / %vol water) showed the highest rates of separation, with respect to all treatments, including traditional 1:1 oil / water. In real terms, greater velocity of separation, allow the design and use of smaller clarifiers with lower residence time, promoting the quality of oil recovered. During the oil separation process, it is possible to produce a curve showing a rapid sedimentation of the oil rise, generally during the first 10 minutes of the test, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Characteristic curve of the efficiency of separation over time.

These two variables, efficiency and velocity of sedimentation, ensure that when using a dilution ratio in the process (1.4% vol oil / %vol water), not only to optimize the recovery of oil, but also reduces dramatically the water consumption in the process. This reduction represents 29% of clarification water, which is equivalent to 66 liters per ton of FFB and in turn reduced the overall consumption of water in the process in approximately 10%. Currently, the water consumption during dilution

6

process is about 232.5 L / Ton FFB for a dilution ratio of one (% vol oil / %vol water). Rheological study for mixtures of Liquor press and water

The rheological study allowed: a) Classify what type of fluid is the DPL according the response by inducing a

shear force at different levels of dilution. b) Quantify the effect of dilution on the viscosity of the diluted liquor presses,

to learn and to corroborate the factors affecting the separation of the oil. This knowledge contributes to the design of equipment and process control.

In Figure 4 is present the flow curve for the four dilutions 1.4, 1.2, 1.0, 0.8 (%

vol oil / % vol water) of the press liquor at a temperature of 44 ° C and a range of strain rate between 119 - 317 (1 / S). The smooth curve shows the effect of strain rate applied to the fluid, the shear stress generated in response.

Figure 4. Flow curve for press liquor.

Shear Stress (d/cm^2)

Dilution 0,8 Dilution 1,2 Dilution 1,4 Dilution 1

Strain rate (1/S)

350300 250200150

145

125

105

85

65

45

25

5 100

It is noted that for all treatments, the shear stress is directly proportional to the strain rate, which is characteristic of non-Newtonian pseudoplastic fluids. This is a result of the effect that can be generated by the slow and controlled agitation in clarifiers for "blades" that induce an effort to improve the separation of the oil due to a reduction in its viscosity.

Design and evaluation of an automatic control system for dilution of the liquor press

a) Design of control system for dilution of press liquor. The action of the feedback type control system is subject to disturbances generated by changes in the flow of liquor from the press. (Figure 5).

7

PL Flow Sensor (wáter)

Flow Measure system

DPL

Figure 5. Diagram of control system design.

The operation of the loop is to detect a change in the flow of liquor through the level in the tank of flow measure system. There is installed a ultrasonic sensor, whose signal is carried to a PLC (programmable logic controller), which calculate the flow of oil contained in the press liquor. With this flow of oil is possible to determine what is the dilution water flow required at this moment, sending a signal to operate a proportional valve, so as to meet the requirement of water (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Measurement of flow and dilution level of Press Liquor (PL).

Study of design parameters for a Pre-Clarifier

The incidence of geometry relation Long:width (L: W) on the cross sectional area and time of residence in the pre-clarifier was studied. The analysis of variance for the percentage of oil recovery efficiency and the percentage of oil sludge was found to be significant at a significance level of 95% (SAS 9.1.3 service pack 4). As expected the efficiency of oil recovery is inversely proportional to the oil content in sludge at the outlet of the equipment and directly proportional to residence time in a system operating in steady state (Figure 7).

8

Figure 7. Efficiencies of recovery of oil and oil content in sludge as a function of time of residence in pre-clarifiers.

Figure 8 shows the same trend on the effect of varying the residence time for two different geometrical relations on pre-clarifiers, Pre-1(L: W 2:1) and Pre-2(L: W= 5:1). The differences found, indicates the Pre-2 with a highest geometric relation show best efficiency on oil recovery, with significant differences at a significance level of 5%. (SAS 9.1.3 service pack 4).

Figure 8. Oil recovery efficiencies for two different geometric relationships in pre-

clarifiers

Figure 9 shows the average percentage of free fatty acids in the recovered oil for pre-clarifier and conventional clarifier, as results of monitoring 13 days of process. This result shows that the best characteristics in quality are obtained with the pre-clarifier, with 0.4 percentage points less of free fatty acids that the oil obtained in the conventional clarifier.

9

Figure 9. Average free fatty acid content in Crude Palm Oil.

Identification of Oil potential in FFB through the use of weirs

In the palm oil mills is very common to find differences between the oil potential in FFB and oil extraction rate (TEA), according to this some methodology have been implemented to find and to establish the relationship between the oil potential and characteristics of the raw materials processed and the quality of the bunches, the genetic characteristics, and age among others. The implementation of weirs (V-notch) in the crude oil tank can relate the flow of press liquor with the deep or high inside of it, which through a balance of mass conservation, in particular for oil, it is possible to quantify the TEA for an specific fruit processing. Thin wall of a weir is essentially a flat, rigid, placed perpendicular to the direction of flow and depth of the channel, as shown in Figure 10. Weirs are simple devices, low-cost construction and maintenance, also presenting a wide range of measurement.

Figura 10. System for volumetric measuring of press liquor, " rectangular weirs".

The following describes the procedure for determining the oil potential through the measurement of the press liquor flow into the tank of crude oil. Initially it is necessary to organize the fruit reception into the hopper and set the cars being used for the RFF to process and analyze. Furthermore, according to the maximum capacity of processing in the mill and with an average of weight by truck of 12 Ton, can be estimated the duration of sampling (20 minutes aprox.). Once this time is estimated assessed the press liquor flow rate by measuring the height in the weirs every 2 minutes, taking in turn the respective sample of press liquor. Subsequently

10

determining of oil content in the sample by centrifugation is made, while the heights recorded at the site are averaged and calculated to estimate the press liquor flow through the calibration curve of weirs and based on Simpson´s rule for integral.

It is necessary to determine the time it takes to process the fruit comes after

sterilization until the first drop of oil in the press liquor. This in order to establish the moment at which to start the sampling of press liquor to measure their oil content and flow.

After measuring the flow of crude oil and the relationship to the efficiency in clarification process and flow of FFB processed for the time of sampling, it is possible to determine the oil extraction rate (OER) for an specific supplier. The oil potential measured for different supplier is shown in table 1. In this table it is possible to clearly identify three groups of supplier by oil potential, with closer results to the OER.

Table 1. Oil potential measurement by two different methods for several

supplier.

Supplier Oil Potentail by Weirs Oil Potential by Bunch Analysis A 26,6 29,02 B 24,33 27,23 C 24,58 26,1 D 24 26,9 E 23,18 24,8 F 23,1 25,67 G 22,65 23,01 H 22,77 24,55 I 23,18 24,76 J 20,14 21,98 K 19,86 20,06 L 19,48 21,93 M 19,56 19,75 N 19,47 19,26 O 19,62 19,29 P 19,07 19,66

CONCLUSION

• There is a direct effect of the dilution of Press liquor on efficiency and velocity of

separation in the static clarification.

11

• The dilution of 1.4 (% vol oil / %volwater) was responsible for the best efficiency

and velocity of separation, reaching values of 75% and 7.71% ml / min,

respectively.

• The press liquor was characterized as a non-Newtonian pseudoplastic fluid, which

under typical processing effort tends to decrease its viscosity.

• The automatic control system of the dilution was shown to be an effective system

to control the dilution of press liquor.

• To keep the dilution of press liquor avoids constant disturbances in the dynamics

of separation, and includes key variables considered in this work as the residence

time, dispersion of oil and its viscosity. These factors together promote better

separation, water saving and efficiency of process.

• The implementation and commissioning of the preclarificadores in the industrial

stage shows an increase of 6.7% in the ability of clarification, from 2.4 to 2.57 m3

in volume / t RFF-hour.

• Design parameters on pre-clarifiers affecting the efficiency of oil recovery, it can

be set a higher length / width to obtain a greater oil recovery efficiency. Therefore

relationships of pre-clarifiers volume of 0.3 to 0.6 m3 per tonne of FFB processed

in pre-clarifiers can be used.

• The implementation of the measurement of the flow of oil in the press liquor with

the estimated processing time in mill, allow a more accurate and economical

methods for determining the oil potential in bunches for a particular provider.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank the Fund for Palm Promotion and Fedepalma, which are

responsible to funding these studies and the involvement and support of several palm

12

13

growers companies including CI El Roble, Aceites S.A., Manuelita and Agroince

among others.

REFERENCES

MORA, M. YÁÑEZ, E. 1998. Diagnóstico tecnológico y ambiental del proceso de extracción de aceite de palma. Tesis de grado de Ingeniería Química. 1998. CEIAM-UIS. YÁÑEZ, E. GARCIA, J. 2003. Reducción de pérdidas de aceite y almendra en plantas de beneficio en Colombia. International Palm Oil conference. Colombia. Special Edition, Vol 2. YÁÑEZ, E. GARCIA, J. 2004. Evaluation of Magnetic field to improve the oil clarification process. Internal Report. GARCÍA, J.; NIETO, D.; RINCÓN, S. 2009. Eficiencia de recuperación del aceite en función de la configuración geométrica y del tiempo de residencia en equipos preclarificadores. PALMAS , Vol 29, 3, 2009.

C6 SAGE Microbial In-situ Desludging System for Effluent

Ponds

Andrew S. B. Liew

ABSTRACT

Microbiological process is the conventional process that is being used in palm oil mill effluent ponds to reduce incoming effluent’s biological oxygen demand of 25,000ppm to below 100, 50 or even 20ppm for discharge. Over time, sludge which is mainly organic material from the mill processing and dead microbe mass will build up in the ponds. Retention time of ponds will subsequently be reduced. As this occurs it will result in higher BOD. Hence, sludged up ponds need to be desludged to bring them back to original retention capacity. Conventional way of desludging is the transfer of the solid sludge and POME to a settlement or holding pond, which essentially is relocating the problem from one place to another. SAGE Microbial In-situ Desludging System treats and digests the sludge within the pond. SAGE microbe, a highly concentrated facultative microbe formulation will digest and convert the organic sludge via anaerobic fermentation biological process to amino acids, organic acids, esters, alcohols, sugars, etc. which are liquid. When all the pond sludge is stirred up by SAGE specially designed mixer, BOD can go up as high as 16,000ppm. However, within 3-4 weeks BOD can drop down to below 2,500ppm and after 3.5 months will dropped to as low as 500ppm. About 75% of organic sludge will be digested in 3-4 months. When a series of ponds are desludged using SAGE system, the BOD and sludge will be very much reduced, and can easily be treated to a low level for discharge. The system will also greatly reduce methane, hydrogen sulphide, and other noxious gases production. Thus odour in the pond environment will be greatly reduced. SAGE MIDS is a hassle free, safe, clean, cost effective, environmental friendly system that can be adopted by the palm oil mills for desludging the effluent ponds. It is also a system that does not need DOE approval for implementation as everything is done within the pond.

Systematic Approach Green Environment Sdn. Bhd. 1st Floor, No.1, Lot 82, Ph 2 Sedco Industrial Estate, Jalan Kilang, Kolombong, 88450 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

INTRODUCTION

In the process of extracting oil from Fresh Fruit Bunch (FFB) in the palm oil mill, a lot of organic waste, which is the mesocarp or pulp of the fruit is produced and discharge with water to a series of ponds for treatment. One tonne of fruit will usually produce about 4-5% of organic solid (Ma and Ong, 1985). The decanter system in the mill will remove 2-3% of this solid while the rest will go into the waste water pond (Lim, 2006). About 0.65 to 1.0 mt of waste water is produced for every tonne of FFB processed. The ponding system is the most common waste water treatment system adopted by the palm oil mill to treat POME before it is discharged (Ma, 1999). Retention time of waste water or palm oil mill effluent (POME) in the ponds is about 120 days. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biological oxygen demand (BOD) of POME from the mill is about 50,000ppm and 25,000ppm respectively (Ma and Ong, 1985). It will usually go into a cooling pond or oil recovery pond, then to the acidification pond before going to the anaerobic pond for microbial digestion by strict anaerobic microbes. During this anaerobic putrefaction process, methane, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and other noxious gases are produced. COD and BOD will drop. During this stage of biological process, it is important that oxygen does not get introduced into the pond, otherwise the strict anaerobic microbe will die (Brock, 1979). This is the reason that anaerobic ponds are usually constructed 5-6m deep. After the anaerobic pond, facultative microbes will take over and digest the POME in either the anaerobic fermentation process or aerobic process, depending on the availability of oxygen. The last few ponds are aerobic ponds where aerobic microbes will digest the POME in the presence of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. Aerobic microbes must have oxygen to survive, otherwise they will die. Thus aerobic ponds are usually 1.5-3m deep, as oxygen from the atmosphere will get diffused into the POME from the surface. Aeration is usually introduced to enhance the aerobic biological process in the pond. Due to misunderstanding of biological process in the ponds, biological activities in the ponds can become inefficient or microbes can die as environment in the pond is not conducive for them to thrive. When this happens, the organic sludge in the pond will build up as the microbes are not digesting the organic sludge coming in from the mill, and dead microbes mass will build up and contribute to organic sludge in the pond. The rate of ponds sludging up will depend on the microbial activities in the ponds.

When ponds start to sludge up, retention time or capacity of the ponds will be reduced and will result in POME not getting the appropriate treatment to bring down BOD for discharge. As sludge builds up, BOD will go up and exceed the permitted level set by the relevant authorities for discharge. Sludged up ponds will need to be desludged to bring the ponds back to original hydraulic retention time. Conventional desludging practice requires constructing holding or settlement ponds where sludge will be pumped for retention. Over time more holding ponds are required to be built. This conventional method is essentially transferring the waste from one location to another. Department of Environment approval is required for this exercise before it can be carried out.

SAGE Microbial In-situ Desludging System For Effluent Ponds SAGE has biotechnology breakthrough which is innovative and environmental

friendly. SAGE Microbial In-situ Desludging System (SAGE MIDS) treats and digests organic sludge within the ponds. SAGE MIDS consist of SAGE Mixer, a specially in-house design mixer that can be lowered to 3m into the POME and tilt down to stir up settled sludge at 5-6m deep at the pond bottom. Subsequently SAGE Microbe, a highly concentrated facultative microbe formulation which digests organic sludge via anaerobic fermentation biological process in anaerobic condition, or aerobic process in aerobic condition is added to the pond. In anaerobic condition, amino acids, organic acids, esters, alcohols, sugars, etc. which are liquid are produced. In aerobic condition, carbon dioxide and water are produced. SAGE Microbe will multiple rapidly in the pond due to abundant food source and subsequently take over the biological process in the pond as they are also planktonic in nature. SAGE Microbe being a facultative microbe can survive in conditions which are anaerobic, facultative and aerobic. Therefore, it can be used to desludge different types of POME ponds.

The pond does not need to be taken off line although BOD can goes up very high after stirring. Microbes introduced into the pond will go to the next pond together with the stirred up solids. SAGE microbe will digest organic solid and bring down the BOD before it reaches the discharge point. Data analysed from adjacent downstream ponds of several projects site have shown that BOD of the effluent did not go up. Microbe population will not be diluted even though the pond is not taken off line. The microbes will continue to multiply if condition is conducive and food is available. In fact the microbe population will go back to the normal level the next day even if half the POME is removed from the pond. BOD of pond that was stirred can go up more than 15,000 ppm, however, it will drop rapidly to around 2000-2500ppm in about 4 weeks time as shown in Figure 1. The POME sample or BOD analysis was taken from the pond while it was being stirred and treated.

Figure 1. The BOD of POME after treatment with SAGE MID System

How SAGE Microbe Works In Waste Water

The fact that anaerobic bacteria multiply slower than aerobic bacteria and, in so doing, produce less “offspring” bacteria for a given amount of food and nutrients removed from the wastewater. SAGE Microbe is facultative bacteria in planktonic state.

Different bacteria species compete for food, nutrients and a place to call home. It is a principle of nature that those best adapted to the environment will survive at the expense of those less adapted. This means that bacteria capable of reproducing at a higher rate than others under a given set of conditions will ultimately dominate that environment. This domination will be governed by the amount of food and nutrients available to support the size of the population. This principle of nature is often referred to as “competitive exclusion” or survival of the fittest.

SAGE Microbe concentrate is composed of a mixture of facultative planktonic state bacteria that like to live and work together and can perform with or without oxygen. Being planktonic, they multiply faster than the sessile bacteria in waste water in this case POME.

The bacteria found in POME is composed of many different species, some of them are “good guys” which do their jobs without producing odorous, noxious or corrosive by-products. Then there are “bad guys” such as sulphate-reducing bacteria that produce hydrogen sulphide, a corrosive gas that smells like rotten eggs. There are also facultative “good guys” already in the waste. The added bacteria act like reinforcements to those already there and work together to become the dominant species through the process of competitive exclusion.

To make this competitive exclusion happen we must start with enough of the “good guys.” The proprietary manufacturing process of SAGE Microbe is able to concentrate the planktonic state bacteria, in a liquid form, to a point 100,000 times greater than most commercially available products and up to 100 million times greater than the usual concentration of sessile bacteria in the wastewater. This is the reason why SAGE Microbe is able to treat POME in such manner.

Because bacteria multiply with time, SAGE takes full advantage of the time available by adding the microbe concentrate to the pond, and to minimize the time the existing pond bacteria have to multiply in the pond. SAGE bacteria are also added continuously to ensure that the competitive advantage, once gained, is maintained. The reinforcement of the “good guys” allows them to dominate and suppress the “bad guys” so that odours, noxious and corrosive gases such as methane and hydrogen sulphide are reduced or eliminated. The reductions in these noxious and odorous gases are noticed by the greatly reduced foul smell which is replaced by a sweet aromatic smell. There will also be minimal gas bubbles of methane seen on the POME surface.

SAGE microbe grows quickly and eats the food and nutrients available. They will increase faster and will quickly reach the saturation point where there is lack of food or

nutrients to enable further growth. Therefore, the continuous flow of POME into the pond is advisable. This is the reason it is not necessary to off line the pond for treatment.

Aeration will also enhance the performance of SAGE Microbe. Therefore, air can be introduced into POME even in Anaerobic Pond 1 to enhance the desludging work. In this case, most of the strict anaerobic microbe in the pond will be killed. This will eliminate the production of methane from the pond.

SAGE Mixer

SAGE Mixer is a specially in-house design mixer which can be lowered to different depth varying from 1-3m and also tilted downward at an angle to stir settle sludge even at 5-6m deep. The vortex created by the blade of the mixer is concentrated by a jet ring and the forward thrust and tornado effect of the turbulence created by the mixer is forceful enough to break and stir up the settled sludge in the pond. The mixer is also used to introduce SAGE microbe to different depth of the pond while stirring and breaking up the sludge. This will introduce the microbes to a large surface area to work. SAGE Mixer is also designed to be able to introduce air into the POME. The tornado effect of the turbulence created by the mixer also helps to break up the air into small bubbles, distribute and enhance it dissolving into the POME. Different dosage of SAGE microbe will be introduced into the pond, depending on the size of the pond and POME volume. Thereafter, SAGE Mixer is continuously moved around to stir the sludge in the pond. This will speed up digestion of the bio-solid.

RESULTS

When the pond is stirred up, total suspended solids, COD, BOD will go up. The values will depend on which pond the desludging is taking place, the throughput of the mill, and capacity of the pond. For case study, an anaerobic pond 2 of a 45mt/hr mill with throughput of 110,000mt per year with all the parameters will be taken for deliberation here. The hydraulic retention capacity of the pond was 28,080m3. The parameters measured were COD, BOD, pH, Total Solids (TS), Suspended Solids (SS) and depth of pond. Figure 2 shows the analysis values of BOD, COD, SS, and TS of the effluent samples taken from the pond over a period of 6 months. Samples were taken from the overflow while the pond is being stirred throughout the treatment period.

BOD of effluent from the pond before stirring was about 1,700 to 1,800ppm. SAGE Mixer was put into the pond to commence stirring on 17th January 2007 and SAGE Microbe was introduced into the pond the next day over a period of 5 days. After stirring, BOD went up drastically, however, sample of POME was taken for analysis only 2 weeks after treatment. Fig 1 shows that BOD can go up more than 15,000ppm when POME sample was taken for analysis immediately after pond was stirred. At this time the BOD has already

dropped to 8,619ppm. In another 11 days the BOD dropped further to 2,013ppm. BOD dropped to about 1,000ppm in about 2.5 months time. After 3.5 months BOD stabilised at about 500ppm.

Figure 2. Parameters of POME before, during and after treatment with SAGE MID system

SS drastically went up from 2,450ppm to 20,850ppm when the pond was stirred. However, it went down drastically again just after 3.5 weeks to about 1,500ppm to 2,300ppm. In April, SS went up to about 5,000-6000ppm. This was due to clearing of weed at side of pond where another 2m of sludge that was underneath the weed was dispersed back into the pond. This resulted in SS and TS value going up. After two months, amount of SS in pond went down again and was about 1,800-2,300ppm until end of recording period. In term of percentage, SS value after 6 months was 10% of SS value of sludge that was stirred up. TS value was similar in trend to SS over the 6 months of recording. TS value was 25.7% of TS value of sludge after it was stirred up, which was 24,372ppm dropping to 6,268ppm. When the pond was stirred up, POME throughout the pond was very thick and black as all the sludge was stirred up. However, within 1 week the POME started to turn brownish, and in 3-4 weeks the POME became watery and brownish in colour, as shown in Photograph 1.

When the pond was stirred, COD went up from 2,366ppm to 10,864ppm. Similar to BOD, its value dropped, attaining 3,680ppm in 3.5 weeks. COD value went up to 7,850ppm in early April when sludge from the pond side was dispersed into the pond. Thereafter, it dropped to value fluctuating between 2,500-3,200ppm for the last 3 months of recording.

Photograph 1. Thick black slurry POME (untreated) and watery brownish POME (treated after 3 weeks)

POME or sludge depth was measured using a sludge depth measuring apparatus. As the pond has been pegged and divided into sections of about 20m x 20m, measurement of sludge depth was done at the center of each section every time. A water level marker was put in the pond to ensure that the POME level was factored in and adjusted every time the pond depth was measured. Pond depth was 5.85m from POME surface level. Amount of sludge or sludge thickness can be calculated, as sludge thickness is the difference between pond depth and POME depth. Before the pond was stirred, POME depth was measured. Average depth of POME in the pond before treatment or stirring was 1.20m from the surface. After 3 months, SAGE microbe has digested 3.55m of organic sludge. POME depth increased to 4.75m. Thus, sludge thickness has reduced from 4.65m to 1.10m, or 76.3% in a span of 3 months. This value did not factor in the 5m width of sludge at the pond perimeter which was up to the POME surface (Photograph 2) as well as the reduced bulk density of sludge after resuspension. Some of the solid sludge will be inorganic sludge, however at that time, it was not measured. Only organic sludge is digested.

Photograph 2. Condition of pond before treatment with 5m sludge around pond perimeter, with 2m sludge under weed.

During the whole period the pond was being treated and stirred, it was not offline. It was observed that BOD, COD, and suspended solids of effluent of the downstream pond did

not go up. This is the same for the final discharge. BOD before treatment was below 50ppm and during treatment for the whole duration of 6 months was also below 50ppm. It showed that the microbe that got carried over together with the POME was active digesting the sludge and brought down BOD in the adjacent pond before the effluent was discharged to the next pond.

In other mills, where Anaerobic ponds No. 3 have been treated with SAGE MIDS, it was recorded BOD dropped from the normal 300-350ppm in the outflow to about 103ppm after 3 months of treatment eventhough the POME was being stirred. Sludge depth of the pond was 2.75m. After desludging using SAGE MIDS, sludge depth was 0.6m. Amount of sludge digested was 2.15m or 78%. Aerobic pond with BOD 50-85ppm at discharge point gave a BOD reading of 5.5ppm and 16.0ppm after 2 month and 3 months of treatment, respectively. Sludge depth has not been measured as the pond was still under treatment. All POME samples taken after treatment to analyse for BOD were while the ponds were being stirred.

DISCUSSIONS

SAGE MIDS is a good alternative system for the mill to adopt for desludging as it is a proven system that is cost effective, clean, environmentally friendly, safe and hassle free. No more holding ponds are required to transfer the sludge. The pollution is solved within the pond as no POME is transferred out. It is confirmed by Department of Environment that no approval is necessary if SAGE MIDS is used to desludge the pond. They only need to be informed the mill is using SAGE MIDS to desludge the pond and the period of treatment. As it is not necessary to ‘off line’ the pond while desludging it is ideal for those mills with pond that cannot be taken off line. Although some solids will be carried over to the pond downstream, it is not a problem because SAGE microbe will also get carried over to the pond together with the solid. The microbe will digest these solids as well as some of those in the pond before it reach the discharge point. While digestion is taking place, the POME BOD will also go down.

Some mills are constructing more ponds to overcome the high BOD at discharge point because the existing ponds have sludged up badly. With SAGE MIDS these will not be necessary anymore as the solid sludge in the existing ponds is liquefied and the ponds hydraulic retention time can be recovered back to hold and treat the POME. Therefore, no oil palm tree need to be chopped down to construct additional ponds. There will be no loss in revenue. Constructing more ponds will just be a delay in the need for desludging and more sludge to removed at a later date.

SAGE Microbe will not be able to digest the inorganic portion of the sludge in the pond. Therefore, mills with clay or calcium carbonate bath to separate the shell and kernel may not find SAGE MIDS to be a suitable system to desludge the first one or two ponds.

However, the mill may still use the system to reduce the volume of sludge to remove from the pond by first digesting the organic portion of the sludge. Therefore, holding pond to be constructed to hold the inorganic sludge can be smaller. It will be best to take samples of the sludge profile in the pond to analyse the percentage of organic and inorganic solid in the sludge before deciding on whether it is worthwhile to use SAGE MIDS to desludge the organic portion of the sludge first. However, SAGE MIDS can be used to desludge the other ponds.

The period of treatment using SAGE MIDS is targeted at 3 to 3.5 months, depending on the amount of sludge in the pond. Thereafter SAGE Mixer will be removed from the pond and sludge depth will be measured. Such time frame is required for microbe to digest the organic sludge. However, this does not mean that treatment stop at that point in time. SAGE Microbe will still be in the pond to continue digesting the sludge. However, it will not be as efficient as when SAGE Mixer is in the pond stirring and aerating the POME. Therefore, if SAGE Mixer stir the pond for longer period, the treatment will be better.

SAGE will continue with further research to test SAGE MIDS in a series of ponds to determine the BOD after the 4th or 5th pond after they have been desludged. Preliminary result has shown that BOD dropped drastically to value of between 50-100ppm or even lower than 20ppm, depending on the pond desludged. The argument is that when the BOD dropped to this level, the next pond can be aerated with aerators to maintain the BOD at below 20ppm for discharge. The continuous dosing of SAGE Microbes into the pond will ensure that organic sludge will not build up in the pond. This system once proven may be an alternative for the existing tertiary system or polishing system adopted to bring the BOD to below 20ppm for discharge. Most of the tertiary systems have shown to be ineffective after a while, as it cannot take over the load from the ponds which have slowly sludged up. SAGE system will manage the ponds condition from the beginning.

REFERENCES

BROCK, T.D., (1979). Biology of microorganisms. 3rd Edition Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA. pp 421.

LIM K.N., (2006). Pers Comm. Sawit Kinabalu Bhd.

MA .A.N. (1999). Treatment of palm oil mill effluent. In Oil palm and the Environment – A Malaysian Perspective. Edited by Singh, G; Lim K. H.; Teo L.; and Lee, D. K. Malaysian Oil Palm Growers’ Council

MA, A.N. and ONG A.S.H. (1985). Pollution control in palm oil mills in Malaysia. JAOCS 62, 261-266.

C7

3DT TRASAR Boiler Technology in Palm Oil Industry

Dr. Lei Wen, Tim Loh, Khu Sang Chia

The boiler system is the most critical equipment in the operation of palm oil mill. Any unscheduled shutdown of the boiler system can potentially lead to huge losses for the mill. Since these mills are generally located in the remote areas, the boiler operation is generally challenged by the unstable make-up water quality, non-continuous boiler operation and limited expertise on-site to provide the required response in a timely manner. As such, boiler operators in the Palm oil Industry are consistently challenged to operate under tough and varying conditions to meet production demands. In order to maintain boiler reliability and operational safety, mill managers very often are required to make important decisions based on limited operational information. The reliability and safety of the boiler system can not be guaranteed. In order to meet these challenges in Palm oil industry, Nalco has developed 3D TRASAR Boiler Automation Palm Oil Package. It combines unique detection capabilities to determine and execute correct responses to system variations that delivers economic and operational advantages to our palm oil customers. Nalco's "all-in-one-box" solution includes the groundbreaking Nalco Corrosion Stress MonitorTM (NCSM), which minimizes preboiler corrosion by controlling scavenger feed real-time based on feedwater stresses, boiler scale control package that utilized the tried-and-true Nalco TRASAR and NEXGUARD technology. Hardness breakthrough detection and automated boiler cycle control capabilities ensure that boiler is constantly operating at the lowest water and energy footprint. To ensure that the key personnel of mill operations are well informed, the advanced communication features of 3DTRASAR technology enables access to operational data from Web. Nalco 360TM service is also available through which the boiler system is being monitored by a team of Nalco experts, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. In short, Nalco's 3D TRASAR Boiler Technology coupled with the most advanced monitoring & control, performance sensors, new chemistry, software, wireless communication and service package to protect your boiler from scale and deposits.

C8 Preparation and Evaluation of Novel Targeted Palm

Oil Vitamin E Therapeutic System

Ju Yen Fu1∗ and Christine Dufes1

ABSTRACT

Palm oil vitamin E extract known as Tocotrienol-Rich Fraction (TRF) has been shown to exert anti-proliferative and tumour suppressive effects on various cancer cells. However, its therapeutic potential is currently limited by its failure to reach tumours after intravenous administration, without secondary effects on healthy tissues. The objectives of this study are therefore 1) to prepare and characterize novel transferrin-targeted vesicles encapsulating TRF, able to recognize transferrin receptors overexpressed on many cancer cell lines and 2) to evaluate in vitro and in vivo the therapeutic and targeting efficacies of this therapeutic system. In vitro, the therapeutic efficacy of TRF when encapsulated in transferrin-bearing vesicles was improved by at least 100-fold and 2-fold compared to non-encapsulated TRF and non-targeted vesicles respectively. In vivo, the intravenous administration of TRF encapsulated in transferrin-bearing vesicles led to the regression of well-established, vascularized tumours, followed by a delayed progression. By contrast, treatment of the tumours by intravenous administration of TRF encapsulated in control vesicles or administered as a solution did not lead to any tumour regression. The treatment was well tolerated by the mice, with no weight loss or visible signs of toxicity. This work corresponds to the first preparation of a tumour-targeted delivery system able to encapsulate tocotrienol. Our findings show that TRF encapsulated in transferrin-bearing vesicles is a highly promising therapeutic system, leading to tumour regression of vascularised tumours after intravenous administration without visible toxicity.

1Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences University of Strathclyde, 27 Taylor Street, Glasgow G4 0NR, UK. ∗ Corresponding author: Ju Yen Fu Tel: +44 141 548 4338; Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

Despite increasing knowledge on prevention and treatment of cancer, the number of new cancer cases grows every year and an approximately 50% rise in new cases was projected over the next 20 years, from 10.9 million in 2002 to 16 million in 2020 (World Health Organization, 2008). Till this date, the outcome of conventional chemotherapy remains well below expectations primarily due to the lack of specificity, leading to serious systemic toxicity as the drugs are distributed to non-cancerous cells (Wong et al., 2007). An ideal regime therefore, would be one that targets cancer cells effectively, enabling complete disappearance of tumours without any secondary effects to healthy tissues. Natural vitamin E is defined as a mixture of tocopherol and tocotrienol, occuring in four isoforms: alpha (α-), beta (β-), gamma (γ-) and delta (δ-). Tocotrienol, having an unsaturated side chain in contrast to the saturated phytyl tail of tocopherol, has been shown by recent studies to exert tumour suppressive effects on selected cancer cells (Sen et al., 2007). When first reported in 1995, Tocotrienol-Rich Fraction (TRF) extracted from palm oil vitamin E was found to inihibit breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-435) in vitro (Nesaretnam et al., 1995). It was subsequently found to be efficacious against prostate cancer cells (LNCaP, DU145, PC-3), adenocarcinoma cells (HeLa), colon carcinoma (RKO), fibrosarcoma cells (HT1080) and Hep3B hepatoma cells (Srivastava and Gupta, 2006; Sakai et al., 2006). In vivo, Wada et al. showed a suppression of liver and lung carcinogenesis upon oral administration of tocotrienol while Nesaretnam et al., and He et al. reported the inhibition of tumour growth with breast cancer cells and melanoma cells respectively, in addition to prolonged survival in tumour-bearing mice (Wada et al., 2005; Nesaretnam et al., 2004; He et al., 1997). Nevertheless, the use of tocotrienol as cancer therapy is currently limited by the poor bioavailability and absorption with oral administration, associated by large inter-individual variability (Yap et al., 2004). Here, non-ionic vesicles (niosomes) were explored as a delivery system for tocotrienol to be administered via intravenous injection with the aim of improving site specific delivery, leading to enhanced therapeutic efficacy. Niosomes resemble the structure of liposome whereby hydrophobic portion of the lipid bilayer is shielded from the hydrophilic head groups. Previous studies of niosome were very much focused on anti-cancer drugs, e.g. methotrexate, vincristine and doxorubicin, mostly due to some of its favourable properties including enhanced drug delivery, improved tumoricidal activities, biocompatibility and most importantly, its controllable characteristics which enable surface modification and incorporation of targeting moieties (Uchegbu and Vyas, 1998). Targeting of delivery system has emerged to be one of the critical factors in determining the therapeutic efficacy of treatments, especially in cancer therapy whereby managing drug-induced systemic side effects, which are often lethal, are essentially crucial. In particular, ligand-receptor mediated targeting exploits the potential use of ligands in targeted drug delivery via receptor-mediated endocytosis. In rapidly dividing cells, elevated iron requirement often leads to over-expression of transferrin receptors, in which transferrin plays major role in transportation of iron (Qian et al., 2002). In proliferating malignant cells, transferrin receptor levels were shown to be far higher (from 2-folds up to 5-folds) than the corresponding normal cells (Daniels et al., 2006).

In this study, we hypothesize that the encapsulation of TRF within niosomes bearing transferrin, whose receptors are overexpressed on cancer cells, could result in a selective delivery of TRF to tumours after intravenous administration. The objectives of this study are therefore 1) to prepare and characterize novel transferrin-targeted vesicles encapsulating TRF, 2) to evaluate in vitro and in vivo the therapeutic and targeting efficacies of this therapeutic system.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Tocotrienol Rich Fraction (TRF) was a generous gift by Dr. Abdul Gapor from the Malaysian Palm Oil Board. It contains a mixture of 17.6% α-tocotrienol, 23.1% γ-tocotrienol, 15.1% δ-tocotrienol, 15.3% α-tocopherol and other tocopherol and tocotrienol-related compounds. A431 epidermoid carcinoma, T98G glioblastoma, A2780 ovarian carcinoma were obtained from the European Collection of Cell Cultures. For in vivo experiments, female immunodeficient BALC/c mice were housed in groups of five and fed a conventional diet with mains water ad libitum. All experimental work was carried out in accordance with UK Home Office regulations and approved by the local ethics committee. Transferrin-bearing vesicles encapsulating TRF were prepared as previously described (Fu et al., 2009). Briefly, TRF was encapsulated in Span 60 vesicles upon heating and probe sonication, prior to transferrin conjugation by cross-linking. Upon purification by ultracentrifugation, vesicles were visualised by transmission electron microscopy and have their size and zeta potential measured by photon correlation spectroscopy (Zetasizer Nano-ZS, Malvern Instruments). Transferrin conjugation efficiency was assessed by Lowry protein quantification assay. TRF loading was quantified by spectrofluorimetry at λexcitation 295nm and λemission 325nm after disruption of vesicles with isopropanol. In vitro, TRF uptake by cancer cells (A431, T98G and A2780 cells) was assessed quantitatively by spectrofluorimetry and qualitatively by confocal microscopy. The therapeutic efficacy of this system was evaluated in vitro using MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide] assay and in vivo after intravenous administration to a murine A431 xenograft model.

RESULTS Synthesis and Physical Characterization of Vesicles Successful preparation of TRF-loaded vesicles bearing transferrin was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy, in which their physical characteristics were further determined using a series of spectrometry analytical techniques. The sizes of TRF-loaded vesicles were found to be 135.6 nm (polydispersity: 0.383) and 115 nm (polydispersity: 0.417) in the presence (Tf-vesicles) and absence (control vesicles) of transferrin. The zeta potential of these vesicles was found to be -46.7 mV and -46.1 mV, respectively, for transferrin-bearing vesicles and control vesicles. Upon disruption of vesicles, the encapsulation efficiency of TRF entrapped in Tf-vesicles was found to be 44.1% ± 0.6%. Meanwhile, transferrin was conjugated to the vesicles at a level of 89 ± 5% of the initial transferrin added.

In vitro Evaluation To evaluate the uptake of TRF in cancer cells, qualitative and quantitative studies were done with confocal microscopy and spectrofluorometry. When encapsulated in vesicles, cellular accumulation of TRF was twice higher than free TRF solution in T98G and A2780 cells. Targeted delivery of TRF was shown with Tf-vesicles whereby TRF uptake was more than 2-fold higher compared to control vesicles. With confocal microscopy, co-localization of TRF in the nuclei was observed in cells treated with Tf-vesicles in both A431 and T98G cells, contrary to a literally disseminated TRF-derived fluorescence in the cytoplasm observed in cells treated with free TRF. In vitro, the therapeutic efficacy of TRF when encapsulated in transferrin-bearing vesicles was improved by at least 100-fold compared to free TRF and at least 2-fold compared to non-targeted vesicles in T98G (i.e. IC50: 0.17 μg/ml, 0.97 μg/ml and 79.49 μg/ml respectively, for Tf-vesicles, control vesicles and free TRF), A431 (i.e. IC50: 0.66 μg/ml, 1.42 μg/ml and 131.06 μg/ml respectively, for Tf-vesicles, control vesicles and free TRF) and A2780 cancer cells (i.e. IC50: 0.05 μg/ml, 0.11 μg/ml and 10.73 μg/ml respectively, for Tf-vesicles, control vesicles and free TRF). In vivo Evaluation In vivo, intravenous administration of TRF encapsulated in transferrin-bearing vesicles led to the regression of well-established tumours, followed by a delayed progression. At day 10 of injections, tumour growth was suppressed by factors of 31.17, 1.17 and 1.20 with treatments of Tf-vesicles, control vesicles and free TRF compared against untreated mice. Upon assessment of tumours according to the RECIST guidelines (Eisenhauer et al., 2009), 40% of tumours treated with Tf-vesicles were stable while 60% of tumours were partially responsive to the treatment. On the other hand, tumours treated with control vesicles and free TRF were 100% progressive. In addition, prolonged survival of 19 days, 12 days and 2 days in mice treated with Tf-vesicles, control vesicles and free TRF were observed in comparison to untreated mice. Nevertheless, systemic administration of TRF either in free drug form or in vesicular formulations was well tolerated, with no weight loss or visible signs of toxicity.

DISCUSSION

Over the past decade, studies of tocotrienol have gained increasing attention for its tumour suppressive effects. Tocotrienol, although proven to have potential significance as an anti-cancer therapy, no other than oral administration has been studied to date, most probably due to its highly lipophilic structure, whereby intravenous administration is impossible without a delivery system. With amphiphilic molecules, in this case Span 60, vesicular systems in the form of bilayer membrane is established from self-assembly in aqueous media. From previous study based on tumour microenvironment, particles of 60 nm traverse in and out of blood vessels in a non-selective manner whereas particles larger than 500 nm was not able to extravasate through tumour vessels (Ishida et al., 1999; Drummond et al., 2009). Collectively, the optimum size for selective tumour delivery with particle is ideally

larger than 60 nm but not exceeding the 500 nm limit. In this study, Tf- and control vesicles synthesised were both within the reasonable size range, in fact are optimum for tumour delivery in accordance to the results from Ishida et al. in 1999. Governed by the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory, zeta potentials offer general predictions on the storage stability of a colloidal dispersion, in which it is generally accepted that zeta potentials of more than |30| mV (optimum > |60| mV) are required for electrostatic stabilization (Heurtault et al., 2003). In our case, zeta potentials of -46.7 mV and -46.1 mV for Tf-vesicles and control vesicles were indications that these vesicles formed a stable colloidal system. From in vitro TRF uptake analysis, the rank order of cellular uptake was: Tf-vesicles > control vesicles > free TRF. These findings correlated with the MTT cell proliferation assay where free TRF was much less efficient in inhibiting cancer cell proliferation, most possibly due to the reduced uptake. With elevated expression of transferrin receptors in cancer cells, we hypothesize that Tf-vesicles were predominantly internalized by the cells via specific receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Despite extensive research supporting the anti-cancer activity of tocotrienol, its mechanism of action at the molecular level is yet to be established. Among the proposed pathways, induction of apoptosis via the Bax protein pathway is believed to play a major role (Sakai et al., 2006) in addition to their anti-angiogenesis properties, mainly contributed by the suppression of vascular endothelial growth factor (Shibata et al., 2008) and DNA polymerase λ (Mizushina et al., 2006) as well as the ability of tocotrienol to induce tumour suppressor genes p53 (Agarwal et al., 2004). Correlating with the analysis of TRF cellular accumulation using confocal microscopy, it is therefore reasonable to have TRF detected within the cell nucleus and cytoplasm, most pronounced in cells treated with Tf-vesicles. Due to absorption and bioavailability limitations associated with oral supplementation, in vivo anti-tumour experiments involving tocotrienol in the past were conducted with dosage regime between 1 mg to 10 mg per kg animal weight per day (Hiura et al., 2008; Nesaretnam et al., 2004; Khanna et al., 2005). Here, we demonstrated a marked tumour regression in mice treated with as low as 10 μg TRF per kg animal weight per day. This significant improvement in the therapeutic index of TRF was a result of two possible mechanisms. First being the specific receptor-mediated uptake of Tf-vesicles via overexpressed transferrin receptors on tumour cells. The second factor that possibly contributed to the improved therapeutic efficacy was the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Tumour vessels are generally known to have enhanced permeability thus facilitating the extravasations of vesicles from tumour vessels for tissue accumulation (Maeda et al., 2009; Ishida et al., 2001). With free TRF, rapid diffusion through the lymphatic system reduced its accumulation whereas vesicles were retained from lymphatic clearance.

CONCLUSION In conclusion, this study corresponds to the first preparation of a tumour-targeted delivery system able to encapsulate TRF. Our findings show that TRF, when encapsulated in transferrin-bearing vesicles is a highly promising therapeutic system, leading to tumour regression after intravenous administration without visible toxicity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Ju Yen Fu would like to thank the Malaysian Palm Oil Board for the opportunity to present this paper at the International Palm Oil Congress (PIPOC 2009). This work is supported by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board and the University of Strathclyde under the supervision of Dr. Christine Dufès.

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Tocotrienol-rich fraction of palm oil activates p53, modulates Bax/Bcl2 ratio and induces apoptosis independent of cell cycle association. Cell Cycle, 3(2), pp.205-211

DANIELS, T.R., DELGADO, T., HELGUERA, G., AND PENICHET, M. L., (2006).

The transferrin receptor part II: targeted delivery of therapeutic agents into cancer cells. Clin. Immunol., 121(2), pp.159-176.

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From the real trials done in both Malaysia and Indonesia palm oil plant, we have demonstrated the performance of the new technology and achieved our goals to: Improve the reliability of the boiler operation and Improved asset protection Shorten the start-up time Reduction of wet testing Provide process visibility and Data capture Real time communication of treatment and system status By, Dr. Lei Wen Senior Product Manager, PAC 2 & PAC L Nalco Asia Pacific

C9

LC-MS/MS Analysis of Lipid Hydroperoxides

Teruo Miyazawa*, Shunji Kato* and Kiyotaka Nakagawa*

ABSTRACT Increasing evidence of lipid oxidation have revealed the need for a pure lipid hydroperoxide (LOOH) reference as an authentic standard for quantification. Generally, LOOH is prepared from photooxidized or enzymatically oxidized lipids; however, preparing pure LOOH is difficult. We employed the reaction between LOOHs and vinyl ether (2-methoxypropene, MxP) for LOOH purification. Liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry confirmed that MxP selectively reacts with LOOH, yielding a stable LOO-MxP adduct (perketal). Upon treatment with acid, perketal released the original LOOH, which was finally purified by LC. The LOOHs prepared by the perketal method would be used as gold standards in LOOH methodology. To determine LOOH, we previously established the chemiluminescence detection-liquid chromatography method (CL-HPLC) and succeeded to detect mono-, bis-, and tris-hydroperoxy triacylglycerol in rancid oil. Recentry, we built up the analysis of LOOH by LC-MS/MS. Pure phosphatidylcholine hydroperoxide (PCOOH) prepared by the perketal method was injected into 4000 Q TRAP MS/MS, and the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) parameters were optimized. The plasma total PCOOH concentration was 50 nmol/L in healthy subject. The PCOOH consisted of 18:2-OOH, 20:4-OOH, 22:6-OOH, 20:5-OOH, and 18: 1-OOH. The PCOOH in hypercholesterolemic serum as high as 500 nmol/L causes adhesion of monocytes in atherogenesis. On the other hand, human skin squalene (SQ) is the principal target for oxidative stress, producing squalene monohydroperoxide (SQOOH). The concentration of total SQOOH (2-OOH, 3-OOH, 6-OOH, 7-OOH, 10-OOH and 11-OOH-SQ) in the forehead skin lipid extract was 956 microgram/g skin lipids, and 2760 microgram/g after 3 h sunlight exposure. SQOOH accumulation could be involved in skin inflammatory disorders. *Food Chemistry and Nutrition Laboratory, Division of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tohoku University, Sendai 981-8555, Japan. E-mail address: [email protected]


INTRODUCTION

Because lipid peroxidation is involved in food deterioration and pathophysiology of human diseases, there has been a great interest in the accurate measurement of lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH). There are several quantitative methods, and the most sensitive and reliable one is chemiluminescence detection-high performance liquid chromatography (CL-HPLC) . For quantification, researchers prepare their own in-house reference LOOH by subjecting lipids (phospholipids, cholesterols, triacylglycerols, and fatty acids) to photooxidation, free radical oxidation, or enzymatic oxidation. However, these references are neither officially approved nor do they correspond to each other, particularly with regard to their purity. As frequently mentioned by LOOH researchers, this problem is mainly caused by the difficulty in distinguishing and isolating LOOH from other oxidation products such as hydroxides. Therefore, efficient purification of a wide variety of LOOHs is the key to the development of the gold standard not only for the accurate quantification of LOOH but also for the evaluation of its biological functions. Vinyl ether compound (2-methoxypropene, MxP) reacts with lipid hydroperoxides to yield perketals, and these perketals upon treatment with acid release the original hydroperoxides. We optimized the reaction between MxP and the hydroperoxides of phospholipids, cholesterol esters, triacylglycerols, fatty acids, and fatty acid methyl esters, and developed a purification method of authentic high purity LOOHs.

Human skin, covering the entire outside of the body, is the largest organ, and is exposed constantly to sunlight stress, including ultraviolet (UV) light irradiation. Skin surface lipids are thought to be vulnerable to oxidative stress from sunlight. Previously, employing with CL-HPLC method for the sensitive and selective determination of lipid hydroperoxides, we discovered that SQ is the principal target lipid for peroxidation on the human skin surface. The presence of six double bonds allows SQ to undergo photooxidation yielding SQ-monohydroperoxide (SQ-OOH) as the primary oxidation product. SQ-OOH accumulation could be involved in inflammatory skin disorders and skin ageing. Hybrid quadrupole/linear ion trap (QqLIT) spectrometer, QTRAP, offers specific benefits for LC-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for biomolecular analysis. With the advent of QTRAP, both triple quadrupole and ion-trap scans can be performed together as a single stage. The product ion scan, multiple reaction monitoring (MRM), and neutral loss scan provide useful structural information about the analyte, even in the presence of background contaminants from complex biological matrices. In the present study, we prepared 6 SQ-OOH isomer standards, with each isomer differing

in the position of the hydroperoxide group, and developed a QTRAP LC-MS/MS method for determining SQ-OOH isomers in human skin surface lipids, and discussed the possible mechanisms of SQ peroxidation in vivo as well as the pathogenicity of skin SQ-OOH. And also PCOOH present in humen plasma and serum was analysed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

LOOH preparation

Lipids was subjected to 3 different types of oxidations, rose bengal (RB)-catalyzed photooxidation, ultraviolet (UV) photooxidation, and lipoxygenase-catalyzed oxidation.For RB-catalyzed photo-oxidation, PLPC, PLPE, PLPS, LA, or LAMe (100 mg) was dissolved in 5 ml of methanol, whereas ChL or LLL (100 mg) was dissolved in 5 ml of chloroform/methanol (1:1, v/v). RB (CHROMA) was added at a concentration of 0.1 mg/ml. The samples were exposed to oxygen gas for 10 s, and photo-oxidized for 3–24 h at 4 °C (ice-cold conditions). A 100 W incandescent lamp (Matsushita Electric Industrial Co.) was positioned vertically 10 cm above the sample. To remove RB, the resultant sample was loaded onto a Sep-Pak Plus QMA column (Waters). The column was eluted with methanol or with chloroform/methanol (1:1, v/v). The eluent was collected, evaporated, and redissolved in dichloromethane. For UV photooxidation, 100 mg of lipid was placed in a test tube and exposed to oxygen gas. The tube was capped, and photooxidized using a 15 W UV GL-15 lamp (radiation frequency, 253 nm; Toshiba Electronics Co.) at 20 °C for 3–24 h. For lipoxygenase-catalyzed oxidation, a solution of lipid (100 mg/5 ml of ethanol) was mixed with 50 mM borate buffer (pH 9.0) containing soybean lipoxygenase-1 (LOX-1, 1.25 × 106 units; SERVA Electrophoresis) and sodium deoxycholate. The mixture was incubated at 20–40 °C for 3–24 h under the presence of oxygen. Purification of LOOH by using MxP

We confirmed LOOH formation in the dichloromethane sample, allowed the sample to react with MxP in order to obtain perketal, and subsequently, LOOH was regenerated from the perketal as follows. For the reaction with MxP, the dichloromethane sample was mixed with PPTS (pyridinium toluenesulfonate). To the sample mixture, MxP (Wako) was added. The sample was vortexed and kept standing. After confirming the perketal formation by LC-UV/CL/MS, a portion of the sample mixture was subjected to semi-preparative LC, and the perketal fraction was collected. For regeneration of LOOH, the isolated perketal was dissolved in chloroform/methanol. The solution was mixed with PPTS and incubated for 3–24 h. After the regeneration of

LOOH was ascertained by LC-UV/CL/MS, the LOOH was finally purified by semi-preparative LC. The structure and purity of the obtained LOOH was evaluated by LC-UV/CL/MS. In addition, 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra were recorded on a Varian Unity Plus-600 spectrometer (Palo Alto) at 600 MHz for 1H NMR and at 150 MHz for 13C NMR using CDCl3 as a solvent.

Oδ−

δ+

O O O

OO HR

H+ O

OORH+

2-Methoxypropene (Oxycarbenium ion) Perketal

Perketal

O

OORδ−

δ−

H+

O

OOR

HMeOH

OOROOR

R-OOH

H+

OORδ−

OH(OH2

+)

+R-OOH

OOR

OH

H

OH

OH+

H+

A Addition of MxP

B Elimination of MxP

PCOOH PCOOH‐MxP‐adduct

O

・N

CH3 SO3H

2‐Methoxypropene (MxP)

Pyridinium p‐toluenesulfonate(PPTS)

OO

OO

OON+ P

O

O- OOH OO

OO

OON+ P

O

O- OOO

Scheme 1. Preparation of pure lipid hydroperoxides.

Preparation of standard SQ-OOH isomers The six standard SQ-OOH isomers were synthesized from SQ as follows. SQ

(100 mg (240 μmol)) was weighed, dissolved in 50 ml ethanol (containing 0.01 mg/ml rose bengal as a sensitizer) in a test tube, and exposed to oxygen gas for 10 s. The tube was capped, and then photo-oxidized with a 100 W tungsten lamp (Matsushita Electric Industrial Co.) at 4oC for 6 h. The lamp was held 10 cm vertically above the test tube. After photo-oxidation, a portion (5 ml) of the resultant solution was loaded onto an ethanol-equilibrated SepPak® Plus QMA cartridge (Waters). A small portion (1 μl) of the ethanolic sample solution was subjected to LC-CL with on-line MS (LC-CL-MS) to monitor the yield of SQ-OOH. For LC-CL-MS, an ODS column (CAPCELLPAK C18, Shiseido) was used with methanol. The portion was sent to a Mariner electrospray ionization (ESI) time of flight mass spectrometer (Applied Biosystems). SQ-OOH was

then isolated from the ethanolic sample solution using the semi-preparative JASCO LC-UV system with an ODS column (CAPCELLPAK C18, Shiseido). The ODS column was eluted with methanol. The isolated SQ-OOH (a mixture of the 6 SQ-OOH isomers) was evaporated to dryness, and redissolved in cyclohexane. The cyclohexane solution was further subjected to JASCO LC-UV (210 nm) with a silica column (SG 120A, Shiseido) to isolate each SQ-OOH isomer. The structure and purity of the SQ-OOH isomers were evaluated by LC-CL-MS. SQ-OOH isomer was subjected to NMR, and 1H and 13C NMR spectra recorded on a Varian Unity 600 spectrometer (600 MHz for 1H NMR and 150 MHz for 13C NMR). Two-dimensional NMR, 1H-1H correlation spectroscopy (COSY), heteronuclear multiple quantum correlation (HMQC), heteronuclear multiple bond correlation (HMBC), and distortionless enhancement by polarization transfer (DEPT) were performed. Human skin samples and lipid extraction

Eight healthy male human volunteers participated in this study. All subjects gave written informed consent to the experimental protocol which was approved by the local research ethics committee. Before and after 3 h sunlight exposure (1,000-2,000 μW/cm2), an acetone-wet cotton pad was placed on the forehead, wiped onto the skin surface five times, and then removed gently to collect skin surface lipids. The combined acetone layer (skin surface total lipids) was subjected to LC-MS/MS.The QTRAP LC-MS/MS system consisted of a Shimazu liquid chromatograph, including a vacuum degasser, quaternary pump, autosampler, and an Applied Biosystems 4000 QTRAP tandem mass spectrometer equipped with a turbo ion spray source. This instrument utilized a triple quadrupole ion path in which the final quadrupole was used as a QqLIT mass spectrometer. Determination of skin surface SQ-OOH isomers by LC-MS/MS

A stock solution of SQ-OOH (4 mg (9 μmol)/ml) was prepared from each standard SQ-OOH isomer dissolved in 1-butanol, and stored at -80°C until analysis. We have verified that the stock solution remains stable for up to three months under such storage conditions. Aliquots (10 μl containing 0.1-40 ng of SQ-OOH) were subjected to LC-MS/MS and calibration curves were made. Skin lipid extracts or SQ-OOH standards were separated on a silica column (Inertsil, GL Science) eluted with a mixture of cyclohexane-diethylether. At the post column, SQ-OOH isomers were individually detected by LC-MS/MS with MRM for transition of the parent ion to the product ion. The concentration of each skin surface SQ-OOH isomer was then calculated according to the calibration curves. For QTRAP MS/MS, atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) was used as the ion source.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The obtained PLPCOOH was a pure mixture of isomers as judged from the LC-UV/CL/MS data and NMR spectra. The composition of hydroperoxyoctadecadienoyl residues of the obtained PLPCOOH was 13-hydroperoxy-9Z,11E-octadecadienoate (46%), 9-hydroperoxy-10E,12Z-octadecadienoate (43%), 13-hydroperoxy-9E,11E-octadecadienoate (7%), and 9-hydroperoxy-10E,12E-octadecadienoate (4%). For other hydroperoxides of PLPE, PLPS, ChL, LLL, LA, and LAMe, pure mixtures of hydroperoxide isomers could also be prepared. On the other hand, when LOX-1-catalyzed oxidation was conducted instead of photo-oxidation, PLPCOOH bearing 13-hydroperoxy-9Z,11E-octadecadienoate was obtained with high purity and high yield. About 9% of PLPCOOH was decomposed after 12 months storage at -30 °C. In contrast, PLPCOOMxP (perketal) was more stable (about 97% remained after one year) than PLPCOOH. The stabilities at 12 months of storage were: PLPEOOH (63%), PLPEOOMxP (91%), PLPSOOH (50%), PLPSOOMxP (85%), ChLOOH (89%), ChLOOMxP (94%), LLLOOH (86%), LLLOOMxP (95%), LAOOH (40%), LAOOMxP (78%), LAMeOOH (90%), and LAMeOOMxP (98%). Pure phosphatidylcholine hydroperoxide (PCOOH) prepared by the perketal method was injected into 4000 Q TRAP MS/MS, and the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) parameters were optimized. The plasma total PCOOH concentration was 50 nmol/L in healthy subject. The PCOOH consisted of 18:2-OOH, 20:4-OOH, 22:6-OOH, 20:5-OOH, and 18: 1-OOH. The PCOOH in hypercholesterolemic serum as high as 500 nmol/L causes adhesion of monocytes in atherogenesis. On the other hand, human skin squalene (SQ) is the principal target for oxidative stress, producing squalene monohydroperoxide (SQOOH). The concentration of total SQOOH (2-OOH, 3-OOH, 6-OOH, 7-OOH, 10-OOH and 11-OOH-SQ) in the forehead skin lipid extract was 956 microgram/g skin lipids, and 2760 microgram/g after 3 h sunlight exposure. SQOOH accumulation could be involved in skin inflammatory disorders.

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LP4 New Revenue Opportunities Arising From the Waste

Streams of the Oil Palm Industry

David Milroy

Pure Power Asia Pte Ltd, 8A Mosque Street, Singapore

ABSTRACT

Pure Power will present on potential uses of the waste stream of the palm oil industry, showing how its proprietary lignocellulosic technologies will allow owners and operators of oil palm plantations to extract value from current waste streams.

Pure Power’s business is in commercialising renewable lignocellulosic conversion technologies, extracting lignochemicals from untreated non-food-based feedstocks and biomass, in particular wood chips from eucalyptus, poplar, mesquite and Salix or empty fruit bunches (EFB) from oil palm. Its disruptive technology can be deployed across a broad spectrum of feedstock resources in plantation forests in North America, South America, Asia and New Zealand.

To extract value from oil palm waste, Pure Power will deploy its technologies in plantations and biorefineries across the Asia Pacific region. It targets the global fossil fuel feedstock market with substitute products based on renewable sources of lignocellulosic biomass, using a proprietary lignochemical process to extract high value lignochemicals.

Pure Power’s approach is founded on the simple principle of processing hardwood gently, leaving the long polymer molecules intact so that they can be used to target high-value applications in the petrochemical industry.

Technology

Pure Power has a proprietary five stage process to convert untreated feedstock into a stream of high value products:

(a) Pre-treatment process Uses ethanol as an organic solvent to produce black liquor and a mixture of cellulose and hemi-cellulose

(b) Lignin recovery Dissolve gas flotation and drying to produce lignin

(c) Separation of cellulose and hemi-celluloses Hot water pre-treatment to break down into clean pulp And yellow liquor

(d) Clean pulp (Cellulose) processing Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation to produce ethanol

(e) Yellow liquor conversion Crystallisation to produce xylose

Additional revenue streams

Pure Power’s integrated business model extends from plantation to feedstock to refinery to industrial markets.

Its proprietary technology uses a simple, soft wash process to break down hardwood into cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin. We capture almost all of the biomass and convert it into bioethanol, xylose and natural lignin. About 40 percent of a typical hardwood’s mass, but over 80 percent of its value is found in non-fuel products: xylose is a natural sweetener and natural lignin is a substitute for phenols, polyols and other feedstocks used in the petrochemical industry.

Lignin, the second most abundant polymer found in nature, is what gives rigidity to plants. It’s durable and biodegradable in nature. Natural lignin, derived from woody biomass, competes effectively with fossil fuel feedstocks in an addressable global petrochemical market estimated at US$8.4 billion. Replacing fossil fuel feedstocks with natural lignin will allow the chemical industry to reformulate the way it makes plastics, paints, resins, adhesives, insulation and barrier coatings – even carbon fibre.

International chemical companies form the primary customer group for lignin-based products. Industry demand for petrochemicals is currently growing about 2.5 percent above world GDP and the industry’s average growth rate of 5 to 6 percent is about triple the expected growth rate for energy. Well over 90 percent of the industry’s feedstock currently comes from compounds in oil and natural gas. Pure Power has entered into discussions with potential customers, working with them to assess the suitability of lignin as a replacement feedstock for some of their applications.

Pure Power’s unique processes allow it to capture the full value of the hardwood trees, shrubs and forest residue that it processes. Where other lignocellulosic processes look primarily to extract cellulose for conversion to bioethanol, targeting just the tip of the iceberg, Pure Power targets the full value of the whole iceberg, in particular in its lignin and xylose. The usability of these two substances is largely ruined by other harsher processes, which destroy or degrade lignin, rendering it usable only as boiler fuel. Pure Power’s process is virtually waste-free, using environmentally friendly, re-usable solvents to convert the total woody biomass into multiple product streams. A set of unique gentle washing processes readily separates woody feedstocks

into three distinct intermediate streams: black liquor, yellow liquor and clean pulp. Each of these streams can be further processed into high value lignochemicals (natural lignin and xylose) and biofuels (bioethanol).

Using Pure Powers technologies, high value lignochemical products can be extracted from renewable feedstocks - they are carbon neutral and their cost of production is competitive with those from fossil fuel feedstocks.

Corresponding author: [email protected]

C11

Variation in Physical and Mechanical Properties of Oil Palm Trunk Relevant to Solid-wood and Composite

Products

Kamarudin Hassan1, Jamaludin Kasim2 and Anis Mokhtar1

ABSTRACT

A total of 12 felled oil palm trunks (OPT) of tenera variety were obtained from Sungei

Kahang Estate owned by Sayong Plantation Sdn.Bhd., located between latitudes

N2o12’24” to N2o12’55” and longtitudes E103o30’59” to E103o31’05”. The physical

and mechanical properties of OPT, computed across its diameter, each taken at different

bole heights of one metre intervals. In general, the distance between the bole heights and

its diameter gave variation in the moisture content and basic density distributions. With

the exception to moisture content distributions, the samples obtained from the centre of

OPT disc and those subsequent samples towards the East have higher densities compared

to the same samples, measured from the centre of OPT towards the West. Based on the

results of mechanical properties, it was evident that the intrinsic strength of the woody

portion is dependent on the distance across the diameters and heights, measured above

the ground. This information is useful to develop a suitable sawing and veneer peeling

operations that would minimize the drying degrades (such as twisting, honey-combing,

surface checks and collapse) for the sawn lumber and plywood veneer productions,

respectively. As a result, the quality of resulting products would be more uniform.

Keywords: felled oil palm trunks, physical and mechanical properties, cutting profile 1Malaysian Palm Oil Board, No.6 Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang,

Selangor 2Wood Indsutries Department, UiTM Pahang, Lintasan Semarak, 26400, Bandar Jengka, Pahang.


C12

Characterization of Inorganic Constituent Parts in the Aerial Parts of the Palm Species

Volker Thole, Jessica Parzy and Brigitte Kohler

Fraunhofer-Institute fur Holforschung Bienroder Weg 54 E

38108 Braunschweig, Germany

ABSTRACT Subject to an increasing demand of wood based panels and advancing lack of wood the

need of finding alternative raw materials has developed. The strategy of results consists

of the utilization of biogenic residues. This includes the cultivation of the remaining palm

residues. The processing of the palm residues into medium density fibreboards represents

an opportunity for countries with low availability of wood and can thus contribute to a

relieving situation regarding raw material. The high portion of silicate of the palms,

belonging to the monocots, particularly influences the production of raw material and the

material produced of them. Due to the content of silicate the cutting tools are

deteriorating faster by reducing the lifetime noticeable.

On the particle cutting crush through cutting strain the dominant influence factor

regarding lifetime limit of the cutting tools. During the process of wood based material

the abrasive cutting strain is significantly affected by the content of silicate of the board.

In this case two silicate types, the interfering substances of silicate (SSI) and the

structured silicate (STS), have to be distinguished. Regarding the interfering substances

of silicate it is predominantly sand, not being separated from the main components the

board materials (particle of lignocelluloses), due to technological or economical reasons.

Basically the portion of interfering substances of silicate has to be interfered by means of

processing measurements. The portion of PSS however depends on anatomically reasons.

This involves of the plant absorbed during the growth which has been stored in the

different plant cells amorphous of crystalline. In an extensive research study it has been

exemplary investigated in which areas of inorganic components, and here especially

silicate, is stored in different plant parts of the date palm. Besides the untreated palm

residues, fibres have been investigated, with respect to the content of ashes and silicate,

after the production in the refiner as well as medium density fibre boards, manufactured

from different plant parts.

C13 Oil Palm Shells Conversion to Higher Value Products

Alexander Gómez*; Sonia Rincón* and Wolfgang Klose**

ABSTRACT

High calorific solid, liquid and gaseous fuels and adsorbents can be produced through the thermochemical conversion processes of oil palm shells. In this work an experimental study of the pyrolysis and gasification of oil palm shells in an indirectly heated rotary kiln on the laboratory scale is presented. The rotary kiln technique offers advantages due to its high tolerance for processing raw materials with diverse physicochemical properties. The effects of the pyrolysis and gasification temperatures, of the water steam concentration in the reaction atmosphere and the residence time of the solids bed and the volatile phase in reactor on the fuel products distribution (solids, liquids and gases) of the process are investigated. The microstructural development of the produced chars and activated carbons is investigated and an innovative production process of these adsorbents in a single heating step for pyrolysis and gasification is developed and presented. These results are analyzed in comparison to a thermo gravimetric study of the pyrolysis and gasification of oil palm shells using samples of 2 g in a facility equipped with continuous evolved gas analysis.

INTRODUCTION

Appropriate disposal or recovery of oil palm shells represents today one of the main problems for the use of the biomass residues generated from the palm oil agroindustry. Pyrolysis of biomass is a basic thermochemical process which allows the production of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels. The conditions and evolution of pyrolysis determine the yields and properties of these products. Rotary kilns offer advantages due to their flexibility in relation to the operating parameters and the high tolerance regarding the processing of raw materials with diverse physicochemical properties. The products distribution of the pyrolysis of biomass in indirectly heated rotary kilns is mainly determined through the heating rate, the pyrolysis end temperature and the residence time of the volatile phase in reactor (Wiest, 1998). Oil palm shells have a high carbon and low ash contents, high mechanical strenght and high availability as biomass residue, which are desirable properties for the production of activated carbons (Bansal et al., 1988, Rodríguez-Reinoso, 1997, Heschel, 1995).

* Department of Mechanical Engineering – Research Group BIOT National University of Colombia, Bogotá, D.C., Colombia Email: [email protected] ** Institute of Thermal Engineering University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany

The aim of this work is to study the effects of the pyrolysis and gasification

temperatures, the water steam concentration and the solids and gas phase residence times in the reaction zone of an indirectly heated rotary kiln onto the products distribution (solids, liquids and gases) of the process. The production of activated carbons through partial gasification in a single heating step (for pyrolysis and partial gasification) in this reactor is also studied. These results are analysed in comparison to a thermogravimetric study of the pyrolysis and activation of oil palm shells using samples of 2 g in a facility equipped with continuous evolved gas analysis (TG/EGA) (Gómez et al., 2008a).

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Materials Characterization

Oil palm shells and solid products (chars and activated carbons) undergo proximate and ultimate analyses. Determination of moisture content w, ash content adf (dry basis, df) and volatile matter Fdaf (dry and ash free basis, daf) takes place according to DIN 51718, DIN 51719 and DIN 51720, respectively. The ultimate analysis (C, H, N) is carried out in a Carlo Erba 1106 equipment. Oxygen contents are determined as difference. Liquid products (biooils) are characterized through ultimate analysis and determination of moisture contents (with xylene distillation). Gas concentrations of O2, N2, CO, CO2, H2, CH4 and additional hydrocarbons (up to C5) are analysed with a gas chromatograph Shimadzu, type GC-15A, making use of two packed columns (Porapak Q and molecular sieve 13X). The experimental determination of the gross calorific values of solid samples takes place with a bomb calorimeter according to DIN 51900. The fuel characterization of the oil palm shells and other biomass types (for comparison) is presented in Table 1.

The bulk density ρb of the solid products obtained from the steady stage during

the partial gasification in the rotary kiln is determined according to the norm ASTM D2854. The apparent density ρs and the distribution of the pores volume for macro and mesopores (VMa und VMe) are measured with an equipment Carlo Erba, model Pascal 140, through mercury intrusion according to the norm DIN 66133. Helium is employed for determination of the real density ρw and the analysis is made following DIN 51913. The porosity of the particles is defined as:

(1) The evaluation of the solids micropores volume VMi takes place through

measurement of adsorption isotherms with nitrogen at 77 K. These analyses follow the Dubinin-Radushkevich method according to the norm DIN 66135. The sorption isotherms are determined with an equipment Carlo Erba, model Sorptomatic 1900 and the solids specific area through N2 sorption isotherms at 77 K and posterior evaluation according to the BET-Method (specific internal surface area ABET) following the norm DIN ISO 9277.

.s

ρ1

w

ρε −=

Rotary Kiln Facility

A schema of the rotary kiln facility and a flow sheet of the experimental set-up are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively. The experimental series are carried out under semi-continuous operation in the rotary kiln. For it, biomass is put into the sealed hopper reservoir and then it is conveyed to the reactor. This reactor is made from nickel – chrome steel (material No. 1.4828) with internal diameter of 129 mm and a total length of 1957 mm, from which 1100 mm are electrically heated. The solids residence times in reactor are studied and determined experimentally by applying coloured tracers in cold runs, according to the established operation parameters. The residence times of the gas phase in reactor are determined by the mass flow of biomass mraw and the volumetric flow of the purge gas VN2 (nitrogen with a quality of 4.6). Temperatures of the solids and the gas phase are measured with a sensing device consisting of 4 NiCr/Ni thermocouples with a diameter of 1 mm. The biomass heating rates κ are estimated according to the calculated solids residence times tT, using the model of Saemann (1951).

The variation of the operation parameters of the rotary kiln and the process parameters for this series of experiments are shown in Table 2, for pyrolysis and partial gasification (or activated carbon production). Inclination Φ and rotational speed n were chosen to cover a reasonable range of mean solids residence times tE and volumetric filling degrees FG of the reactor in the heated zone. The evaluation of experiments takes place through determination of the balance for the mass of each element, the total mass, and the energy balance, using the gross calorific value as chemical enthalpy. Solid and liquid products of the steady state process under semi-continuous operation are secured separately from the total samples and they are then weighted with a precision of 0.1 g. The mass of the pyrolysis gas is determined according to the GC-analysis and the volumetric flow gas measurement with a gas meter Ritter, type BG6. The microstructure of the solid products (chars and activated carbons) is then analysed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Oil Palm Shells Pyrolysis

The results of this work are reproducible in an interval of 5 % (as an example see the comparison of experiments 3P and 4P). In Table 3 the results of the proximate and ultimate analyses of the pyrolysis products and the mass and energy balances are presented. The solid phase reaches in the rotary kiln a temperature of 500 °C in the first 10 % of reactor length. During this heating, temperature differences as great as 180 °C were measured in a transversal section (20 mm high) of the solid bed in reactor. These conditions determine the mean heating rates during pyrolysis, which are estimated in Table 2. At process end temperatures, the difference between solids and the gas phase temperatures are less than 5 °C. This zone of constant temperature covers approximately 50 % of the total reactor length.

Figure 3 shows the products distribution for the experiments 1P, 2P and 3P in the rotary kiln in comparison to results of pyrolysis of 2 g samples of oil palm shells in a thermobalance using a heating rate of 3 K/min, particles size of 0.5 mm and solid

bed heights of 6 mm (Gómez et al. 2008a, 2008b, 2009). The smaller yields of solid products (chars) in the rotary kiln are mainly a consequence of the higher heating rates in this reactor. Condensates or biooils yields (dry basis) decrease for higher process temperatures under comparable mean residence times of the gas phase tG in reactor. The gas yields of the process increase correspondingly due to the secondary reactions of volatiles. According to the mean residence time of this phase in reactor (see Table 3) is possible to identify the greater effects of the pyrolysis end temperature onto the degradation of pyrolysis oils and beyond, onto the formation of permanent gases.

The water content of oil palm shells was increased to 11.9 % (experiment TV1) compared to the pyrolysis experiment (3P) at 837 °C (holding all other parameters constant). These conditions caused a delay on biomass heating in reactor due to its drying. The heating rate of the solids increases consequently because it takes place in a shorter axial zone and nearer to the first electrical heating zone in reactor. For this reason a smaller solid product yield was attained and the gas yield was increased as a consequence of the larger primary volatiles formation during pyrolysis. Furthermore, the solids residence time in reactor was increased from 60 min for experiment TV1 to 104 min in experiment TV2 for similar water steam concentrations cH2O in reactor (see Table 1). This results in a larger fraction of solid product (char), although a smaller one would be expected due to the higher solids residence time for this experiment, which could favour the occurrence of heterogeneous reactions. These results indicate the insignificance of heterogeneous gasification reactions under these process conditions and the predominant influence of the heating rate and the process temperature onto the distribution of pyrolysis products. The biomass heating rate was smaller in experiment TV2 due to the higher solids residence time (and so, due to the larger time dispensed for the heating).

Experiment TV3 was carried out with a higher CO2 concentration in reactor, maintaining a similar solids residence time in reactor. The obtained solid fraction was comparable to that of pyrolysis experiments (3P and 4P) even though the solids residence time was approximately 50 % higher in experiment TV3. These results allow diminishing the heterogeneous reactions between CO2 and the solid phase (char) in reactor under these conditions.

In view of the higher gas formation during oil palm pyrolysis in rotary kiln in comparison with the pyrolysis experiments in the thermobalance, it can be stated that this formation takes place primarily due to the homogeneous secondary reactions of the volatiles (gas phase) in reactor. Higher partial pressures of carbon dioxide and water steam do not affect the char formation during pyrolysis. As a result, the increased formation of gas can be basically ascribed to the increased formation of the primary pyrolysis volatiles during the process. Given that heterogeneous and heterogeneous catalysed reactions are constrained due to the large gas room in reactor, yields of pyrolysis oils as high as 4 % of the original organic matter can be found in condensates. The predominant influence on pyrolysis oil degradation is exerted by process temperature, whereupon the comparison with results in the thermobalance shows that already at a temperature of 433 °C secondary degradation occurred in considerable extension. At higher heating rates takes place a larger formation of pyrolysis oils in the rotary kiln than in the thermobalance, even though a fraction 10 % smaller remains at the end of the process.

The balance of the gross calorific values over the experiments allows the

determination of the enthalpy of reaction (as a sum over the complete process). Under processing conditions in the rotary kiln, oil palm shells pyrolysis occurs (in the sum) lightly exothermic. This is valid for the complete domain of the parameters studied in this work. Distribution of the chemical energy (measured as gross calorific value) on the pyrolysis products can be systematically influenced by means of the process temperature. At 433 °C a fraction of only 6.9 % of the gross calorific value is moved to the gas. This fraction increases to 50.4 % at 836 °C (with 12 % of moisture content in oil palm shells). While the energy fraction in the solid product decreases from 51.6 % to 35.8 %, the energy fraction in pyrolysis oil diminishes drastically from 31.6 % to 6.8 % as a consequence of the secondary degradation.

Activated Carbons from Oil Palm Shells

For all experiments of this series, the burn off of the solids wAbb increases as a function of the residence time and the water steam concentration in the rotary kiln reactor (see Table 4). The water steam concentration was the first process parameter to be evaluated in the single step partial gasification (or direct activation). In this way, the burn off and the cumulative pore volume (see Figure 4 (a)) was increased but a development of the internal surface area is still not identifiable (BET-Surface area smaller than 5 m2/g; see Table 4). The residence time of the solids bed in reactor was then increased from 60 min (experiment TV1) to 104 min (experiment TV2) for similar water steam concentrations in reactor, with no appreciable effects on the development of the solids internal surface area. The experiment TV3 was carried out with a higher carbon dioxide concentration (0,45/1) in reactor and a similar solids mean residence time (in comparison to experiment TV2). This comparison shows a very small influence of this activation agent (CO2) on the reaction and development of the internal surface area of these chars. In Figure 4 (a) are shown the meso and macropores volume curves and the distribution of the pore radius of the solids of these experiments. Water steam concentration in reactor was then successively increased (0,58; 0,73 and 0,85, for experiments TV4, TV5 and TV6, respectively). The solids of these experiments show a similar development of the meso and macroporosity (see Figure 4 (b)), higher cumulative volume and the clear appearance of two peaks in the pores radius distribution in the range of macroporosity (between radius of 200 and 2000 nm) in comparison to the previous experiments. In view of the remarkable effects of the solids heating rate on the formation of the meso and macropores (see Figure 4 (a)), the smaller measured values of the solids produced in experiment TV4 are assumed to be caused by differences in the heating rate and not by differences in the water steam concentration (Figure 4 (b)). For all these solids, the continuous development of the BET-Surface area is determined by the burn off of the particles. Activated carbons produced in experiments TV7 and TV8 (at 740 and 790 °C, respectively) indicate a similar development of the solids microstructure as those obtained at higher temperatures (Figure 4 (c)). Also in this case, differences in the

pore volume distribution and the cumulative volume are explained through differences in the heating rates during pyrolysis. In Figure 5 (a) are shown the results of the characterisation of two samples with different burn offs during the same experiment (TV6). This comparison suggests the preservation during the partial gasification of the solids structure in the domain of the meso and macropores. The sample with the highest burn off presents an increase in the slope in the range of the narrow mesoporosity, which can be explained through the formation of the microporosity as a function of the burn off. The increased burn off of the activated carbon TV9 is basically due to the higher residence time of the solids bed in reactor for this experiment, which was carried out with a constant solids bed height using a retention ring at the end of the reactor. This experiment also allows detecting the effects of the improved contact conditions between the solid and the reaction agent in reactor, due to the increase in the rotation speed to 1.5 min-1 and the filling grade of reactor to 16.9 %. This activated carbon has the highest internal surface area of this experimental series (923 m2/g). The results from the mercury intrusion on a sample of experiment TV6 are compared with those of the experiment TV9 (made with the use of a retention ring) for similar process conditions and burn off of the activated carbons (Figure 5 (b)). The structure of the meso and macroporosity has essentially been retained unchanged. In Figure 5 (c) are compared the results of one sample of activated carbon made in two heating steps (separated) in the same rotary kiln (experiment 1PA, pyrolysis at 433 °C and partial gasification at 832 °C), another sample produced through the single heating process at 854 °C, with a heating rate of 5 K/min (experiment TGATV2) in the thermogravimetric facility and one sample from direct activation (single heating process) in the rotary kiln (TV6, at 829 °C). It is shown, that despite of the different process conditions in these two reactors, it is possible to obtain similar structures in the activated carbons (comparison of samples TGATV2 and 1PA). Decisive for this is much more the concurrence from the heating rate and the end temperature during pyrolysis in both reactors than the realisation of the process (pyrolysis and partial gasification) in only one or in two separate heating steps. A comparison between the activated carbon TV6 and a commercial sample of activated carbon from olive stones is presented in Figure 6. This activated carbon was produced in a process consisting of three heating steps (drying at 120 °C, pyrolysis at 450 °C and activation with water steam at 900 °C). Pyrolysis and water steam activation took place in directly hated rotary kilns. The similar structures of the meso and macroporosity (see Figure 6) and the internal surface area of these two activated carbons indicate the possibility of producing activated carbons from oil palm shells through a single heating process, including pyrolysis and partial gasification of the chars. In Figure 7 the results of the BET-Surface areas analyses of the produced activated carbons in the rotary kiln are shown as a function of the burn off of the samples. As it was already determined in an experimental series in a thermogavimetric facility, in this case, it is also detected a nearly linear tendency, which confirms the dominant effect of the burn off on the development of the microporosity under all process

conditions. In Figure 8 some of the N2-Sorption isotherms at 77 K are compared; the form of these isotherms remains for all process conditions tested in this study.

CONCLUSION

The rotary kiln is a suitable technique for the energy recovery of oil palm shells. The selection of the operation and process parameters allow the adjustment of the products spectrum in a way that the internal utilization of one of these products affords the heating for the process. As expected, the temperature is identified as the most important process parameter. Additionally, the heating rate influences in a measurable way the formation of the solid products in the range considered in this work (from 3 K/min to 110 K/min).

Heterogeneous gasification reactions of chars and the heterogeneous and heterogeneous catalysed reactions of pyrolysis oil vapours occur only in a limited extension, so that always at least 4 % of the organic matter of the oil palm shells remains at the end of the process as pyrolysis oils. The partial gasification with carbon dioxide has in the temperature range until 837 °C so a small influence, that in view of the reproducibility of 5 % of the relative deviation of the results of this work, these effects on the process are immensurable. Pyrolysis in rotary kilns is basically a process with three products which must be used afterwards. In case of the total or partial internal utilization of the gas, the condensate together with the solid products can be transported as slurry in big units for the production of synthesis gas. Activated carbons can alternatively be produced from the char.

This study also shows that despite of the different process conditions in

different reactors, it is possible to produce activated carbons with similar microstructures. The decisive factor is the concurrence of the heating rate and the pyrolysis end temperature more than the realisation of the process in one or in two heating steps. Higher pores volume distributions are measured in the domain of the macro and mesoporosity for higher heating rates and end temperatures. Microporosity and the specific internal surface area are developed very similar under all process conditions and they are almost proportional to the burn off in the range studied. The experiments to study the pore radius distribution of the activated carbons produced in the rotary kiln show that these distributions along the solids bed in reactor (it is to say, for different burn offs in the same experiment), for different water steam concentrations in reactor and for different gasification temperatures remain essentially unchanged. Transport phenomena inside the particles remain relatively negligent in view of this development of the microstructure. Heating rates in the order of 100 K/min are attainable during the activated carbon production from oil palm shells through a single heating process in an indirectly heated rotary kiln. It means that the heating of the solids in the temperature range, in which the heterogeneous reactions play a role (> 500 °C until the end temperature of the process), takes place in a short time and the development of the porosity during this heating in an atmosphere of water steam can be neglected. These results show that it is feasible the production of activated carbons from oil palm shells through a single heating process in an indirectly heated rotary kiln and to make it with quality characteristics similar to those of commercial activated carbons produced from biomass in multiple heating steps processes. The main advantage of this process consists of the use of a single reactor.

In general can be deduce from these results, that the one and the two heating steps processes for the production of activated carbons have a very similar dependence on the process conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work was financially supported by the Administrative Department of Science Technology and Innovation – Colciencias of Colombia and the Research Direction – DIB (Research Projects No.DIB-7749 and DIB-9159) of the National University of Colombia, Bogotá – Colombia.

REFERENCES

BANSAL, R P; DONNET, J B; STOECKLI, F (1988). Active Carbon, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York. p.23-125. GÓMEZ, A; KLOSE, W and RINCÓN, S (2008a). Thermogravimetrische Untersuchungen zur Pyrolyse von Ölpalmschalen. Chem. Ing. Tech., 80(12): 1815-1824. GÓMEZ, A; KLOSE, W and RINCÓN, S (2008b). Pirólisis de biomasa: Cuesco de palma. Kassel University Press. p. 1-133. GÓMEZ, A; KLOSE, W and RINCÓN, S (2009). Oil palm shells upgrading to carbonaceous products using the rotary kiln technique. Proc. of the Carbon 2009, The Annual World Conference on Carbon. Biarritz, France, 2009. p. 469/1-7. HESCHEL, W and KLOSE, E (1995). On the suitability of agricultural by-products for the manufacture of granular activated carbon. Fuel 74(12): 1786-1791. RODRÍGUEZ-REINOSO, F (1997). Activated Carbon: Structure, characterization, preparation and applications. Introduction to Carbon Technologies (Harry Marsh, Heintz, E A and Rodríguez-Reinoso, F eds.), Universidad de Alicante, Alicante. p. 35-101. SAEMAN, W C (1951). Passage of Solids Through Rotary Kilns: Factor Affecting Time of Passage. Chem. Eng. Prog., 47: 508-514. WIEST, W (1998). Zur Pyrolyse von Biomasse im Drehrohrreaktor. Ph.D. thesis. University of Kassel, Germany.

Figures

Figure 1. Schema of the rotary kiln facility (dimensions in mm).

Table

(All tables must be cited in the text consecutively and numbered in Arabic numerals.

References in the text to tables must be in italics in print, e.g. Table 1 showed…

The word ‘TABLE’ and the remainder of the table heading should be in Capital and

bold without full stop. The table heading can carry a sub- heading in bracket in lower

case bold.)

Figure 2. Flow sheet of the rotary kiln set-up with an evolved gas analysis system.

Figure 3. (a) Solid product fractions in rotary kiln (RK), in comparison to solid mass variation and gases and condensate formation (calculated as difference) during oil

palm shells pyrolysis in the thermobalance (TGA). Process conditions in the thermobalance are: heating rate, 3 K/min; particle size, smaller than 0.5 mm; solid

bed height, 6 mm. (b) Formation of gases (in mass fractions).

Figure 4. Variation of the process parameter for the one step gasification of oil palm shells: (a) Variation of residence time at constant water steam concentration and variation of CO2 concentration to 0.45 for a water steam concentration of 0.2; (b)

variation of the water steam concentration in reaction atmosphere for constant temperatures and solid yields of 0.2 and (c) variation of temperature for constant

water steam concentrations and solid yields of 0.2.

Figure 5. Comparison of meso and macropores development for: (a) variation of the burn off (Abbrand) for samples of the same experiment; (b) variation of the filling

grades for all other similar process conditions and (c) variation of the heating conditions in the thermogravimetric facility and the rotary kiln reactor.

Figure 6. Comparison of the cumulative meso and macropores volume and comparison of the pore radius distribution between an activated carbon TV6 and a

commercial activated carbon from olive stones (with 85 % burn off, according to the producer).

.

Figure 7. Development of the BET-Surface area as a function of the burn off for samples produced in the steady state of the process in the rotary kiln. The samples

from experiments 1PA, 2PA und 3PA were produced in a two steps heating process in the rotary kiln and the samples produced in the thermogravimetric facility were

activated trough the one step heating process.

Figure 8. N2-Sorption isotherms at 77 K for different samples:(a) Activated carbon from the two steps heating process in rotary kiln (pyrolysis at 433 and activation at

832 °C, cH2O=0,84; experiment 1PA); (b) activated carbon from the single step heating process at 829 °C, cH2O=0,85; (c) activated carbon from the one heating step

in the thermobalance at aus 851 °C, cH2O=0,30; (d) commercial activated carbon from olive stones produced through a two stps heating process(pyrolysis at 450 °C, activation at 900 °C and cH2O= aprox.. 0,86/1, both of them in directly heate rotary

kilns).

TABLES

TABLE 1. EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS FOR OIL PALM SHELLS

PYROLYSIS AND PARTIAL GASIFICATION IN INDIRECTLY HEATED ROTARY KILN

φ n mraw w FG tT 2NV cH2O T κ

Experiment / 1 1/min /kg/h /% / 1 / min /l/min / 1 /°C /K/min

1P 2.6 1.20 3.06 5.4 0.09 40.2 2.05 0.43 433 70- 80 2P 2.6 1.49 1.01 5.2 0.07 33.9 2.05 0.35 661 70- 80 3P 2.6 0.70 1.71 5.2 0.10 69.5 2.05 0.30 837 70- 80 4P 2.6 0.70 1.71 5.3 0.10 69.3 2.05 0.32 832 70- 80 TV1 2.6 0.71 1.53 11.9 0.09 68.7 1.01 0.33 836 75-110 TV2 1.1 0.83 0.63 11.8 0.06 109.6 1.02 0.32 837 65- 75 TV3 1.1 0.85 1.31 11.8 0.12 102.5 1.11 0.20 836 65- 75 TV4 1.1 0.85 1.09 11.0 0.11 103.5 1.15 0.58 844 65 - 95 TV5 1.1 0.84 0.94 11.1 0.10 104.5 1.17 0.73 839 65-110 TV6 0.6 1.07 0.93 11.9 0.12 115.8 1.11 0.85 829 90-135 TV7 0.6 0.70 0.95 11.7 0.12 172.3 1.10 0.86 740 65-115 TV8 0.6 1.05 0.90 11.0 0.11 118,1 1.10 0.87 795 65-135 TV9 0.6 1.49 0.85 11.0 0.17 152.7 1.10 0.86 823 90-135

TABLE 2. FUEL CHARACTERIZATION OF OIL PALM SHELLS AND OTHER BIOMASS TYPES (for comparison)

Ultimate analysis / %

Proximate analysis / %

Gross calorific value / MJ/kg

cdaf hdaf ndaf odaf w Fdaf adf Ho,df Oil palm shells 52,8 5,7 0,1 41,3 11,2 79 1,4 22,2 Oil palm fibres 48,7 6,3 0,6 44,4 5,2 79 5,2 18,4 Beech wood 48,9 5,5 0,2 45,4 5,5 90 0,4 18,3

TABLE 3. FUEL CHARACTERIZATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF MASS AND CHEMICAL ENERGY ONTO THE OIL PALM SHELLS PYROLYSIS

PRODUCTS (char or solids; pyrolysis oils and gases)

Experiment 1P 2P 3P 4P TV1 TV2 TV3 Temperature / °C 433 661 837 832 836 837 836 Residence time tE / min 34,7 30,5 60,0 62,5 62,0 104,0 98,0 Residence time tG / s 5,5 8,5 4,8 4,9 5,3 12,0 4,5 Char (solids) Adf / % 3,0 5,5 7,9 7,0 6,4 6,7 5,1 Fdaf / % 25,5 6,1 3,4 4,1 2,3 2,4 1,7 cdaf / 1 0,803 0,933 0,987 0,976 0,986 0,986 0,975 hdaf / 1 0,035 0,020 0,009 0,009 0,008 0,007 0,007 ndaf / 1 0,003 0,005 0,002 0,006 0,006 0,007 0,007 odaf / 1 0,159 0,042 0,002 0,009 0,000 0,000 0,011 Pyrolysis oil / 1 cdf 0,696 0,626 0,701 0,698 0,889 0,859 0,888 hdf 0,079 0,077 0,044 0,067 0,056 0,053 0,057 ndf 0,004 0,005 0,009 0,008 0,006 0,004 0,006 odf 0,221 0,292 0,246 0,227 0,049 0,084 0,049 Mass distribution mi,daf / mbm,daf / 1 Char (solids) 0,365 0,272 0,240 0,250 0,226 0,235 0,243 Pyrolysis oil 0,211 0,132 0,049 0,047 0,040 0,043 0,036 Water 0,197 0,172 0,155 0,165 0,132 0,147 0,133 Pyrolysis gas 0,227 0,424 0,556 0,538 0,601 0,575 0,588 Balance error / 1 -0,023 -0,005 -0,053 -0,037 0,016 -0,052 -0,046 Distribution of chemical energy Echem,i / Echem,0 / 1 Char (solids) 0,516 0,426 0,407 0,421 0,358 0,379 0,375 Pyrolysis oil 0,316 0,167 0,064 0,079 0,068 0,069 0,060 Pyrolysis gas 0,069 0,295 0,482 0,446 0,504 0,461 0,483 Enthalpy of reaction ∆rH (related to Echem,0)

-0,046 -0,030 -0,068 -0,063 -0,019 -0,067 -0,045

TABLE 4. SOLID YIELDS (1 - BURN OFF) AND STRUCTURE CHARACTERIZATION

Solid yields / 1

Density/ kg/m3

Pores volume/ mm3/g

Porosity

/ 1 Surface area1

/ m2/g Samples βwaf ρb ρs ρw VMa VMe VMi ε AHg

ABET

Oil palm shells 1.00 773 1208 1381 48 51 < 1 0,13 24 < 1 TV1 0.226 514 821 1864 375 155 7,4 0,56 78 0 TV2 0.235 593 1021 n.g. 218 83 0,6 0,315 40 < 2 TV3 0.243 536 992 1716 255 118 2,6 0,42 59 < 5 TV4 0.203 477 864 1999 368 164 216 0,57 76 498 TV5 0.182 419 731 2000 541 192 258 0,65 88 653 TV6 0.190 394 679 2007 531 222 310 0,68 99 783 TV7 0.239 426 765 1936 428 145 205 0,61 68 451 TV8 0.203 413 728 1998 477 161 238 0,65 76 605 TV9 0.165 332 613 2007 691 216 368 0,69 96 923 1 Surface area AHg determined through the measurements of macro and mesoporosity with mercury intrusion.

C15

Technology for Bioethanol: Rusian Technology

a Novel Mechano-enzymatic Approach to Bioethanol Production from Empty Fruit Bunch Materials

Anatoly Politov, Olga Golyazimova, Oleg Lomovsky

ABSTRACT

Today the development of new technologies for bioehanol production from nonedible raw material is a very timely event. Empty fruit bunches (EFB) are just the nonedible materials with relatively high content of cellulose and hemicelluloses. On the other hand EFB is the type of residue, big quantities of which may present serious ecological problems. To solve the problem we propose a new mechanochemical technology for EFB utilization into bioethanol, also with emergence of some useful ecological by-products. It is well known that chemical conversion of cellulose to soluble carbohydrates is a heterogeneous process, it and takes place on solid-liquid boundaries. As a solid-liquid reaction it is controlled of diffusion stages that balks reaction of cellulose hydrolysis. To overcome these difficulties, we use two novel ways. Firstly, a new so called “smart grinding” method was applied for EFB dispersion. The results of ordinary grinding and “smart grinding” are shown on Fig.1. It should be noted that the smart grinding was carried out on the same mill and at the same parameters of milling that those in ordinary, or “vulgar” grinding.

80-125 200-300 400-500 >10000

10

20

30

40

mas

s fra

ctio

n, %

particle size, mkm

a

<80 80-125 125-200 200-300 300-400 >4000

102030405060708090

100

mas

s fra

ctio

n, %

particle size, mkm

b

Figure 1. Different methods of EFB grinding: a – “vulgar” grinding, b – “smart” grinding Small particles of EFB provide a high initial rate of solid chemical reaction of hydrolysis, and the value of conversion here reaches near 40 – 50 %. Second approach is to combine enzymatic reaction of cellulose into soluble saccharides with the mechanical treatment of the substrate. We called this approach as mechano-enzymatic method. Mechanical treatment of suspension during enzymatic reactions refreshes the substrate surface, and thus we avoid diffusion difficulties. According to this approach we achieve 70 – 90 % of cellulose conversion of EFB raw materials and also obtain a few very valuable byproducts.

REFERENCES

hanical activation of

) Intensification of raw material grinding with chemical treatment, Raw material chemistry, 2, 53-57.

GOLYAZIMOVA O. V., POLITOV A. A., LOMOVSKY O. I. (2009) Mecenzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulose, Raw material chemistry, 2, 59-63. GOLYAZIMOVA O. V., POLITOV A. A., LOMOVSKY O. I. (2009

C16

Waste to Wealth – Biomass to Fuel

Sivapalan Kathiravale1, Mohd Abd Wahab Yusof1, Christian Koch2 and Muhamad Arif Vicknesewaran2

ABSTRACT

We currently live in a world where depletion of resources is beyond control. The call for

sustainable development both environmentally and economically is spelt out loud and

clear. Hence, the current and future generations must ensure that all resources shall be

preserved, fully utilized and well managed. Waste is an integral part of development and

resources consumption. In Malaysia, Palm Oil is resources which have been the front

runner in agricultural field that has contributed a lot towards Malaysia’s vast

development. However, the crop creates an abundance of biomass waste while providing

its golden oil. This biomass at the same time has tremendous potential if managed

properly. Hence, the idea of recovering all ‘wealth’ both in terms of energy or fuel in the

waste is essential. This paper will look into the technological advancement that are

currently knocking on the doors of Malaysia. Among the technologies that are currently

breaking into the world and Malaysian market is the Catalytic De-Polymerization

Technology which converts biomass waste to diesel and originates form Germany. The

process converts biomass into diesel at temperatures about 350o c using a catalyst in an

oxygen free environment. The technology is capable of producing 500 liters / hr of diesel

from 100 tons EFB/day. The diesel grade is equivalent to the grade of diesel available at

the pump stations around Malaysia as samples sent to Germany for testing have

conformed to these standards. Hence, it is seen that this technology could change the

management of biomass in Malaysia,. However, the need to obtain more details with

regards to this technology is essential, while efforts are currently underway to construct

a pilot plant in Malaysia.

Keywords: Biomass, Empty Fruit Bunch, Waste to Wealth

1 Waste Technology Development Centre (WasTeC), Malaysian Nuclear Agency, Bangi, 43000, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Tel : 603-89250510 Fax : 03-22879061 2 Shajeran Alphakat Sdn.Bhd., Unit 8-12-5, Menara Mutiara Bangsar, Jalan Liku, Off Jalan Bangsar, 59100 Kuala Lumpur. e-mail: [email protected] Tel: 03-22879060.



Welcome to

“WOW !”Dr. Jyothi Hadli

Vice President‐CDM Projects.

Knowledge Integration ServicesIndia‐Malaysia‐Singapore.

1

C17

KNOWLEDGE INTEGRATION SERVICES.

Weprovide Innovative cost savings technologies ,

We assist in creating Innovative and intelligent solutionstailor made for different process/plants for tremendousmonetary benefits.

KIS serves as In house “Knowledge /Technology center” forall our clients at no fixed/ over head cost.

Innovative Solutions for productivityimprovement/Improve efficiencies & to reduce energyconsumption

WE CREATE WAYS TO SAVE COST & ENVIRONMENT.2

BIO‐METHANATION OF POME(Palm Oil MillEffluent) FOR PRODUCING BIOGAS AND POWER.

BIO‐COMPOSTING OF TREATED “POME” FORCONVERTING IT INTO BIO‐FERTILISER.

ONE‐STOP SOLUTION FOR WATER & WASTEWATER RELATED SOLUTIONS

RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS: We offer various types of renewable energy projects. With CDM as a package.

3

WE CREATE WAYS TO SAVE COST & ENVIRONMENT.

Requirements and concerns of Palm oilRefining Industries.Remain competitive/Remain Leader.Reduce manufacturing cost.Big concern on rising energy bill,Fuel/electricity.Waste disposal with Increasing strict conditionsby the Government.

WE OFFER COMPLETE SOLUTIONS TOOVERCOME ALL ABOVE CONCERNS .

4


Current disposal issues of WSBE

WSBE (Waste Spent Bleaching Earth) is the wastegenerated in palm oil refining process. Though WSBEcontains 20 to 26% of oil content it is currently landfilled, henceWASTED

The volume of WSBE generated in Palm oil refining isvery huge.

5

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD OF “WSBE”

6

WSBE DISPOSED IN RESIDENTIALOPEN SPACE

7

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD OF WSBE

WASTE SBE DISPOSED IN OPEN AREA“NO VEGATATION TAKES PLACE”

Environmental side effects :The place where SBE is land filled no vegetation takes place.

Bad smell around the area of landfill.

Methane generation over a period of time.

Emission due to fossil fuel (diesel) consumed for transportation of WSBE for landfill.

8

UNLOCK VALUE OF

WASTE SPENT BLEACHING EARTH,

AT YOUR PLAM OIL REFINERY, TO REDUCE OVERALL COST & INCREASE PROFITS WITH

ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS.

TECHNOLOGY CONCEIVED & EXECUTED BY:KNOWLEDGE INTEGRATION SERVICES (INDIA) P LTD


Permanent solution on Solid waste management.

Convert WASTE to ENERGY to GENERATE ADDITIONALINCOME

Reduce dependence on external fuel affecting profitability(Increasing fuel cost).

STRIVE TO ACHIEVE THE STATUS AS “ZERO SOLIDWASTE COMPANY”. ENHANCED CORPORATE GREENIMAGE.

SOLUTION: “WOW” (Wealth Out ofWaste) with “KIS”.


Many Needs & One Solution for Oil Refineries.

Technology

11

FEW FACTS ABOUT “WOW” PROJECT“WASTE SPENT BLEACHING EARTH” HAS AROUND 20 TO 25%OIL CONTENT.

EVERY 3 TO 4 KG OF WASTE “SBE” IS EQUAL TO ONE KG OFFUEL OIL/ 1 NM3 OF NATURAL GAS.

ASH CONTENT IN SBE IS 60 TO 62%. THE ASH ISUSEFUL/SALEABLE PRODUCT.

THIS “WASTE TO ENERGY” QUALIFIES AS CDM PROJECT (FirstProject already registered)

MOST PROFITABLE “GREEN” OPTION OF USING SBE.

K I S- KREATORS OF INNOVATIVE & INTELLIGENT SOLUTIONS

Analysis of WSBE.

13

ProximateAnalysisMoisture 0.95Volatile 35.15Fixed Carbon

2.22

Ash 61.68

Ultimate analysis

Carbon 21.6

Hydrogen 3.84

Nitrogen ≥ 0.1

Sulpher 0.43

Oxygen 11.86

Ash 62.17

Combustion Technology…..The WSBE will be burnt in a “UNIQUELY

DESIGNED” FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION(FBC) with In Bed Tubes.The fluidizing air is supplied from an FD fan throughair pre‐heater to the wind box below FBC furnace.From there hot air is fed to FBC furnace through airnozzles.Fuel feeding is by very special arrangement. Asecondary air is provided for the fuel feeding throughsecondary FD fan.

Video of FBC 14

“WOW” CARES FOR ENVIRONMENT

Parameters WOW project by KIS Maximum

Malaysian clean air actMaximum

Dust concentration (g/Nm3) 0.150 0.4

Sulphuric Acid mist, H2SO4 as SO3 equivalent

0.0001 0.2

Oxides of sulphur, Sox(g/Nm3)

.0746 NA

Oxides of nitrogen , NOx as SO3 equivalent:

<0.0001 2.0

MEETS/ EXCEEDS STACK EMISSION REQUIREMENT.

FOUNDATION FOR “WOW” PROJECT

18

ERECTION..PROGRESS FOR “WOW”

19

COMPLETED ERECTION FOR “WOW”

“WOW” ….In Operation…generating wealth

20

Benefits of “WOW”Elimination of Solid waste disposal for Palm oilrefineries. (WIPEOUTWASTE).

Contribute to keep the environment clean fromhazards of Spent Bleaching Earth.

Generate revenue from Waste (Steam or Power orBoth and also saleable Ash.)

Generate CER from the project and contribute toGlobal warming reduction.

21

“WOW” turns WASTE in to 2 USEFUL PRODUCTS

22

WSBE• Waste Spent Bleaching Earth• Environment Negative.

“WOW” PROJECT

• Energy (Steam and/or Power.)

USEFUL PRODUCTS

• ASH which is saleable/usable product. • ASH is Environment positive .

RETURN ON INVESTMENTS

Simple ROI is 12 to 14 months if, MFO iscurrently used fuel.

Simple ROI is 16 to 18 months, if Natural Gasis currently used

Investment starts from USD 0.9Million for smallest project suitable for1000 MT/day Palm oil Refinery.

CASE STUDY OF “WOW” :GREEN GREEN GRASS SDN BHD.

24

SUMMARY OF WASTE TO ENERGY DONE AT SABAH. “WOW” PROJECT DETAILS:

1. Capacity : 20 TONS/HR OF STEAM @ 17.5 Kg/Hr Pressure.

2.FUEL : ONLY100% WSBE.

3. MEETS: 100% steam requirement of Palm oil Refinery.

4. Annual Certified Emission Reduction(CER) Approx:30,000 CER/year.


UNLOCK VALUE OF WASTE:

FIRST STEP: CONFIDENTIAL AND NONDISCLOSURE(NDA) AGGREMENT BEFORE WESHARE OUR TECHNOLOGYDETAILS/KNOWLEDGE.Contact details of KIS:Email: malaysia@knowledge‐integration.org

singapore@knowledge‐integration.orgURL: www.knowledge‐integration.org



THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR THE TIMEAND OPPORTUNITY TO MEET YOU ALL.

We Hope to begin Journey towards cost savings for your Organization.

PLEASE VISIT BOOTH NO 126.

27

LP6

EU Legislations and the Implication on RSPO

Mamat Salleh

Malaysian Palm Oil Association (MPOA) 12h Floor, Bangunan Getah Asli (Menara), 148, Jalan Ampang

50450 Kuala Lumpur.

Abstract

The concern on sustainability of palm oil is being taken up by two main sectors, namely,

the producers and consumers in the private sector under the RSPO and by the EU

legislation. The RSPO has formulated the Principles and Criteria to define sustainability of

palm oil based on 3Ps (Profit, People and Planet); set up the certification system and has

already commenced production and supply of certified sustainable palm oil in the market.

On the other hand, the EU regulations are legislated based on the need for carbon emission

reduction targets and the sustainability of the biofuels or its feedstock in EU. This

legislation is intended primarily for the domestic production and markets in EU and not

specifically for imports. With respects to imports, it has to be certified by EU accredited

national or international schemes.

This paper will examine the main components of the sustainability criteria of EU

regulations and RSPO respectively with specific reference to palm oil certifications. It will

assess the policy impact and gauge the operational implications of the EU regulations on

the nature of RSPO certification which is also being currently reviewed for incorporation

of Greenhouse Gas and Land Use Change. This will be examined in the light of the

potential demand for imported feedstock or biofuel by the EU as compared to their

available domestic supply. However, the possible further extension of the GHG criteria to

food and industrial uses is expected to pose wider implications and challenges to the palm

oil industry.

The issues of sustainability and GHG emission which are being taken up by the RSPO and

EU regulations are also being considered by proposed legislations in the US and the

Conference of Parties (COP) 15 of the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in

Copenhagen in December 2009; and the latter may provide guidelines in managing these

issues in relation to climate change. These issues are also being championed aggressively

by the international NGOs. The consequences of all these initiative and actions with

respect to sustainability, particularly on GHG and LUC, will inevitably have a profound

impact on the market access and future expansion the palm oil industry.

Corresponding author:

[email protected]

Univanich paper for presentation by John Clendon at PIPOC International Palm Oil Conference,

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 9th – 12th November 2009

A Review of Three CDM Biogas Projects Based on Palm Oil Mill Effluent in Southern Thailand

Tantitham S.1, Khlaisombat P.1, Clendon J.H.1

Campbell-Board M.2 and McIntosh B.3

Keywords : Elaeis guineensis, palm oil mill effluent, greenhouse gases, methane capture, certified emission reductions, renewable energy, RSPO

ABSTRACT

Three projects to capture and utilise the methane emissions from palm oil mill effluent (POME) have been constructed by Univanich Palm Oil PCL in response to incentives provided by the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and from Thailand Government policy to encourage development of new sources of renewable energy. Annual processing of fresh fruit bunches at the three project sites averages 850,000 mt FFB, with a combined POME discharge of approximately 500,000 mt. The methane biogas captured from this digested POME now generates 4.7 megawatts of electricity, for internal use and for sale to Thailand’s national power grid. The annual reduction of greenhouse gases, through the capture of methane and the generation of renewable electricity, is estimated under the CDM protocol to be approximately 90,000 Certified Emission Reductions (CERs), although final verification of total CERs is still in progress. A comparison of various digester technologies led the company to select modified covered lagoons for the treatment of POME and storage of biogas. The factors influencing this selection of technology are discussed in the paper. Direct capital investment in the three projects was US$ 6.67 million. The paper gives a breakdown of this expenditure and comments on practical experience gained during construction and commissioning. The first two projects were completed in early 2008 and the third was commissioned in 2009. Since the volume of methane captured in the digesters has exceeded expectations the company plans an expansion of electricity generating capacity by an additional 1.0 megawatt, to total 5.7 megawatts by December 2009.

1- Univanich Palm Oil Public Co., Ltd., P.O. Box 8-9, Aoluk, Krabi 81110, Thailand ([email protected]) 2- KPSR Construction Ltd, 172/17 Moo 15 Mittapharb, Khon Kaen 40000, Thailand ([email protected]) 3- Carbon Bridge Pte Ltd, 15 Hoe Chiang Road, Singapore 089316, ([email protected])

INTRODUCTION The first commercial planting of oil palms in Thailand took place in 1969 and by 2008 the planted area had expanded to 580,000 hectares. In recent years the rate of increase has exceeded 12% per annum and in some southern provinces oil palms now challenge rubber as the main commercial crop. Traditionally, the main growing areas for oil palms have been in the south of the country, within 10 degrees latitude from the equator. Following the development of more drought tolerant planting material and research into improved methods of oil palm irrigation, the planted area has been spreading north into the provinces east of Bangkok at up to 15 degrees latitude. A feature of oil palm cultivation in Thailand is that it is a predominantly small-holder industry with 72% of the planted area operated by farmers owning less than 50 rai (8 hectares). Expansion of the planted area is occurring as these small-holders convert their land from rubber, rice or other crops. There is almost no expansion into forest areas and no new development of large scale commercial plantations, with the largest plantation company occupying only 7,000 hectares. Although environmental protection regulations are well enforced in Thailand, there is little restriction on the issuing of new licences for crushing mills. As a result, there are 58 crushing mills in operation, varying in capacity from very small loose-fruit mills to conventional plants of up to 90 mt FFB/hour. Many crushing mills do not have their own oil palm plantations and rely on small outgrowers for their supply of fresh fruit bunches (FFB). This has led to intense competition between crushing mills, to the advantage of the small-holders, and it has been a factor in the rapid expansion of plantings into new regions. In 2008, Thailand produced 1,544,000 tonnes of crude palm oil (CPO) of which approximately 50% was consumed domestically. A further 25% was converted to biodiesel for domestic fuel blends and the balance of 285,000 tonnes was exported to Asia and to Europe. In the process of extracting this CPO, Thailand’s crushing mills discharged more than five million m3 of waste water which is high in organic content and commonly referred to as palm oil mill effluent (POME)

BACKGROUND TO POME BIOGAS Three palm oil crushing mills operated by Univanich Palm Oil PCL, in Krabi Province, have traditionally treated their waste water in the same way as most other palm oil mills around the world – that is in deep anaerobic digestion ponds with a retention time of several months, followed by irrigation of the treated water in the oil palm estates. The advantage of this system is that it is relatively cheap, effective and relatively simple to operate. An obvious disadvantage for those living near the mills is the strong odour from the anaerobic treatment ponds. A less obvious disadvantage is that the anaerobic ponds are emitting vast amounts of invisible methane gas, a potent greenhouse gas reported to be at least 21 times more environmentally damaging than carbon dioxide.

2

The idea of capturing and utilizing methane from POME is not new. During the 1980’s Quah S.K. et al reported on a successful stirred tank POME biogas system at the Chan Wing factory in Johore, Malaysia. It was later reported that although the biogas system at Chan Wing had worked well, the project was eventually discontinued due to high maintenance costs which made the system difficult and uneconomic to operate. Although no details of these costs were provided we were told that the acidity of the raw POME resulted in high levels of corrosion in the steel tank digester and that the high concentration of hydrogen sulphide in POME biogas shortened the life of the gas engine generators. Also in the 1980s, Chua N.S. et al reported on a similar project at the Keck Seng factory in Johore which is said to be still in operation. Since the 1980s, similar stirred tank treatment of POME has been reported from other trials in Malaysia and in Thailand. All reported success in capturing large volumes of methane but few were commercially attractive. The principal problems were the high capital investment required for large steel or concrete tanks and gas engine generators, and the apparent difficulty of managing and maintaining the system in the longer term. These factors combined to produce a low return on investment especially if there was no high value demand for either the methane or for the electricity. Such demand for additional energy is rare around palm oil mills which generally have an abundance of heat and electricity from their large biomass steam boilers.

In Univanich, our initial conclusion was that capturing methane biogas from POME was certainly feasible but that it was not an attractive investment proposition.

NEW INCENTIVES In 2006, Univanich looked again into POME biogas in the light of new incentives which combined to make the concept more economically viable. The three new incentives were : 1) CDM

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Univanich calculated that if we could find the right capture technology and the right CDM methodology, we should be able to generate at least 100 Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) for each 1,000 tonnes of FFB processed. However, the sale price of CERs appeared to be quite volatile, and the methodology for calculating CERs seemed uncertain. So this incentive in itself was insufficient to attract the capital investment required for a methane capture project.

2) VSPP

The Very Small Power Producer Scheme (VSPP) introduced by Thailand’s Ministry of Energy in 2002 offered a new energy use for the captured methane. This innovative and far sighted scheme made it possible for small developers of renewable energy to sell electricity to the national grid, which is operated by the Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA). Initially, this scheme was slow to take off since it was at first restricted to a maximum of one megawat from each small producer. But in 2006 this limit was raised to 10 megawatts, thus providing some economies of scale, and in 2007 a price-adder incentive was offered by the PEA to a finite number of early adopters.

Univanich calculated that if we could construct a power plant to the high standard required by the PEA grid, and if we could qualify for the VSPP price-adder incentive, we could expect to sell electricity at an average price of around Baht 2.8 per kWh. (approx USD 0.08/kWh) Combined with the CDM incentive this started to make methane capture seem a more viable investment.

3

3) RSPO

The third incentive for Univanich was our decision to seek certification as a sustainable palm oil producer under the Round Table on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO). Sustainability has become an important issue for many of our overseas and domestic customers. Environmental protection and climate change is also an important concern for Univanich shareholders who supported management’s proposals to address this issue of greenhouse gas emissions.

With the incentives of CDM and VSPP, coupled with the encouragement from customers and shareholders, it became clear that the time was right to look again into the issue of methane capture. We set out to design and construct projects which would meet the following three objectives :

To capture the methane biogas emitted from factory waste water, and to prevent release of this potent greenhouse gas

To create Certified Emission Reductions under the CDM protocol

To generate electricity from this renewable resource for sale to the national grid under

Thailand’s VSPP Scheme

CHOICE OF TECHNOLOGIES As a first step, Univanich reviewed the options available for digester technology as follows : 1) CSTR (Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors)

This was the steel tank technology already known to us and described in the Chan Wing project in the 1980s. It had also been demonstrated in Thailand by researchers from Chulalongkorn and Prince of Songkhla Universities at Asian Palm Oil Co., Ltd in 2001. An obvious advantage of the CSTR technology was that it had already been demonstrated to successfully process POME in either thermophylic or mesophylic condition. It requires a small area for the construction of a steel tank and is therefore quite suitable where the available land area was restricted. After studying this technology Univanich decided not to adopt CSTR for the following reasons : It was relatively expensive to construct and we were uncertain about the economic return

Corrosion risks with steel tanks increased our concern about maintenance and safety risks

We were nervous about reports of rusted tank covers and leaking gas at some CSTR sites

Short POME retention time raised a risk of performance problems if management of the sensitive digester was not perfect

Little or no gas storage. This can be a disadvantage at a palm oil mill where there are

seasonal fluctuations in POME production and when a power grid pays a premium for electricity generated during limited periods of peak demand. We needed a design which could store off-peak gas for use in those peak demand periods.

2) UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket)

This concrete tank technology was already in use in Thailand’s extensive tapioca starch industry. Like CSTR, a UASB digester had the advantage of requiring just a small land area and was therefore well suited to a site where the available land area was restricted.

4

After studying this technology Univanich decided not to adapt UASB for the following reasons : It was expensive to construct, although the substantial concrete UASB structures we

inspected in the starch plants were resistant to corrosion

UASB had not been demonstrated to work successfully with POME and we were nervous about that capability

A short retention time again raised the risk of performance problems if management was not

always perfect. We heard worrying stories from our colleagues in the starch industry about reactors where anaerobic activity had died due to management’s misunderstanding of the relatively sensitive UASB process.

Little or no gas storage. Like the CSTR process, a UASB reactor has little capacity to store

gas. As mentioned earlier, this is a disadvantage for a palm oil mill generating electricity for a grid which has variable peak and off-peak purchase prices.

3) Modified Covered Lagoon (Covered In-Ground Anaerobic Reactor)

This relatively new technology was being offered as an alternative to CSTR and UASB in the starch and sugar industries.

After studying various covered lagoon designs within Thailand and overseas, Univanich decided to adopt a New Zealand design of modified covered lagoon referred to as a CIGAR (Covered In-Ground Anaerobic Reactor). Our reasons for this choice were as follows ;

CIGARs are relatively cheaper to construct and this helped persuade those who were

concerned about payback risk. Until we could demonstrate that methane capture was a viable investment we were limited by a tight budget.

CIGARs are very large capacity reactors with a POME retention time of at least 60 days,

compared to 7 - 20 days with CSTR and UASB. We believed that this large capacity would reduce the risk that the anaerobic process could be killed or impaired by sudden changes in waste composition, temperature or pH, such as can occur within a smaller and more sensitive tank reactor.

CIGARs have a large volume of gas storage. They were not originally designed to store a

vast quantity of gas but have been successfully adapted to meet this requirement. During the low crop season when POME production may be reduced by 50%, the CIGAR can easily store gas during off-peak weekends and night rates, to later generate electricity during the grid’s peak demand and high price hours.

However, there were also obvious risks in adopting this new technology. We could find no evidence that the CIGAR or covered lagoon technology had been proven for methane capture from POME. There were unknown risks related to digestion efficiency, gas quality and sludge removal. Another possible disadvantage was that a CIGAR requires a large land area with soil types suitable for construction of deep ponds up to 10 metres deep, so site selection was an important consideration. Possible safely and environmental risks also had to be assessed. Following assessment of these technical, safety and environmental risks by the scientists and process engineers engaged by Univanich, a decision was made in mid 2006 to proceed with the first project at the Siam factory. The second and third projects soon followed in 2007 at Lamthap and in 2008 at Topi.

5

A DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS

Raw POME leaves the factory at a temperature of 800C – 850C, with a COD between 65,000 to 80,000 ppm and a pH of around 4.7. It is piped through a heat exchanger or cooling tower to reduce the temperature to below 500C. With a large thermal mass in the digester any short-term variation of influent temperature is not normally a critical issue. The cooled POME is fed from the heat exchanger into the anaerobic digester. The process of feeding and mixing the POME into the digester is a key design feature. The modified lagoon is normally about 9.0 – 11.0m deep and will have POME capacity of 20,000 to 60,000 m3, depending on the size of the mill and the characteristics of the site. The digester contains a system of pipes and baffles to ensure continuous mixing of the POME and the deposition of sludge in collection areas from which it can be either recycled or removed for application as plantation fertilizer. The cover of the digester is a durable 1.5 mm HDPE sheeting measuring from 5,000 m2 to 10,000 m2 depending on the capacity of the digester. The cover may be drawn down to float on the digester surface, or it may be inflated to store as much as 40,000 m3 gas. 6

From under the HDPE cover the biogas is collected in large diameter pipes and fed into a gas scrubber. This is a critical part of the process to clean impurities from the gas, particularly to reduce the concentration of very corrosive hydrogen sulphide from around 2,500 ppm to below 100 ppm. Chemical or biological scrubbers were options considered by Univanich for cleaning the gas. It was decided to trial two types of biological scrubbers which depend on naturally occurring bacteria to remove the sulphur. This trial involved horizontal concrete scrubbers sunk into the ground and vertical HDPE scrubbers built above ground. Both systems are working well, with final H2S content below 100 ppm and well within our engine specification. After the scrubber, the saturated gas is blown through chillers to remove excess moisture. This design feature to dry the gas was not included in our earliest project where moisture traps and cyclones were thought to be sufficient to remove the very high volume of condensed moisture from the gas. The addition of dryers in our third project at Topi are an added insurance, following signs of possible water damage in the down-stream equipment at our first project, which we are continuing to monitor. The cleaned and dehumidified biogas is used to fuel specialist biogas engine generators. There is a limited range of quality manufacturers and models to select from. In our projects we have chosen engines of approximately one megawatt capacity (actually 952 kW gross, 923 kW net) and our choice of Guascor engines manufactured in Spain has been largely determined by the flexibility offered by that size of engine and by the presence of a reliable local service provider. Surplus gas not required for electricity generation is burnt in an open flare which has a temperature operating log to verify that the methane was actually destroyed. Under the CDM methodology it is necessary to have flow meters, methane meters and data loggers at every stage of the process, with trained personnel to monitor and maintain this equipment. On small projects this CDM compliance and monitoring cost can be very high so there are obvious economies of scale to be had in larger mills.

CAPITAL INVESTMENT

The following are capital costs for construction of the three Univanich biogas projects, excluding all professional fees for engineering and CDM consulting. Project management and commissioning was done in-house, by Univanich own engineers. These costs do not appear in the figures below which relate only to the direct cost of subcontractors and equipment suppliers. Project Name Siam Lamthap Topi * Year constructed 2007 2007 – 2008 2008 – 2009 Factory capacity mt FFB/hr 30 90 60 Digester capacity (POME m3) 22,000 41,700 60,000 Gas engines Phase I 1 x 952 kW 1 x 952 kW 2 x 952 kW Phase II addition - 1 x 952 kW 1 x 952 kW

7

Siam Lamthap Topi Capital Expenditure Thai Baht millions : Phase I 1. Digester & piping 11.18 10.65 13.00 2. Heat exchanger, scrubber, pumps 5.69 6.17 6.80 3. Gas engines and flares 13.68 13.91 27.50 4. Electrical & transformers 9.77 10.87 13.00 5. Infrastructure & others 4.61 9.52 21.90 Total before management & fees 44.93 51.12 82.20 Phase II 6. Additional 952kW engine with scrubber, dryer, electrical etc __-___ 23.50 25.00 Total Phase I & II (Baht millions) 44.93 74.62 107.20 In US$ million (exchange rate 34.0) $ 1.32 $ 2.19 $ 3.15 Not included in the above costs are ; Management fees for construction and commissioning (done in-house) Design fees for independent Consulting Engineers and Biogas Consultants Design fees for independent CDM Consultants and Processors CDM Application Fees, Approval Fees, Validation Fees, Verification Fees

PROJECT PERFORMANCE

The following table relates to the 12 month period from 1st July 2008 to 31st June 2009. Project Name Siam Lamthap Topi * (*commissioned in August)

Year biogas commissioned 2008 2008 2009 FFB processed 7/08 – 6/09 mt 197,331 246,630 363,359 Digester capacity (POME m3) 22,000 41,700 60,000 Av POME Retention time 66 days 64 days 75 days Gas production (Nm3) 4,787,619 4,845,206 1 - Av Methane content 58 % 58 % - H2S before scrubber (ppm) 1,800 – 2,500 2,500 – 3,000 2 - H2S after scrubber (ppm) 0 – 60 0 – 80 - Engine capacity 1st Phase 1 x 952 kW 1 x 952 kW 2 x 952 kW Gas consumed by generator 3,787,471 3,188,041 - Gas consumption/hour (@952kw) 480 – 510 Nm3 480 – 510 Nm3 - Electricity Generated (kWh) 7,168,937 6,467,884 3 -

8

Siam Lamthap Topi Phase II expansion (Oct 2009) Additional engine capacity - +1 x 952 kW +1 x 952 kW * Topi performance data was not yet available at time of writing this paper in July 2009 Notes

1. Initially there was an electrical grounding issue with a methane flow meter at Lamthap, which took some time to detect. Actual methane flow during this period may have been higher.

2. H2S content in gas leaving the digester may vary with the retention period of the gas.

3. Total electricity generated at Lamthap was restricted by PEA grid down-time. There are

many daily power-cuts in the rural Lamthap area. The gas engine must be stopped then resynchronized whenever the grid cuts out. This is a limiting factor affecting the project’s electrical potential by at least 10% compared to the Siam project. Univanich has since installed an electrical cooling system to protect the engines from these unpredictable interruptions.

CDM PERFORMANCE For the Siam project, started in 2006, Univanich signed an Emissions Reductions Purchase Agreement (ERPA) with a large international company specialist in CDM consultancy and CER trading. That company was contracted to manage the Siam project’s CDM process and to purchase the ERs at an agreed price. For the second and third projects at Lamthap in 2007 and at Topi in 2008, Univanich decided to retain ownership of emission reductions and engaged an independent CDM consulting company to advise us and to manage the CDM process on our behalf. The current status is :

Siam 1 Lamthap 2 Topi 3

Year started 2006 2007 2008 CDM Methodology AMSIIIH AM 22 AMSIIIH

Process & Status (July, 2009) Validation of project not yet Yes Yes DNA approval - Yes Yes CDM registration - Yes Yes CER verification - in progress early 2010 Delivery of first CERs - est-Oct 2009 July 2010 Gold Standard Certification not applied Yes GS validation in progress Estimated CERs 21,000/yr 28,000/yr 40,000/yr (Phase I)

9

Notes on CDM performance 1- The original CDM methodology adopted by the ERPA contractor at Siam expired before

validation was completed. Another round of validation is in progress under the original ERPA contract which has so far failed to deliver satisfactory results.

2- On 1st February 2009, the Univanich Lamthap project became Thailand’s first POME biogas

project to achieve UN CDM registration.

3- The Topi project is in the final stages of CDM registration, managed by the same CDM Service Provider as the Lamthap project. We expect registration in September 2009. Both the Lamthap and Topi projects have applied for Gold Standard certification which requires higher levels of community consultation and environmental assessment.

We note the lesson learned from the currently unsatisfactory performance of the Siam ERPA contract. The appointment of a reliable and experienced CDM Service Provider is critical to the success of achieving CDM registration in a timely way.

CONCLUSIONS

After recording the operation of the first two projects for up to 18 months we are satisfied that the CIGAR modified covered lagoon technology is achieving our design objectives. On average, the system has reduced COD of the mill effluent by at least 90%. Biogas captured in the system has had a methane content of 58% and an H2S level below 100 ppm, which are levels well within the performance requirement of the gas engines. To date the digesters have been relatively easy to maintain. In terms of energy generation, the gas engines have also met our design objectives. At the 30 t/hour Siam factory one gas engine of 952 kW capacity generated 7.17 million kWh in the first 12 months of operation and consumed only 79% of the available gas. At the Lamthap project a similar engine generated a lesser amount of 6.46 million kWh due to frequent interruptions of the grid connection. The environmental and sustainability objective has also been achieved - to destroy a large volume of greenhouse gas which previously escaped to the atmosphere, to improve the environment around the factories, and to replace fossil fuels with a new renewable energy source. However, in terms of generating income from CERs the projects have not yet achieved what we expected. To convert captured methane into bankable CERs has proved to be much more difficult and more expensive than we had imagined. We are confident that the three projects are indeed reducing greenhouse gas equivalent to our target of 90,000 CERs per year, but the process of CDM approvals, registrations and verifications has proved to be our most challenging undertaking. Although technical performance targets have been achieved, actual revenue received from CDM and electricity has been slower than expected due to long approval and licensing processes. As a result of this delayed revenue the rate of return on investment is still uncertain but apparently less than we had anticipated when the Univanich Board approved the original capital investment. What we can conclude with confidence is that methane capture from POME can be done efficiently and at a reasonable cost using the CIGAR or modified covered lagoon technology. A conventional 60t FFB/hour palm oil mill, operating at full crushing capacity, can reasonably expect to generate up to 3 megawatts of electricity from this renewable resource, whilst also reducing that factory’s annual greenhouse gas emissions by at least 40,000 mt carbon equivalent. 10

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For the success of the technologies employed, the authors would like to acknowledge expert assistance from our scientific and engineering design consultants from Waste Solutions Ltd, from the engineering design and biogas consulting services of KPSR Construction Ltd, and from the Faculty of Engineering at Kasetsart University. For expert guidance through the complex process of CDM registration and Gold Standard Certification we must thank Carbon Bridge Pte Ltd, with assistance from Thailand’s Greenhouse Gas Organization (TGO) The far sighted policies of Thailand’s Ministry of Energy, particularly assistance received from the Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO) and the Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (DEDE), have been successful in stimulating this innovation and new investment in renewable energy. The Provincial Electricity Authority of Thailand has provided much advice and assistance to successfully integrate these projects into the PEA grid. The authors would like to thank the Board of Univanich Palm Oil PCL for initiating these three projects, and for permission to publish this review.

REFERENCES

[1] Chua, N.S.; and Gian, H.L. 1986. Biogas production and utilization – Keck Seng’s experience. National Workshop on Recent Developments in Palm Oil Milling Technology and Pollution Control. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Bangi : Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia. Paper No. 11

[2] Quah, S.K. 1987. Chan Wing palm oil mill effluent treatment and by-product utilization – a case study. In: Lecture Notes for Training Course on Biogas Reactor Design and Development. Bangkok: King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Thonburi. Vol. II, pp. 562-584

[3] Puetpaiboon U1 and Chottwattanasak J2. 2001 Anaerobic Treatment of Palm Oil Wastewater under Mesophilic condition at Asian Palm Oil Co., Ltd., Southern Thailand

1. Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkhla University, Thailand 2. The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King’s Mongut University of Technology Thonburi,

Thailand [4] Yeoh, B.G. 2004. A Technical and Economic Analysis of Heat and Power Generation from

Biomethanisation of Palm Oil Mill Effluent. Sirim Environment and Bioprocess Technology Centre. Box 7035, 40911 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

17 September 2009 (revised)

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C19

Rehabilitation of Merotai Oil Mill Tertiary Effluent Treatment Plant

Yosri M.S.a, Shawaluddin T. a, Ahmad Jaril A.a, Shahrin S.b and Sulaiman S.c

ABSTRACT

A tertiary effluent treatment plant was designed for Merotai Oil Mill, Tawau, Sabah to meet the new requirement of 20mg/l Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) discharge limit. The treatment process set-up utilises Extended Aeration Activated Sludge and Aerated Submerged Fix-bed processes as the main biological processes. The plant consists of 2 aeration tanks, 2 vertical clarifiers, 1 aerated submerged fix-bed reactor and 2 sand filters. The total hydraulic retention time for the process is 40 hours with a treatment capacity of 30 tonnes Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) per hour at a design input BOD of 500mg/l. The plant was commissioned in November 2006; however the facilities were initially unable to comply consistently with requirement of 20mg/l BOD discharge limit. Key issues related to operational problems such as aeration and its distribution, return activated sludge, maintenance and performance monitoring were identified. Major refurbishment work undertaken for rehabilitation include repositioning the media to avoid the short-circuiting, changing the clamp-type membrane diffusers with new screw type fine bubble membrane diffusers to rectify the diffuser dislodging problem, introducing new bacteria for seeding and rearrangement of sand filter to resolve the high discharge suspended solid. To-date records showed significant improvement with discharge BOD maintained at below 20mg/l. This paper also discusses the operational improvements made after rehabilitation, including strict plant monitoring system, operating staff competency development and establishment of operational manual. Keywords: Palm Oil Mill Effluent, Tertiary Treatment System, Extended Aeration Activated Sludge Process, Submerged Fix-bed Process, 20 mg/l BOD discharge limit. ______________________________________________________________________ a Sime Darby Research Sdn Bhd. R&D Centre Carey Island, 42960 Kuala Langat Selangor, Malaysia

b Merotai Oil Mill, 91007 Tawau, Sabah, Malaysia c Sime Darby Plantation Sdn. Bhd. Wisma Guthrie, Damansara Heights 50490, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

INTRODUCTION

For the past fifteen years, Malaysia has been acknowledged as the world’s leading producer and exporter of palm oil products. Based on the statistic obtained from MPOB (Malaysian Palm Oil Board), Malaysia accounts for about 45% of total palm oil production in the world. It has been reported that in 2008, there were a total of 407 oil mills with a production capacity of approximately 92 million tonnes of FFB (fresh fruit bunch) per year. With increased cultivation and production of palm oil in region, the disposal of the processing waste is becoming a major problem that must be appropriately addressed (Ahmad A.L. et al., 2005). The rapid development of the palm oil industries in Malaysia over the years produced high amount of palm oil mill effluent (POME) (Mahzad H. et al., 2009). The three main sources of liquid effluent generated from a palm oil mill are steriliser condensate, centrifuge waste and hydrocyclone or claybath waste (Ma A.N., 1988). The amount of effluent production from the average mill is about 65% to 70% of the FFB processed or 2.5 times for every tonne of crude palm oil produced (Zin Z.Z., 2000).

Fresh POME is a colloidal suspension containing about 95% water, 0.6-0.7% of

oil and grease and 4-5% of total solids including 2-4% suspended solids that are mainly debris from palm fruit (Ahmad et al., 2005). It is a thick, brownish in color liquid with a discharge temperature of between 80 and 90°C, being fairly acidic with a pH value in the range of 4.0-5.0 (Poh P.E., 2008). The raw or partially treated POME has an extremely high content of degradable organic matter, which is partly due to presence of unrecovered palm oil. This highly polluting wastewater can therefore causes severe pollution of waterways due to oxygen depletion and other related effects (Abdul L.A., 2003). The chemical characteristics of POME are shown in Table 1 (Ma A.N., 1999).

TABLE 1. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PALM OIL MILL EFFLUENT (POME)

Parameter Amount Metal Amount

pH 4.7 Phosphorus 18Oil and grease 4,000 Potassium 2,270Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD3) 25,000 Magnesium 615Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 50,000 Calcium 439Total solids (TS) 40,500 Boron 7.6Suspended Solids (SS) 18,000 Iron 46.5Total volatile solids (TVS) 34,000 Manganese 2.0Ammoniacal nitrogen (AN) 35 Copper 0.89Total nitrogen (TN) 750 Zinc 2.3All parameter are in mg/l, except pH Source: Ma A.N., 1999

Over the last three decades, palm oil mill effluent treatment system has been successfully developed and employed in Sime Darby’s palm oil mills. The system is based on the application of biological processes and is operated on anaerobic digestion followed by facultative and/or aerobic digestion. Aerobic digestion is adopted to ensure that the final discharge of the treated effluent conforms to the DOE stipulated limits of 100mg/l.

Due to the increasing environmental awareness and the deteriorating river water quality, especially in catchments areas, DOE has begun to imposes more stringent discharge standards to the palm oil mills and other industries. Discharge quality of BOD below 20mg/l is imposed in certain areas and this will be enforced to other mills throughout Malaysia by the year 2010. In line with this direction, Sime Darby has designed and developed a tertiary treatment plant known as BOD20 Plant for Merotai Oil Mill, Tawau, Sabah.

BOD20 Plant Process Description

BOD20 Plant integrated with POME treatment ponding system and composting plant are designed for discharge to watercourse of BOD below 20mg/l. With this system, about 70% effluent generated will be utilized with empty bunch for composting. Excess effluent of about 30% of total volume will be treated with POME treatment ponding system followed by BOD20 plant. BOD20 Plant is a unique tertiary downstream POME treatment system that will further treat the effluent from the outlet of the ponding system to a state suitable for discharge to the watercourse to comply with DOE standard of below 20mg/l BOD discharge limit. The plant utilises extended aeration activated sludge and aerated submerged fix-bed processes as the main biological processes. The schematic process flow of BOD20 Plant is shown in Figure 1. The plant consists of 2 units aeration tank, 2 units vertical clarifier, 1 unit bioreactor and 2 units sand filter. The total hydraulic retention time for the process is 40 hours with a treatment capacity of 30 tonnes POME per hour at a design input BOD of 500mg/l. The summarized BOD20 Plant design for Merotai Oil Mill is given in Table 2. TABLE2. THE BOD20 PLANT DESIGN FOR MEROTAI OIL MILL Reactor Capacity

(m3) Hydraulic Retention Time (h)

Air Requirement

(m3/min)

BOD removal (kg/day)

BOD input (mg/l)

BOD output (mg/l)

Aeration Tank No.1

420 14 8.4 180 500 250

Aeration Tank No.2

240 8 4.8 108 250 100

Clarifier No.1

150 5 - - - -

Bioreactor 240 8 4.8 61.2 100 15 Clarifier No.2

150 5 - - - -

Sand Filter

- - - - 15 15

Figure 1. Schematic Process Flow of BOD20 Plant Aeration Tank (Extended Aeration Activated Sludge Process)

Effluent from the anaerobic pond is directly pumped into two aeration tanks (tank No.1 and tank No.2 in series) for extended aeration activated sludge process. Both tanks are equipped with diffused air system that maintain a completely mixed liquor, provide sufficient oxygen for biomass respiration and also ensure biomass in the tank is in a suspended form. The high concentration of biomass is maintained by recycling the settled sludge collected from the clarifier. Excess sludge is purged out from the system and sent to the composting plant. In this case the sludge level in the aeration tank can be maintained. The clear supernatant from clarifier overflows into bioreactor for further BOD removal. Bioreactor (Aerated Submerged Fix-Bed Process)

After the activated sludge process, the BOD removal is further reduced using a Aerated Submerged Fix-Bed Process with a BOD removal rate of 61.2 kg BOD/day. It is estimated that 15mg/l BOD discharge could be achieved. The bioreactor contains a bed of suspended micro-organisms at the bottom of the reactor. The inert biomedia are provided in the bioreactor to provide a large surface area for bacteria attachment, exceeding 160 m2/m3. The media used has been specifically designed to prevent plugging and reduce biomass wash out from the reactor and ensure a stable BOD output at the design value. This is the polishing stage whereby the liquid BOD should be at a low level. Aeration is carried out using diffused air system. Air bubbles should be fine and homogeneously

HRT = 8 Hrs HRT = 5 HrsHRT = 14 Hrs

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distributed. This is to ensure that the fixed biomass is active. The overflow supernatant from bioreactor is fed into clarifier No.2 where the content is allowed to settle in order to separate the suspended solid from the clear supernatant. The supernatant is pumped to sand filter for further suspended solid removal. Sand Filter

This units act as a final polishing of the process whereby suspended solid can be trapped and the level reduced to below 200mg/l. Two stages of sand filter are arranged in series. Backwashing of sand filter generates high suspended solids and this will be recycled back to the aeration tank of the activated sludge process. The filtered liquor is the final discharge of BOD20 plant.

METHOD

Approval was obtained from Sabah DOE to re-commission the BOD20 section of the effluent treatment system. The refurbishment work started in September 2008 and completed in December 2008. The plant was re-commissioned in January 2009. During this re-commissioning period, as much as possible POME was diverted to be used for the composting process to reduce the POME feed to the anaerobic ponds. No POME was discharged.

The facilities were thoroughly inspected to identify the root causes to the problem. All equipment and fittings such as pumps, blowers, piping, valves, bio-media and diffusers were checked. Operational records such as feed and purge rates, process monitoring parameters were examined. Dissolved oxygen levels were measured using a field DO probe. All samples were sent to an accredited laboratory in Sabah for analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Rehabilitation Work

Key issues related to operational problems such as aeration and its distribution, return activated sludge, maintenance and performance monitoring were identified. Major refurbishment work undertaken for rehabilitation include repositioning the media to avoid the short-circuiting, changing the clamp-type membrane diffusers with new screw type fine bubble membrane diffusers to rectify the diffuser dislodging problem, introducing new bacteria for seeding and rearrangement of sand filter to resolve the high discharge suspended solid. The issues highlighted and the actions taken to address the issues are as follows: Aeration and its distribution

Dissolved oxygen readings in aeration tanks and bio-reactor were low and fluctuating. Numerous clamp-type diffusers were dislodged leading to poor aeration efficiency. Existing aeration pipe using low quality PVC (grade C) were replaced with

better a better quality of grade B PVC and with correct method of installation. The clamp-type diffusers were replaced with new screw type fine bubble membrane diffusers.

Return activated sludge

Based on records, little sludge from the clarifier was returned to the aeration tank. Problems with the return sludge pump were resolved by modifying the pumping sump to avoid pump cavitation. Sludge recycling rate at about 80% of the incoming effluent flow was instituted, guided by MLSS (mixed liquor suspended solid) and SVI (sludge volume index) test results. Bioreactor The biomedia arrangement was too densely packed, resulting in restrictions in liquor flow. This was compounded by the inactive biomass deposited between the biomedia, which caused short-circuiting. The biomedia arrangement was re-designed and all deposits of inactive biomass were cleared. Sand filter The sand filters were reconfigured to operate in series instead of parallel. Back washing assisted with compressed air was practised. Biomass concentration

Measurements showed that the MLSS was very low, ranging from 200mg/l to 500mg/l as compared to the requirement of 2500mg/l to 3500mg/l. The settleability test also showed that the solid content in aerobic liquor was below 10% as compared to optimum 20-30% solid content. Activated sludge from clarifier was continuously recycled to aeration tank No.1 and re-seeding of aeration tank with a new bacteria formulation was done to boost the biomass concentration. Operator competency and process performance monitoring

As technology in POME treatment advances to meet the demands of increasingly stringent regulations, knowledge of plant operators need to be enhanced. In order to ensure the plant is operated correctly, relevant oil mill personnel were trained on the proper plant operating procedures. In addition to the common parameters monitored, i.e. BOD, SS, TS and pH, additional monitoring on DO, MLSS and SVI were introduced.

The plant operational manual was also revised to include additional instructions

on maintenance and trouble-shooting. A qualified mill engineer was assigned to oversee the operation. The Plant Performance Before Rehabilitation

The BOD20 Plant at Merotai Oil Mill was commissioned in November 2006. The trends BOD and SS in the final discharge during the two year operation after commissioning from December 2006 to December 2008 are shown in Figure 2. The BOD was ranging from 11mg/l to 158mg/l and averaged at 61.5mg/l while SS was ranging from 39mg/l to 409mg/l and averaged at 135.8 mg/l during that review period. The plant performance was poorer in second year as compared to the first year operation.

Records show that BOD and SS discharge averaged at 38.5mg/l and 93.2mg/l respectively during the first year, but the figure increased to 82.7mg/l and 187.7mg/l respectively during the second year.

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eactor Average BOD Average BOD BOD removal BOD removal

Table 3 shows the summarised BOD removal at each reactor of BOD20 Plant during period of December 2006 to December 2008. The BOD20 Plant was designed for BOD removal at 180kg/day for aeration tank No.1, 108kg/day for aeration tank No.2 and 61.2kg/day for bioreactor. Results show that the plant was unable to treat the effluent to within the targeted BOD removal. The BOD removal efficiency was 40.3%, 13.8% and 45.6% for aeration tank No.1, aeration tank No.2 and bioreactor respectively. This is equivalent to BOD removal of 57.2kg/day, 11.7kg/day and 33.3kg/day respectively for aeration tank No.1, aeration tank No.2 and bioreactor. TABLE 3. SUMMARISED BOD REMOVAL FOR BOD20 PLANT DURING PERIOD OF DECEMBER 2006 TO DECEMBER 2008 R

input (mg/l) output (mg/l) efficiency (%) (kg/day) Aeration Tank No.1

197.1 l117.7 40.3 57.2

Aeration Tank 117.7 101.5 13.8 11.7

ctor 101.5 55.2 45.6 33.3 No.2 BioreaSand filter 55.2 61.5 Nil Nil

Plant Performance After Rehabilitation D and SS discharge during the period after

omple

here was a significant improvement in BOD and SS in final discharge where the

Figure 3 shows the results of BOc tion of rehabilitation work. There was a significant improvement in BOD and SS level, consistently within the 20mg/l BOD and 200mg/l SS of discharge limit. The final discharge quality is shown in Figure 4 (BOD) and Figure 5 (SS). Taverage BOD decreased to 15mg/l from 82.7mg/l. Similarly, SS in final discharge was reduced from 187.7mg/l to 98.9mg/l

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Figure 5. The SS Discharge Before and After the Rehabilitation Work

CONCLUSIONS

A tertiary effluent treatment plant at Merotai Oil Mill, Tawau, Sabah was designed to meet the new requirement of BOD below 20mg/l limit in the final discharge. The treatment process set-up utilises extended aeration activated sludge and aerated submerged fix-bed processes as the main biological processes. It was designed for a treatment capacity of 30 tonnes POME per hour at input BOD of 500mg/l. The plant was commissioned in November 2006; however the plant performance was not encouraging where the discharge quality was not meeting the 20mg/l BOD and 200mg/l SS limits. Key issues related to operational problems such as aeration and its distribution, return activated sludge, short-circuiting of bioreactor, sand filter operation, competency of plant operator and performance monitoring were identified to be the cause for the plant failing to operate at the expected performance. Refurbishment work to the plant was undertaken and completed in November 2008 and the plant was re-commissioned in January 2009. To-date records showed significant improvement in plant operation where BOD and SS in the final discharge have been maintained below 20mg/l and 200mg/l respectively during the period after re-commissioning from January 2009 to July 2009.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to thank Sime Darby Research Sdn Bhd for support and permission to publish this paper. The authors would also like to thank personnel of Merotai Oil Mill for their cooperation during the rehabilitation work of BOD20 Plant.

REFERENCES

Abdul L.A., Suzulawati I. and Subnash B., (2003). Water Recycling from Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) using Membrane Technology. Desalination, 157 (2003), 87-95.

Ahmad A.L., Bhatia, S. and Ismail, S. (2005). Membrane Treatment for Palm Oil Mill

Effluent. Effect of Transmembrane Pressure and Crossflow Velocity. Desalination. 179:245-255.

A.L. Ahmad, S. Bhatia, N. Ibrahim and S.Sumathi (2005). Adsorption of Residual Oil from PalmOil Mill Effluent using Rubber Powder. Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering. Vol. 22, No. 03, PP.321-379, July-September, 2005.

A.N. Ma, & Augustine, S.H. Ong, (1988). Treatment of Palm Oil Mill Steriliser Condensate by an Anaerobic Process. Biological Waste, 23 (1988), 85-92.

P.E. Poh, M.F.C. (April 2008). Development of Anaerobic Digestion Methods for Palm

Oil Mill Effluent (POME) Treatment. Biosource Technology : 1-9.

Ma A. N. (1999). Treatment of Palm Oil Mill Effluent. In : Oil Palm and the Environment. A Malaysian Perspective (Ed. by Gurmit Singh et al.) P113-123, Malaysian Oil Palm Growers’ Council, Kuala Lumpur.

Mahzad H.,Sa’ari, M., Mohamad A.M.S (2009). Optimization of POME Anaerobic Pond. Journal of Scientific Research. Vol. 32 No. 4 (2009T), PP.455.459.

Zin. Z. Z., (2000). Agronomic Utilization of Waste and Environmental Management. In : Advances in Oil Palm Research, Volume II (Ed. by Yusuf B. et al.) Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Malaysia P1413-1438.

C20 Towards a Practical Sustainable Palm Oil Industry

Steven Chong

Asia Green Environment Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia According to data gathered by RSPO, Palm Oil is the world’s 2nd largest edible oil crop after soy oil. That means out of the 95 million tonnes of vegetable oil produced worldwide, 28 millions tonnes are Palm Oil, an essential and versatile raw material for both food and non-food industries that drive the economic development of Malaysia and Indonesia―the world’s two largest Palm Oil producers. And global demand for palm oil is ever increasing. This resulted in a massive expansion of palm oil cultivation, an estimated 43% increase of land area in the last two (2) decades, most of which are in Malaysia and Indonesia. While an undisputed economic catalyst, palm oil at this point, “ought to be produced sustainably”. Sustainable Palm Oil speaks of the adoption of responsible practices in producing palm oil in terms of its effect on socio-economic, and particularly, the environment. Palm oil industry is a target of negative publicity on account of deforestation due to new plantings, coupled with air and water pollution due to bad waste management practices. The Stakeholders of Palm Oil Industry Supply Chain all agreed to do something about it. A new set of rules has been created to evaluate sustainability of palm oil production. One of the main criteria is Environment Responsibility---efficient reduction and re-cycling of waste, as well as air and water pollution reduction. Consequently, Palm Oil companies are inundated with multiple choice of purportedly environment-friendly technologies, solutions, systems and equipments, albeit many of them untested. Efforts are earnest but decision-making have became a complicated affair, slow, and implementation of stakeholders’ envisioned levels of palm oil sustainability―even slower. To hasten implementation, an improved cooperation between the Government, Plantation Companies, and (Technology) Vendors is essential.

GOVERNMENT can help speed up adoption of sustainable practices by giving the following incentives:

• Recognition- Awards be given to palm oil companies that are exemplary in their commitment to sustainable practices.

Certification – “Green Initiative” Certification ( if possible, with validation by MPOB, MPOA) be given to palm oil companies that carries the right to label their produce as such, for publication, marketing, and public relations purposes.

• Tax Incentive- Award-winning and “Green Initiative” Certified palm oil companies be given tax deduction for purchase of equipment, systems and solutions that are meant to for use on sustainability of palm oil production.

Tax Rebate or other form of tax grants for companies that purchase, operate and maintain sustainable equipments and systems.

Although not specifically aimed at palm oil industry, lessons on tax incentive initiatives could be learned from other governments around the world, for example:

• United States of America- provides tax deduction for energy efficient buildings.1

• Canada – Grants and Incentives for implementing projects that reduces greenhouse gases and air pollution.2

• South Korea – Fiscal incentives for certified green-growth industries.3

1 “Commercial Bldg Tax Deduction Coalition”, http://www.efficientbuildings.org/ 2 “ecoENERGY Retrofit”, Office of Energy Efficiency, http://www.oee.nrcan/corporate/incentives.cfm 3 “South Korean Gov’t Plans to Promote Investment in Green Growth Related Industries”, United Nations Public Administration Network,http://www.unpan.org

PLANTATION COMPANIES – Increased yield and OER however important, provide only marginal advantages in the edible oil market. Palm Oil companies need to move up the value chain, such as Branding―a strategy that creates higher value for products. The movement towards palm oil sustainability actually provided conducive business opportunities for palm oil companies by being Branded as “sustainable”, to name a few:

• Good Company Image -“Green Company” branding has a mitigating effect on the “dirty oil” stigma on palm oil.

• Cutting-edge Competitive Advantage - “Sustainability” branded

produce is crucial to stave off competition from other perceived environmentally-friendly vegetable oil.

• Premium Value for Produce - Mature markets are willing to pay more

for such “Branded” produce. Competition is intense within the palm oil market while equally fierce challenges come from other types of edible oils and fats. Stakeholders need to put their acts together and waste no more time in adopting proven Sustainable Palm Oil practices in the form of available technology, systems and solutions. Moreover, worldwide environmental awareness contributed to a new breed of consumers. And these are people willing to pay premium price on “sustainable”, “green company” or similarly branded products. Eventually, “sustainable palm oil” when viewed positively may in fact have a positive impact on bottom line performance of palm oil companies. SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES VENDORS/Technology Vendors’ role is equally important in the equation of Sustainable Palm Oil. We ought to take it upon ourselves to offer a tested, efficient, and cost-viable Technology. AsiaGreen Environmental Sdn Bhd, since its inception has dedicated itself to provide total solution to Palm Oil Industry waste management. This helped to hasten decision-making process to a certain extent, and the eventual implementation of our systems and solutions. At present, as a sustainable practice vendor, we offer the following and believe that other Vendors can adopt similar practices:

• Tested Technology – Ensure that technologies being offered have been tested and proven to work. Refrain from using plantation companies as testing grounds as this will slow down the wide scale implementation of sustainable practices.

• Total Waste Management Solution – Vendors need to forego

the idea of being just machinery/equipment sellers. As such, Vendors do not take into account the achievement of optimum

results and overall efficiency of the system. As total solution providers on the other hand, R&D has been done, and the solutions offered address the needs of the Customer, and integrates well with the overall operation.

• Financially/Operationally Viable Models- Initial investment

and “does it really work?” are issues facing sustainable practices adoption. This boils down to financial and operational concerns. As a “sustainable” technology Vendor, AsiaGreen Sdn Bhd addresses this issue through BOOT― a Smart Partnership between Vendor and Client.

A BOOT (build-operate-own-transfer) Model , is a Vendor-financed, built, and operated total-waste-management system for palm oil mills. Vendors are compensated on achieving certain standard of operational and controllable parameters. For Clients, the advantage is that they are protected from the risk of buying expensive, non-performing system.

Smart Partnership is possible through BOOT. Vendors and Clients forge a close working relationship that is mutually beneficial, with each party mindful of its responsibility to the other. Clients are assured that their “sustainability” initiatives meet their objectives and Vendor is compensated according to agreed-upon terms of engagement.

In conclusion, as each party carries out its respective roles outlined above, sustainable practices in palm oil industry can move from the boardroom into the field of implementation. This will, eventually, create a practical sustainable palm oil industry.

LP7

Latest Development of Oil Palm Biofuel: Issues and Challenges

Mohd Basri Wahid*; Choo Yuen May* Lim Weng Soon* Faizah Mohd

Shariff* Harrison Lau* Loh Soh Kheang* and Wan Hassamuddin*

ABSTRACT

Malaysia commenced its research and development on biofuels from palm oil back in the 1980s

and had been successful in developing technology for producing biodiesel meeting international

specifications. This has put the country in an advantageous position when global interest in

biofuels gained momentum at the start of the new millennium. Malaysia formulated its National

Biofuel Policy in March 2006 which envisages the research and development, production, use

and export of biofuels to ensure a cleaner environment, reduce reliance on fossil fuels, and to

enhance and stabilise the price of palm oil, which is the primary biofuel feedstock, at a more

remunerative level. While the progress on development of indigenous technologies on biofuel has

seen commendable progress in the commercial realisation of first generation biodiesel plants

based on technologies developed at the Malaysian Palm Oil Board, the progress in terms of local

use of palm biofuel and production and exports of palm biofuel have not been able to achieve the

desired levels of success to date. This paper looks at the progress to date, and the issues and

challenges facing the implementation of the National Biofuel Policy in Malaysia.

__________________________ *Malaysian Palm Oil Board

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INTRODUCTION

Malaysia’s foray into biofuels started in the 1980s with research and development on the production and use of biodiesel from palm oil. At the time, there was no commercial attractiveness for biodiesel as compared to fossil diesel. Only 20 years later, commercial interest in biodiesel began to grow due to various factors such as support for agricultural commodities, energy security and concerns on the environment which spurred demand for biodiesel, particularly in the European Union. The legislative framework, tax and incentive provisions in certain member states in the EU particularly Germany created a market for biodiesel. Seeing the potential and importance of palm based biofuels for Malaysia as a major producer and exporter of palm oil, the Government launched the National Biofuel Policy in March 2006 to establish the policy framework for the development of the biofuel industry in Malaysia.

NATIONAL BIOFUEL POLICY

The National Biofuel Policy envisions a cleaner environment and more remunerative commodity prices through the production and use of biofuels. It is underpinned by five strategic thrusts, viz biofuels for transport, biofuels for industry, development of indigenous technologies on biofuels, biofuels for export, and biofuels for a cleaner environment. In essence, successful implementation of the policy will result in the creation of a new growth area, i.e. a biodiesel industry in Malaysia which produces value-added biodiesel from palm oil both for local use and for export. This high volume use of palm oil for biodiesel, besides being cleaner for the environment and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, will also reduce palm oil stocks and help support palm oil prices. Potential Benefits The potential benefits from this policy are enormous. From the aspect of national economy, there are anticipated returns in terms of increased value of exports both from palm oil and palm biodiesel. Malaysia exported about 15.4 million tonnes of palm oil in 2008. Malaysia has also set a limit of 6 million tonnes of palm oil a year to be used for biofuels. Assuming successful implementation results as anticipated in increase in palm oil prices, the country will increase its export revenue by RM 1.5 billion a year for every RM100 increase in the palm oil price. There will also be added revenue from the value- added biodiesel exports and ancillary benefits from multiplier effects from a new biodiesel production industry. Local implementation of B5, a 5% blend of biodiesel and 95% of diesel will require 500,000 tonnes of biodiesel a year. This will reduce reliance on imported diesel and result in savings in foreign exchange of about RM 1 billion a year. In terms of reduction in GHG emissions, the implementation of B5 will show to the world that Malaysia, although not subjected to mandatory GHG reduction targets as a non Annex I country under the Kyoto Protocol, has unilaterally instituted national GHG mitigation programmes. Use of palm biodiesel has been reported to result in about 60% GHG

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savings (Hans van Zutphen, 2008) assuming no land use change, but actual savings will depend on particular production pathways, methodologies used, and type of land use change. Hence, the EU Directive on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, 2009 gives a typical savings of 36% for palm biodiesel (process not specified) and 62% if methane is trapped at the palm oil mill. However, studies by MPOB using the same EU Directive methodology show a better savings of 51% and 66% respectively (Table 1).

TABLE 1. GHG SAVINGS OF PALM BIODIESEL VIV A VIS DIESEL (with no land use change)

Typical GHG Savings EU Directive MPOB

Palm Biodiesel(Process not specified)

36% 51%

Palm Biodiesel (with methane trapping)

62% 66%

STATUS OF IMPLEMENTATION, ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Production and Exports of Biodiesel Interest in biodiesel production started promisingly with a total of 91 licences being granted by the Malaysian Industrial Development Authority (MIDA) for the building of biodiesel plants with a total capacity of 10.2 million tonnes a year. Subsequent to the launch of the Biofuel Policy, the Biofuels Industry Act 2007 was passed to provide the legislative force to implement the policy. The Act provides for the regulation, licensing and enforcement of the biofuel industry and empowers the Minister to enact regulations to mandate the blending and use of biofuels in the country. The Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities will henceforth be responsible for issuance of biodiesel licences and will be the regulatory authority on biofuels. However, more than three years after the launch of the policy, notwithstanding the issuance of so many licences, the actual number of plants that have been built is very much lower, and the number of plants actually running at any one time even less (Table 2).

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TABLE 2. PROGRESS OF APPROVED BIODIESEL PROJECTS (as at August 2009)

In

Operation Not in

Operation Completed

Construction Construction Pre-

Construction Planning

No. of Plants

7

7

5

11

5

52

Biodiesel Capacity (000 tonnes)

1262

710

250

1105.5

602

6,264.13

Source : Economics & Industry Development Division, MPOB In terms of actual production and exports, the volumes are less than 10 % of the capacity of plants that are in operation (Table 3)

TABLE 3. PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS OF BIODIESEL (TONNES)

Year Production Export 2007 129,706 95,013 2008 171,555 182,108 2009 (until August) 160,167 167,846 Source : Economics & Industry Development Division, MPOB Issues and challenges. What has started out as a promising new growth area is now in a state of near economic paralysis with many biodiesel ventures on hold or abandoned. As shown above, existing plants are running well below capacity, with operations intermittent in nature, fulfilling sporadic orders. The main reasons for this disappointing state of affairs are the lack of demand from the major overseas markets such as the EU and the US, and an almost complete absence of local demand because the implementation of the local mandatory blending programme has yet to fully materialise. Table 4 shows the exports to the two major biodiesel markets, viz the EU and US. Although there was growth in exports to these two markets from 2007 to 2008, the total volumes are still very small. One of the main reasons is the sudden drop in demand in Germany, where tax incentives for biodiesel were progressively withdrawn, and replaced with a mandate instead in 2008. This resulted in a drop in demand of biodiesel in Germany, where there is now about 50% spare plant capacity. In the US, the ‘splash and dash’ phenomenon where biodiesel was shipped to the US and mixed with 1% diesel to qualify for tax credits and then re-exported to the EU helped increased exports to the US. However, exports dropped significantly in 2009 when this practice was ruled not eligible for such credits.

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TABLE 4. EXPORTS OF BIODIESEL TO EU AND USA (TONNES)

Year EU USA 2007 24,696 51,953 2008 70,273 71,324 2009 (until August) 104,010 34,750 Source : Economics & Industry Development division, MPOB Prices of normal grade palm biodiesel are traded at a discount to rape and soy biodiesel mainly because of its higher CFPP of about 15°C which makes it unsuitable for cold climate, unless blended with low CFPP biodiesel. The low price offered for palm biodiesel, which is at times even lower than the price of RBD palm oil makes palm biodiesel uneconomical to produce. Hence, palm biodiesel production is erratic and occurs as and when there are positive margins to be made. To add to the misery, the EU and the US are in the midst of instituting laws which impose sustainability requirements on raw materials used for the production of biofuels. The EU Directive on Renewable Energy requires that raw materials must not be sourced from certain ‘no-go’ areas. These ‘no-go’ areas include high biodiversity areas, i.e. primary forests or woodlands where there is no clearly visible indication of human activity and highly biodiverse grasslands [Article 17(3)], high carbon stock areas which cease to be so from their use for production of the biofuels including wetlands and continuously forested areas [Article 17 (4)] and peatlands which are drained to produce the biofuel feedstock [Article 17 (5)]. The cut off date for this is January 2008 which means that any biofuel feedstock from lands which have the above statuses on January 2008 will not qualify. The second main requirement is that the GHG savings from production and use of the biofuel must be at least 35% as compared to fossil fuel. [Article 17(2)]. This will be increased to 50% in 1 January 2017. For plants which come into production on or after 1 January 2017, the savings will be increased to 60% from 1 January 2018. Plants which were in existence on 23 January 2008 are exempted from the 35% requirement until 31 March 2013. The above sustainability requirements will impose additional burdens for Malaysian biodiesel exporters once they are incorporated in the national legislations of member states of the EU and enforced by 2011. Although the typical Malaysian biodiesel will meet the requirements, this is administratively burdensome. There is as yet no system of verification or certification in place which is recognized and accepted by the European Commission. In addition, although the typical savings of palm biodiesel is 36%, i.e. above the 35% threshold, economic operators have to furnish actual evidence of this. This is because the default value of savings which the EC is willing to recognize, without any evidence, is only 19%. Only the biodiesel production pathway that uses methane trapping at the palm oil mills is given a higher default value of savings above 35% by the

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Directive, i.e. 56%. Unfortunately, only less than 4% of palm oil mills in Malaysia currently have this facility although many are in the planning and construction stages (Basri, 2009). In the United States, California has led the way in instituting carbon reduction initiatives in its low carbon fuel standards. In calculating GHG emission savings, indirect land use change (ILUC) effects have to be taken into consideration and current figures brandied about for soy biodiesel is only about 22% savings. Similarly, the national Renewable Fuels Standard 2 being drafted has introduced targets for reduction of carbon intensity of fuels. GHG emissions from ILUC needs to be included, although there are objections from many quarters on this, particularly the accuracy and reliability of the various estimation models used. Indications are that the inclusion of ILUC will be deferred. In addition, some states such as Minnesota have imposed a ban on palm biodiesel in their mandatory biofuel programmes. All these developments will pose challenges for Malaysian palm biodiesel. Local implementation The planned local implementation of oil palm biofuel involves the blending of 5% palm methyl ester (palm biodiesel) with 95% petroleum diesel known as B5. This implementation is to start with Government Departments from February 2009, to be extended later to the industrial and transport sectors by 2010. Based on the statistics provided by the Ministry of Domestic Trade and Consumer Affairs, it was estimated that 11.66 billion litres of diesel is consumed annually in Malaysia, in which retail pump stations (51%), fisheries (11%) and industries (34%) are the major users. For 5% of petroleum diesel to be replaced with biodiesel, about 500,000 tonnes of biodiesel are required each year. The local implementation started on 3rd February 2009 with 3 government departments/agencies actively participating with MPOB. They are the Malaysian Armed Forces (ATM), Kuala Lumpur City Hall (DBKL) and Public Works Department (JKR), Selangor. The splash blending was done by Petronas at its Klang Valley Distribution Terminal (KVDT). Till 28 Sept 2009, 4.045 million litres (about 3,500 tonnes) of B5 have been delivered by Petronas via KVDT to ATM and DBKL. This amount of B5 only used 175 tonnes of palm biodiesel. This programme involves a total of 3,900 government vehicles. Issues and Challenges. There are a number of issues to be resolved in the local implementation of the B5 programme. However, the main issues revolve around finance for capital expenditure for blending facilities, and how and who to bear to the additional cost of biodiesel as compared to diesel. Petroleum companies would like the government and/or the consumers to absorb the cost incurred for the setting up infrastructures and facilities for blending. The estimated cost for 36 depots in the country is estimated to be about RM170 million for in-line blending and storage facilities.

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However, the main recurring cost will be the additional cost of biodiesel. Use of biodiesel at 5% may result in additional costs of 3 to 6 sen per litre (based on first half of 2009 prices of biodiesel and diesel). This must be subsidized by the Government or passed to consumers. To reduce this cost, it may be prudent to reduce the blending ratio to 2 or 3%.

TECHNOLOGIES The technologies for biodiesel production from palm oil and its products have been established in MPOB since 1980s. The first MPOB 3,000 tonnes per annum palm biodiesel pilot plant was completed in 1985 and extensive evaluation of palm biodiesel in terms of engine compatibility and emission tests have taken place through joint research with Mercedes Benz, Germany. Owing to the in-depth understanding of the indigenous properties and characteristics of palm biodiesel, and the experience gained through years of biodiesel research, MPOB has now become one of the successful technology providers for the production of biodiesel, with the building of its first 60,000 tonnes per annum commercial plant in 2006. The homegrown MPOB palm biodiesel technologies comprise the production technologies for normal-grade (Choo et al., 1990 and 1992) and winter-grade palm biodiesel (Choo et al., 2002a). To date, six (6) normal-grade palm biodiesel plants (located in Malaysia, South Korea and Thailand) and three (3) winter-grade palm biodiesel plants (located in Malaysia) have been built based on MPOB technologies. Unlike other vegetable oils, palm oil consists of 50% saturated and 50% unsaturated fatty acids. Thus, palm biodiesel has the inherent property of high CFPP (15°C) due to the saturation level in palm oil. A breakthrough in palm biodiesel research has been realized in the development of production technology for winter-grade palm biodiesel. The fractionation technologies developed by MPOB via crystallization or distillation routes have enabled the premium winter-grade palm biodiesel to be produced to fulfill the stringent cold regional climatic requirements particularly in the EU and US. The distilled palm biodiesel meets the requirement of newly developed cold soak parameter as stipulated in ASTM D6751. Worthy to highlight is that apart from the conventional distillation approach, MPOB has also developed new technology that can be customized to suit the existing biodiesel facilities in helping them to meet the cold soak filterability test (Lau et al., 2009 unpublished data). The new cold soak technology is available for commercial adoption. The production of winter-grade palm biodiesel has also generated another valuable co-product which is C16 solid methyl ester (Choo et al., 2002a and 2002b). The wide applications of C16 methyl ester for industrial chemicals and α-sulphonated methyl esters production will be another attractive outlet for co-products of biodiesel production.

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The uncertainty in feedstock price fluctuation for biodiesel production has prompted biodiesel producers to search for alternative, more economical raw materials. These include RBD palm stearin, palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) and other sources of high fatty acids oils. As compared to RBD palm oil and palm stearin, PFAD contains higher levels of free fatty acids ranging from 70–90%, which will require additional facilities to be incorporated into the existing biodiesel plant to process such oils. Knowing the restriction of most of the existing biodiesel plants to process raw materials with high fatty acids content, MPOB has developed a process to produce palm biodiesel from high acid oils which will definitely help the producers to lower their production costs (Choo, et.al., 1992 and Lau et al., 2009). Research and development of new technologies to produce high quality biodiesel involving enzymatic has been developed (Choo et al., 1990). Others which employ heterogeneous catalysts and additives with less environmental impact are underway.

ENHANCING VIABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY Phytonutrients To enhance the viability and sustainability of biodiesel business, MPOB has conducted extensive research and the development of an integrated process for the production of value-added products from palm biodiesel (Choo et al., 2009). The uniqueness of palm oil is that crude palm oil contains carotenes (pro-vitamin A) and palm vitamin E in the form of tocotrienols (>70%). Palm tocotrienols have been found to possess superior biological activities as compared to α-tocopherol, a major form of vitamin E found mostly in other oils. Other palm phytonutrients that can be produced via the ester route include carotenes, sterols, squalene, phospholipids and co-enzyme Q10. The esterification/transesterification technology developed by MPOB has adequately preserved these indigenous phytonutrients to be recovered in the later stage of processing. The integrated production technologies of palm phytonutrients developed by MPOB involve the use of green technologies such as short path distillation, crystallization and supercritical fluid technology (Choo et al., 2006a and 2006b). These integrated technologies have been patented and scaled up to pilot plant for testing. Part of the technologies has been adopted commercially by biodiesel producers and proven to be efficient. The purification and separation technologies for the production of high purity (90-95%) individual carotenes (α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene, phytoene and phytofluene), palm vitamin E (individual tocopherol and tocotrienol) and sterols (β-sitosterol) have also been developed (Choo et al., 2003a and 2003b). Second Generation Biofuels Besides oil, the oil palm industry generates vast amounts of non-oil biomass which can be used for the production of second generation biofuels. For the 88 million tonnes of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) processed in 2008, the estimated oil palm biomass available

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is : oil palm fronds (OPF) 8.2 million tonnes, empty fruit bunches (EFB) (6.76 million tonnes), palm shell and mesocarp fiber (11.2 million tonnes) totalling 26 million tonnes dry weight basis. In addition, it is estimated that about 5% of 4.47 million hectares oil palm planted area is due for replanting. Thus, based on an average of 134 palm trees/ha, it is estimated that about 26.8 million oil palm trees will be felled, which will generate 16 million tonnes of oil palm trunk (OPT) and about 3.11 million tonnes of OPF totalling 19 million tonnes of palm biomass a year from replanting activity. However, most of the oil palm biomass has other potential applications especially EFB which can be used for mulch, compost, pulp & paper, fibremat and wood-based products. The potential palm biomass that will be readily available for energy production is estimated to be around 20 million tonnes dry weight basis based on the availability of 50% OPF, 16% EFB and 20% palm shell and mesocarp fibe.

The choice of the type of oil palm biomass is very important as different palm biomass have different chemical compositions of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin that could affect the conversion. Moreover, the complicated structures of palm biomass also require different pre-treatment in the process to break down the cell wall besides having a problem to physically treat the biomass into small particle sizes. Technology. Production of second generation biofuels from palm lignocellulosic material is not a direct conversion process. For example, in the production of 2nd Generation bioethanol, raw material is pre-treated (the most difficult task to accomplish), then converted into fermentable sugar via acid or enzymatic hydrolysis process prior to sugar fermentation using commercially available microbes and enzymes. Chemical, mechano-chemical and steam explosion are among the pre-treatments explored to break down the cellulose molecules. However, most of them are energy intensive and results obtained are not promising. Technical feasibility would be the biggest barrier to be overcome (Mohammad and Lee 2006). Biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass is still a relatively new idea in Malaysia and development of lignocellulose-related technologies is also not very well established. Much work is required before it can reach commercialization. Among the technologies being investigated include Fischer Tropsch Biomass-to-Liquid process, lignocellulosic bioethanol production and catalytic depolymerisation. Issues and challenges. The lignocellulosic biomass available from oil palm industry such as EFB, OPT and OPF have high content of water and are bulky, resulting in problematic logistic issues in terms of transporting them from the normally isolated mills or plantations to the biofuel production sites. Proper storage of palm biomass is important to maintain the quality of the feedstock. The moisture content of lignocellulosic feedstock should be less than 20% for a cost-effective conversion to biofuels. High moisture content in the feedstock can influence the conversion process especially those involving thermo-chemical process. As a tropical country, Malaysia receives sufficient sunlight (solar resource) to dry the biomass. Thus, the cost of drying can be relatively low.

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Transportation is also an important challenge to develop biofuels in the country. Any processing plant and biorefinery should ideally be located near to the supply source of palm biomass. Since 82% of the biomass is generated from oil palm, it is important to build the plant near the plantation or mills (Mission et al. 2009). Currently, the production of second generation biofuels from lignocellulosic materials is generally not commercially viable although it is believed that future advances in process technology will change the current scenario. The price of crude oil, which competes with biofuels, also has a significant impact on the commercial viability of lignocellulosic-based biofuels projects. The current low price of crude oil will reduce the commercial incentives for companies to produce biofuels as price of crude oil is more competitive. It is forecasted that declining oil reserves will increase crude oil prices above their current levels, thus benefiting investors in the biofuels sector, particular those with a medium to long term investment horizon (Frost and Sullivan 2009). However, second generation biofuels have the environmental advantage over fossil fuels and first generation biofuels in their higher GHG savings. For example the EU Directive on Renewable Energy recognises a typical GHG savings of 80% for waste wood ethanol and 95% for waste wood Fischer-Tropsch diesel as compared to 56% for corn ethanol and 45% for rapeseed biodiesel respectively. As such, the demand for second generation biofuels will increase in tandem with advent of commercially successful technologies to fulfill the requirements of low carbon intensity fuels which are mandated by the EU and US. Thus second generation biofuels will play an increasingly important role when technologies become available, in contributing towards global GHG emission reduction. The oil palm industry, with its abundant supply of biomass must avail itself of the opportunity.

CONCLUSION

Malaysia has embarked early in the research and development of palm biodiesel, and has formulated policies laws and regulations to promote the orderly growth of a palm-based biofuel industry. However, demand for biodiesel globally and locally has not reached desired levels. Issues abound, and controversies such as the food versus fuel debate, purported destruction of biodiverse areas and carbon sinks arising from land expansion for biofuel feedstocks, Government policies and laws which are ever changing, and fluctuations in petroleum prices, pose serious challenges to future development of biofuels. The future of the biofuel industry in Malaysia, particularly biodiesel from palm oil will depend on how well these issues are managed globally, and how well Malaysia can carve a niche for itself in the global biofuels market amid all these developments.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to thank the MPOB Biofuel Research Team and the B5 Implementation Team for their contributions.

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REFERENCES BASRI (2009) The Competitiveness of Malaysian Biodiesel vis-à-vis the EU Directive on Renewable Energy. World Congress on Oils and Fats, 27-30 September 2009, Sydney, Australia. CHOO, Y.M., CHENG, S.F., YUNG, C.L., LAU, H.L.N., MA, A.N. AND YUSOF, B. (2002a). Palm Diesel with Low Pour point for Cold Climate Countries. MPOB Information Series TT. No. 146. CHOO, Y.M., CHENG, S.F., YUNG, C.L., LAU, H.L.N., MA, A.N. AND YUSOF, B. (2002b). Production of C16 and C18 Mixed Methyl Esters. MPOB Information Series TT. No. 149.

CHOO, Y.M., LAU, H.L.N., MA, A.N. and YUSOF, B. (2006a). Recovery of Palm Vitamin E, Sterols and Squalene from Palm Oil. European Patent No. EP 1393144 B1.

CHOO, Y.M., LAU, H.L.N., PUAH, C.W., MA, A.N. and YUSOF, B. (2006b). Recovery of Palm Phytonutrients. US Patent No. US 714712 B2. CHOO, Y.M., LAU, H.L.N., YUNG, C.L., NG, M.H., PUAH, C.W., RUSNANI, A.M., MA, A.N., YAHAYA, H. AND ANDREW, Y.K.C. (2009). Value Addition from Crude Palm Oil – Integrated Production of Palm Biodiesel, Phytonutrients and Other Value-Added Products. MPOB Information Series. TT. No. 428.

CHOO, Y.M., MA, A.N. and YUSOF, B. (2003a). A Method of Chromatographic Isolation for Non- Glyceride Components. US Patent 6586201 B1.

CHOO, Y.M., MA, A.N. and YUSOF, B. (2003b). A Method of Chromatographic Isolation for Vitamin E Isomers. US Patent 6656358 B2.

CHOO, Y.M., ONG, A.S.H., GOH, S H and KHOR, H.T. (1990). Transesterification of Fats and Oils. UK. Patent No. 2188057.

CHOO, Y.M.. ONG, A.S.H.. CHEAH, K.Y. and BAKAR, A. (1992). Production of Alkyl Esters from Oils and Fats. Australian Patent No. 43519/89. DIRECTIVE 2009/28/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 23 April 2009 on the Promotion of the Use of Energy from Renewable Sources. FROST, A. AND SULLIVAN, W. (2009). The Malaysian Industrial Biotechnology Sector

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GOH, C.S. TAN, K.T., LEE, K.T. AND BHATIA, S. (2009). Bio-ethanol from lignocellulose: Status, perspective and challenges in Malaysia. Bioresource Technology. HANS VAN ZUTPHEN (2008). Comparative LCA Analysis of Different Edible Oils and Fats International Palm Oil Sustainability Conference, 13-15 April 2008, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.

LAU, H.L.N., NUR SULIHATIMARSYILA, A.W. AND CHOO, Y.M. (2009) Production Technology of Biodiesel from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD). MPOB Information Series. TT. No. 430.

MISSION, M., HARON, R. KAMARODDIN, M.F.A, AMIN, N.A.S. (2009). Pretreatment of empty palm fruit bunches for production of chemicals via catalytic pyrolysis. Bioresource Technology 100; 2867-2873. MOHAMED, A.R. LEE, K.T. (2006). Energy for sustainable development in Malaysia: Energy policy and alternative energy. Energy Policy 34; 2388-2397.

C21

Biofuels – Moving from First to the Next Generation

Connie Lo, Nexant Asia Limited

ABSTRACT

The past five years has seen a biofuels industry boom in Southeast Asia. Biodiesel developments have been focused in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore, whilst bioethanol developments have been focused in Thailand and the Philippines. Majority of the plants built to date however have been focused predominantly on food crops such as palm and coconut oil for bio-diesel and sugar and starch for bio-ethanol. Significant capacity additions coincided with a surge in commodity prices in 2006/ 2007 which saw biofuels feedstocks pricing outpacing products pricing and resulting in numerous projects being cancelled and existing plants being idled. This paper will explore the latest global trends in the development of the next generation biofuels. Next generation biofuels sometimes termed as the 2nd generation biofuels are produced either from agricultural residue and wastes, or from dedicated energy crops such as Jatropha and algae, and are seen to not compete with food. We will examine some of the more advance technology developments in this field and compare the pace of these developments with the existing 1st generation technologies in this region. With the current economic uncertainties and lack of governmental support, it remains to be seen whether the pace of development is likely to continue in this region for the near future. ________________________ Nexant Asia Limited 22nd Floor Rasa Tower 1, 555 Phahonyothin Road, Kwaeng Chatuchak, Khet Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

INTRODUCTION

The past five years has seen a biofuels industry boom in Southeast Asia. Biodiesel developments have been focused in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore, whilst bioethanol developments have been focused in Thailand, the Philippines and most recently in Vietnam. Majority of the plants built to date have been focused predominantly on food crops such as palm and coconut oil for bio-diesel and sugar and starch for bio-ethanol. Significant capacity additions coincided with a surge in commodity prices in 2006/ 2007 saw biofuels feedstocks pricing outpacing products pricing. This has resulted in numerous projects being cancelled and existing plants remaining idle. The emergence of the next generation technologies for the production of biofuels that does not compete with food have become the main focus for most governments, especially in the US and Europe. The outline of today’s presentation will be as follows:

• Overview of current industry’s situation • Latest global trends for the development of next generation biofuels • Summary and conclusion

Global Bio-Ethanol (see Figure 1) At present approximately 85% of global biofuels production comes from ethanol. The two most largest ethanol producers are Brazil and the US, accounting for almost 90% of global ethanol production. Brazil’s experience with ethanol dates back to the early 1920s and today, around 45% of all energy consumed in Brazil comes for renewable resources, with biofuels accounting for around 15% of total internal energy supply. Corn based ethanol dominates the US Biofuel production. Other producing countries such as Europe and Asia combined are relatively insignificant when compared to Brazil and the US. The total world capacity estimates by end 2008 amounts to close to 70 million metric tons Global Bio-Bio-Diesel (See Figure 2) In the EU, biodiesel plays a significant role in the overall biofuel production, accounting for more than 60% of the total biofuels production in 2008. Germany alone accounts for more than 50% of the EU biodiesel production. The main feedstock used is from rapeseed oil. Both Asia and the US show significant growth in production over the past 3 years utilising palm and soy oil as feedstock respectively. In Brazil, biodiesel is still in its infancy stage, relative to bioethanol. Its 2% blend, B2 was established in 2008 and will be increased to 5% by 2013. EU and US The EU Biofuels Directive sets a reference target of 2% in 2005 up to 5.75% (based on energy content) by 2010. Member states are obliged to set their own indicative targets based on these reference points. The European councils Energy Policy since 2008 has also endorsed a binding target of 20% share of renewable energy by 2020, whereby 10% will come from biofuels from sustainable sources. The most important

2

features of this new Renewable Energy Directive compared to the present biofuel directive is the introduction of a mandate rather than just an obligation. The new directive also sets an obligatory use of certified sustainable biofuels and it focuses on the promotion of advance next generation biofuels which does not compete with food In the US, Renewable Fuel Standards established by the Energy Policy Act mandates that all petroleum used in transport fuel must have renewable fuel content of 7.5 billion gallons by 2012. The Energy Independence and Security Act in 2007 established an even more ambitious target of 9 billion gallons of renewable fuel by 2008 increasing to 36 billion gallons by 2022, out of which 21 billion gallons should be derived from 2nd generation processes. Elsewhere for e.g. in Asia, bio fuel policies remained slow and inconsistent and depending very much on the feedstock and crude oil prices for the time being. Asia Looking little closer to Asia Malaysia passed its biofuels act back in 2006. Its B5 policy was put on hold due to rising feedstock prices. When prices came down late last year, it was announced that the policy has been revived again and biodiesel will be used in all governmental vehicles from Feb 2009 onwards,. Similarly in Indonesia, the government’s ambitious targets of replacing up to 5% of the country’s fuel consumptions with biofuels had to be scaled back and put on hold due to the high prices of feedstock. When prices came down last year, the Indonesian government issued a ministerial decree that makes the use of biofuel mandatory from 2009, where by a 1% blend of biodiesel will be increased to between 2.5% and 3% for transportation sector by 2010. For bioethanol, the use of a 1-5% blend of bioethanol in gasoline for transportation will become mandatory by 2009. Feedstock for Ethanol will include sugar cane and cassava. In both cases, the policies are highly inconsistent and dependent on the price of the feedstock. In the case of the Philippines and Thailand, both net importers of vegetable oils, the governments have mandated biofuel blends into the transport fuel sector since 2007 and 2008 respectively. E20 in Thailand debuted in Jan and followed by E85 by Sep last year. The entire industry is based on government mandates and policies and in most cases, these policies are inconsistent and change very frequently. Current low crude oil prices will make also it difficult for nations to maintain their growth plans for biofuels. Drivers for Asian Biofuel Developments Drivers for biofuels development defer from one country to another. In Europe climate change is still the major driver, but energy security is becoming much more important for most governments. The main driver for biofuels development in most Asian countries is energy security and its agricultural benefits.

Global Developments in the Next Generation Biofuels Feedstock pricing plays a critical role in the profitability of the biofuels business. In particular, Bio-Diesel whereby feedstock would make up for close to 70-80% of the

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overall operating costs of the plant. Biofuels had been blamed in the past for causing the rise in agricultural commodity pricing back in 2006/2007. Even though price for commodities have fall back to rates pre 2006, there is no denying the role of the agricultural sector as a provider of feedstock for the production of current liquid biofuels today. We see the three key developments in the industry

• Cultivation of new Energy Crops • New Technologies that addresses similar feedstocks • Emerging technologies utilising cheaper non food competing feedstock

Cultivation of new energy crops Marginal land or degraded land are often characterised by lack of water or nutrients with low soil fertility. New energy crops that are able to grow on marginal land where food crops fail may offer the opportunity to put such land to use. It should be noted though that growing any crop whether for food or biofuels in such conditions would significantly affect the yield. Some of the key developments observed in Asia today are in the cultivation of Jatropha, Sweet Sorghum and more recently in Algae. Major developments in Jatropha are often heard in countries like India, China, Myanmar and Africa. Sweet Sorghum is another interesting crop currently under development. Sweet Sorghum is similar to sugar cane but with shorter growth cycles enabling higher yields. Key developments are in Australia, Asia and Latin America with continued development on new varieties which are able to grow on different soil composition Majority of algae cultivated today are used in niche markets for nutritional products and health supplements. Since it thrives well in high Nitrogen content, algae can also be used to treat waste water for e.g. in waste water treatment plants whereby it produces oxygen which can used by bacteria to decompose the waste. So far, algae has yet to be used for commercial biofuels production. The total annual production is estimated to be around 10,000 metric tons, coming mostly from China, Japan and India and certain parts of the US. Trials have shown that under the right conditions, certain fast growing algae have higher yields of oil per hectare even compared to palm oil. In certain cases, the oils content can be as high as 80% but in most cases, it has around 20% of oil. Algae is cultivated via photosynthesis using sun light and carbon dioxide. Hence algae cultivation can be located near sources of high concentrations of carbon dioxide for eg. near power plant stacks to offset the carbon dioxide produced in these facilities. New Technologies that addresses similar feedstocks Hydrocracking processes like the Neste’s NexBtL and UOP’s Eco-fining will be able to exploit the use of these new energy crops to produce higher performance fuel e.g. renewable diesel and other value added by products for e.g. parrafins

These processes can feed a broad variety of natural oils and fats, from vegetable oil such as soybean and palm oil to the use of low quality feed such as any fatty acid, and waste oils for example used cooking oils to produce high quality end products. The fats are not transesterified, but catalytically hydrogenated. Following this, the hydrogenated product is isomerised. The product is more stable, independent in properties from the type of feedstock used, and compatible with petroleum diesel than

4

are methyl ester biodiesel products. Cetane numbers are very high, and NOx and emissions are extremely low compared to ultra low sulphur diesel, any methyl ester biodiesel,. From a refiners perspective this will be a better solution as no engine modification is required since the fuel produced reportedly have characteristics which are close to its mineral counter parts. One significant development in this region is the Neste project in Tuas, Singapore. The plant utilising Neste’s NeXBtl technology has a capacity of 800,000 tons per year of Renewable Diesel is scheduled to be completed by next year. Emerging technologies utilising cheaper non food competing feedstock Current biofuels rely solely on agricultural commodities as feedstock. The second generation biofuels currently being developed focus more on alternative non food based feedstocks such as cellulosic bio-mass. 2 main developments for next generation technologies for the production of liquid fuels will be discussed. Most plant bio-mass contains cellulose, hemi cellulose and lignin, out of which the first 2 can be converted to alcohol. Cellulosic bio-mass needs to be broken down into sugars via acid or enzymatic treatment and this proved to be more challenging than initially anticipated. Ligno-cellulosic material of bio-mass by nature are recalcitrant towards enzymatic attack, hence pre-treatment is necessary to overcome this. Various pre-treatment technologies such as dilute acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis are still in the development phase. An effective pre-treatment step is critical for increasing the rate of hydrolysis and ultimately the yield of the fermentable sugars from cellulose or hemi cellulose components to Ethanol. Bio-tech companies e.g. Novozymes are developing more cost effective cellulase enzymes for the saccharification or breaking down of the cellulose and hemi-cellulosic material to fermentable sugars such as glucose and xylose. Bacteria such as Z.mobilis bacterium have also been used as bio-catalysts to ferment glucose and xylose to Ethanol. The Ethanol broth also known as the raw fermentation beer is collected and sent for Ethanol recovery. Iogen for e.g. has built and operated the world’s first demo scale Bio-Ethanol plant in Canada using cellulosic enzymatic fermentation process. Novozymes has developed enzymes used for conversion processes necessary for producing bioethanol from agricultural waste. The pilot project currently under development by Novozymes and its partners COFCO (China National Cereals, Oil & Foodstuff Corporation), a producer and supplier of processed agricultural products and Sinopec is located in Heilongjiang province in China. Corn stowers will be used as feedstock for the production of 500 tons per year of Ethanol. Recent announcements by Novozymes to have enzymes available commercially for large-scale cellulosic ethanol production by 2010 make such developments very promising. Though biological approaches to convert cellulosic biomass to biofuels are well advanced, harnessing the energy potential of biomass by thermal conversion is also feasible. Biomass gasification is the key enabling technology in biomass utilisation to either high octane (biogasoline) or high cetane (biodiesel) biofuel products. This approach is also known as “biomass-to-liquids” (“BTL”), is analogous to gas-to-liquids (“GTL”) and coal-to-liquids (“CTL”). The biomass to liquid (BTL)

5

technology is considered one of the most promising technologies in the fuel sector today. Bio-mass to liquids combines three different proven technologies:

• Gasification • Fischer Tropsch synthesis • Hydrocracking

Its ability to cover all forms of bio-mass makes it an interesting processing option to be considered for the future. At present although there are no large commercialised BTL plants in operation, Choren’s β Plant represents the most advanced commercially proven route producing liquid fuels from bio-mass. CHOREN is a technology development and engineering company based in Freiberg,Germany. The β Plant is able to produce approximately 15,000 tons per year of BTL fuel from 65,000 tons of feedstock based on forest residue and waste timber. Summary and Conclusion Comparisons between these key developments with the 1st generation biofuels are made in the following table below (see Figure 3). As shown, there are very little regional developments in 2nd generation technologies. A lot of questions need to be answered such as who should invest, what, where and when should they build? With the current economic downturn and lack of governmental commitment, it remains to be seen if such development is likely to happen soon but ultimately it is the economics that will determine what, where and when. Figure 1 Global Bioethanol Production

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

140000

160000

180000

200000

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

North America South America Western Europe Eastern Europe Asia Others Total

source: Nexant

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Figure 2 Global Biodiesel Production

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

North America South America Western Europe Eastern Europe Asia Total

source: Nexant Figure 3

HighHighModerateLow to ModerateModerateCompatibility to existing

Infrastructure

HighHighHighModerate LowBy product credit

LowLowModerateDevelopmentHighTechnology availability

HighVery highHighLowLowCapital intensity

HighHighHighModerate to HighModerateCost of production

LowLowModerateLow to ModerateHighRegional development

HighHighModerateLowLow to moderateFeedstock availabilityHighHighModerateModerateModerateSustainability

> 5 yrs

High

Cellulosicfermentation

now

High

First generation

plus

> 5yrs

High

BTL

>1- 5yrs1-5 yrsTime to commercialisation

ModerateModerateFuel quality

Alternative Feedstocks

1st Generation Biofuels

HighHighModerateLow to ModerateModerateCompatibility to existing

Infrastructure

HighHighHighModerate LowBy product credit

LowLowModerateDevelopmentHighTechnology availability

HighVery highHighLowLowCapital intensity

HighHighHighModerate to HighModerateCost of production

LowLowModerateLow to ModerateHighRegional development

HighHighModerateLowLow to moderateFeedstock availabilityHighHighModerateModerateModerateSustainability

> 5 yrs

High

Cellulosicfermentation

now

High

First generation

plus

> 5yrs

High

BTL

>1- 5yrs1-5 yrsTime to commercialisation

ModerateModerateFuel quality

Alternative Feedstocks

1st Generation Biofuels

7

C22

ISCC Certification Scheme in the Framework of the EU RED

Norbert Schmitz*

ABSTRACT

In order to succeed as an alternative to fossil fuels, biofuels for the transport sector and bioliquids for electricity and heat production have to be produced in a sustainable manner. It is necessary to prove in a reliable way that the advantages of biofuels and bioliquids are actually higher than the cost of potential environmental damage caused by their production, even more so with increasing production volumes and quota mandates. This was the purpose behind recent regulations from the European Union (Renewable Energy Directive (RED), 2009/28/EC). The RED for the first time defines sustainability requirements for biofuels and bioliquids. Certification is the instrument to differentiate between sustainable und unsustainable products in global commodity markets. Market participants can prove compliance with the legal requirements by the use of certification schemes recognized by the respective authorities on EU or EU member country level. The German Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture, through its Agency for Renewable Resources supports a project managed by Meó Corporate Development GmbH, an independent German Management Consultancy, that develops a certification scheme for sustainable biomass and bioenergy production, known as the International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC) Project. Within a multi-stakeholder approach with approx. 200 participants from Europe, Asia and the Americas a concept for sustainability and greenhouse gas certification was developed. The concept builds upon the requirements from the RED. Pilot tests in different countries including palm oil and biodiesel production in South East Asia have shown that the concept is feasible in practical terms. The global roll-out of ISCC has been prepared. ISCC does not only address the requirements of producers supplying the energy sector. There is an increasing demand of customers from the food, feed, and chemical industry requiring proofed sustainability and carbon footprint information. Using the ISCC certification scheme can also fulfill those requirements. __________________________ * Meó Corporate Development GmbH, Weissenburgstr. 53, D-50670 Koeln, Germany. [email protected], www.iscc-project.org



INTRODUCTION

For a number of years, researchers have alerted the general public with ever more uncomfortable truths about global warming. In 2008, the “Global Carbon Project” alarmed experts with a new balance, according to which even more carbon dioxide (CO2) reached the atmosphere than the amount, which the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) based its worst case scenario on.

At the same time, recent studies carried out by the International Energy Agency (IEA) alarm the general public and emphasize the increased need for governments to take action. The growing world population’s energy hunger will have doubled by 2050. According to the IEA, the current largely fossil energy sources are not sustainable and marked by increasing uncertainties on the supply side. In reaching the production peak in crude oil, the fossil age will not yet have come to an end. Next to oil, natural gas and coal will be used more and more for some decades. To reach the climate goals, renewable energies will then play a larger role in the energy mix. Efficiency strategies for the reduction of usage, which will have to be applied worldwide, are of central significance. But efficiency strategies alone will not be able to balance supply and demand in the future energy market.

Today, renewable biomass resources are the main renewable energy source in

many countries. No energy scenario can do without them. However, the production of renewable resources can lead to fatal ecological and social side effects: deforestation, destruction of nature reserves, loss of species, conflicts over the use of land and displacement of peasants, unacceptable working conditions and pricing pressure on foods are only some of the possible results.

Worldwide, energy from biomass plays an increasingly significant role in overcoming the challenges of climate change and the securing of energy supplies. So far, biofuels for the transport sector and bioliquids for electricity and heat production account for only small market shares. However, strong key drivers are pushing the market development. The EU Commission published a binding 10% renewable energy target for the transport sector by 2020. Predominantly, the Commission wants to reduce the energy import dependency and the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by the transport sector. In addition, biofuels should contribute to job and income creation in rural areas.

However, there is also a downside to this development. With an increasing

production, biofuels and bioliquids have been criticized as not fulfilling their promises. For example, their positive GHG balance has been questioned, they have been criticized for increasing the pressure on the limited amount of agricultural land and causing expansion of agricultural land into high biodiverse or high carbon stock areas.

Therefore, the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) of the EU makes sustainability

a precondition for biofuels and bioliquids and requires a proof of certain sustainability issues that shall account towards the mandatory renewable energy targets within the transport sector.

The RED inter alia asks for the following: • Immediate savings in GHG emissions by at least 35% and 60% from 2017

onwards (old plants 50%) • Minimising negative consequences from the change in land use • Preservation of biodiversity and habitats with a high nature conservation value • Preservation of existing carbon sinks, such as wetlands and forests • Protection of ground, water and air • Incentives for the production on degraded and recultivated areas, to prevent the

expansion of production to other valuable areas • Incentives for sustainable production practices, which emphasise the ground’s role

as important carbon storage • Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions through an overall improved agricultural

practice • Consideration of socio-economic aspects.

Proof of sustainability throughout the supply chain should be provided by using a mass balance system. Segregation is also possible but results in additional costs.

Certification is seen as a way to prove the compliance with these sustainability

requirements.

CERTIFICATION AS A SOLUTION: THE ISCC PROJECT

Against the background described above, the German Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture, through its Agency for Renewable Resources (Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe – FNR) is supporting the International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC) Project.

ISCC is an internationally oriented, pragmatic certification system, which keeps

administration requirements as low as possible, reduces the risk of non-sustainable production and can be used as verification instrument of greenhouse gas emissions of biomass and bioenergy during their life cycle. ISCC puts the requirements of the Renewable Energies Directive and national legislations of EU member countries into practice. Furthermore, other countries’ and initiatives’ sustainability requirements are being integrated.

ISCC ensures that sustainability concerns are taken care of in a non-discriminatory

manner. Sustainability problems can occur with different agricultural crops and in different regions. Wheat, corn, rapeseed, sugarcane, soy and oil palm among other crops as well as production in the EU, the Americas and Asia are currently being covered by ISCC.

The certification project being managed by Meó Corporate Development GmbH is

a multi-stakeholder process. It involves around 200 stakeholders from various industries, NGOs, public organizations and research institutes from different countries. Stakeholders from outside Europe have been involved from the very first beginning onwards. They participate in discussing the sustainability criteria, standards, rules and procedures. Pilots have been carried out in Asia, the Americas and Europe to test the instruments developed and to adapt to systems already in place.

An international board is being set up representing stakeholders from all regions, industries and NGOs to steer the future development of ISCC. Figure 1 provides an overview of the overall ISCC structure.

Figure 1. Overall ISCC structure.

The overall goal of ISCC is to develop an international sustainability and GHG certification scheme that can be used to proof compliance with the sustainability requirements set by the respective laws and decrees, and, in addition, to offer an instrument for the voluntary use in the food, feed and chemical industry.

System Components

In order to comply with all the requirements from the RED and the ISCC objectives, the ISCC Project has set up five system components (figure 2). The ISCC System documents the bioenergy’s path all the way back to the field or plantation. This is done with a so-called mass balance along the delivery chain. Sustainable biomass can be mixed with biomass of unverified origin along the delivery chain. The respective percentages will be recorded along the trade chain and verified by an independent third party. ISCC provides the necessary systems for a mass balance. Independent certifiers will use an ISCC checklist for the auditing. In a multi-stakeholder approach, this list was further developed on the basis of legal requirements. The general public was able to voice their opinion during a consultation process. Next to ecological also social criteria were considered. The greenhouse gas balance is based on the EU’s methodical framework, and it is transparent and comprehensible – even for third parties. Certificates are stored in a central database that also provides information about no go areas to certifiers.

The ISCC system consists of 5 components

•Development of a system to trace back bioenergy

•Mass balance to be applied, according to legal requirements

Chain of Custody Audit

•Development of a system to trace back bioenergy

•Mass balance to be applied, according to legal requirements

Chain of Custody Audit

•Development and continuous improvement of check lists for auditors

•Crop and region specifics considered

•Audit rules

Sustainability Audit

•Development and continuous improvement of check lists for auditors

•Crop and region specifics considered

•Audit rules

Sustainability Audit

•Calculation of GHG emissions for individual operators, based on methodological framework set by politics

•Coverage of land use change

GHG Calculation

•Calculation of GHG emissions for individual operators, based on methodological framework set by politics

•Coverage of land use change

GHG Calculation

•Development of a central registration for certificates and certified land

•Comparison with no go-areas

Registration

•Development of a central registration for certificates and certified land

•Comparison with no go-areas

Registration

•Conformity of existing schemes

•Endorsement and harmonisation

Meta system

•Conformity of existing schemes

•Endorsement and harmonisation

Meta system

Figure 2: ISCC system components

Together with the involved stakeholders, continuous work is going on to develop and improve the five system components:

1. Sustainability Audit: Development and continuous improvement of sustainability check lists that can be used by auditors to check whether the sustainability requirements are fulfilled and of audit rules.

2. Registration: Development of a central registration for certificates, certified market participants and certified land. Comparison of the land to be certified with no go-areas.

3. GHG calculation: Calculation of GHG emissions for specific supply chains or for parts of supply chains. The calculation is based on the methodological framework set by politics and also covers possible land use change.

4. Chain of custody audit: Development of a tracing system based on the mass balance approach according to legal requirements. Development of checklists for auditors to audit production steps within the supply chain where certified and non-certified products or products with different GHG emissions can be mixed.

5. Meta standard: Check of conformity of existing or evolving certification schemes. Endorsement of existing schemes and harmonisation between different schemes.

In principle, the ISCC sets out unambiguous, measurable and verifiable criteria. This is the only way that the conformity of the ISCC standard can be assessed. Strict rules for the implementation of the assessment and the demands on the certifying authorities are part of the ISCC Certification Standard. It is clearly described how results are to be interpreted and which conclusions are to be drawn from specific results. On which results can the issuing of a certificate be based; when is a certificate rejected and when does it have to be withdrawn? The regulations provide straight answers to these questions.

PILOT TESTS AND GLOBAL ROLL OUT The system components described above have been implemented and tested for many different supply chains, including palm oil and biodiesel from South East Asia. It showed that the programme is suitable for practice and that the results are reproducible and reliable.

Cooperation with certification bodies, biomass and bioenergy producers, traders, NGOs and research institutes from the respective pilot countries took place within the pilot projects to optimize the ISCC system and to take specific national conditions into account. Learnings from the pilots have been incorporated into the system components and the overall set up of ISCC.

Of particular interest is GHG calculation as this is a new component for certification schemes. The ISCC approach for the calculation of GHG emissions is based on the methodology laid down in the RED. It allows the use of the individually calculated values for different units within the supply chain and the transportation of the GHG information through the supply chain in a mass balance (or segregation) approach as required by the RED.

For the calculation of GHG emissions all relevant in- and outputs at all steps of the value chain need to be considered. In the unrealistic case of static supply chains (where suppliers do not change over time) with long term contracts, overall GHG emissions throughout the entire chain can be calculated and GHG savings compared to the fossil product can easily be derived at the end of the chain. However, to allow for non-static supply chains (where suppliers may change frequently over time) for any kind of contracts, including spot market, individual GHG emissions calculation per ton of the product produced at the individual entity of the supply chain is necessary (e.g. kg CO2eq/t CPO). These values can be attached to the respective product sold by a supply chain entity and can then be incorporated into the mass balance calculation by the next supply chain entity. The following figure provides an overview of calculations carried out in the pilot tests.

Figure 4: Results of ISCC and meó GHG studies

The direct change of land use, i.e. the change of forest into farmland for bioenergy, is incorporated into the greenhouse gas balances during certification. However, it would be unjustified, to blame indirect changes in land use on bioenergy only. The main driving force behind the expansion of agricultural area is the growth of population and the increased prosperity in many developing and transition countries.

The pilot certifications for different feedstock and biofuels from different countries have shown that the overall ISCC system is practical and implementable and that the different system components are ready for a larger scale use. Interest in the ISCC system in different countries and from countries that are exporting to the EU and have to fulfill the RED requirements is high and ISCC receives many requests for certification. As the RED was officially published beginning of June and as Member States have to transfer it into national law within 18 months, the pressure to implement an international certification scheme for sustainability and GHG emissions is increasing. Market participants will soon be obliged to proof that the feedstock used and the biofuel or bioliquid produced is sustainable and reaches the minimum GHG savings.

Therefore, a global roll-out of the ISCC system, based on the pilot results is a logical consequence of developments and achievements reached so far. A unit taking care of practical operations will be set up, to be headed by an Executive Board which is voted in a General Assembly. Relevant stakeholders along the supply chains from all regions and NGOs should be represented in the General Assembly, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3: Interaction between stakeholders and operational certification scheme

Technical Working groups will be set up to address matters arising, e.g. coverage of land use change in GHG calculation, mass balance requirements, sustainability requirements for biomass for 2nd generation biofuels.

A key factor for the success of this programme is the qualification of the certifiers. They have to be made familiar with the requirements of ISCC through training courses. Here, a crucial qualification building block is the transfer of knowledge with regards to so-called “no-go areas”. No certificates are to be issued for biomass originating from these areas.

CONCLUSIONS Independence, non-discrimination, transparency and an international orientation characterise the ISCC. ISCC is a certification scheme based on practical experience gained in several pilots ensuring that the reality of global commodity markets and complex supply chains are taken care of. The ISCC Label is to be a trusted method to differentiate between sustainable and non-sustainable biomass and bioenergy. It is to provide a label for farmers and processors around the world allowing them to document sustainable practices to customers with a reliable label. In addition, ISCC provides a platform for the necessary future stakeholder dialogue to promote sustainability practices.

If the certification of bioenergy establishes itself, other markets will follow and no longer utilise biomass of questionable origin. The process will go

beyond energy plants. One day, the food or cosmetics industry will no longer be able to elude certification. In the long run, it is inconceivable that the more valuable part of a shipload is processed into biofuels, while industries with a higher finishing grade take on the uncertified rest.

The general public’s expectations are very high. A certification is to prevent unwanted agricultural practices worldwide. Initially, any system would be overburdened with this. Realistic expectations have to be placed on the certification system, as certification will not be able to solve all problems of the world. But the ISCC Project is making a start, and will improve its operational systems. Jointly with NGOs and other stakeholders the ISCC is continuously being developed further in terms of a learning system. It is a cooperative process, which is shaped with partners from many different countries. This approach invites everybody, who wants to contribute, to join in.

C23

Characterization of Palm and Rice Bran Oil Biodiesel to Assess the Feasibility for Power

Generation

T.Eevera*; P.Balamurugan+ ; K.Rajendran* and S.Chittibabu*

ABSTRACT

Methyl Esters of Palm oil and Rice bran oil were tested in a direct injection, naturally aspirated, single cylinder diesel engine .The diesel engine was operated with biofuels from no load to full load condition. Effect of different biofuels on engine parameters, namely fuel consumption, Electrical efficiency, Lower heating value, Higher heating value, engine speed was examined and also the physical and chemical properties like specific gravity, moisture content, refractive index, acid value; iodine number, saponification value and peroxide value of the two methyl esters used in this study were estimated. Based on the Cetane number and Iodine value, the methyl esters obtained from palm oil was found not suitable to use as biodiesel in cold weather conditions, but for hot climate condition biodiesel obtained from palm and rice bran sources were found suitable. Based on Electrical efficiency the methyl esters obtained from Palm oil was found to be very good. Keywords: Biodiesel, Fuel consumption, Electrical efficiency, Lower Heating Value, Higher Heating Value, Voltage regulation, Speed regulation

__________________________________________________________________

* Department of Biotechnology + Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Periyar Maniammai University, Periyar Nagar, Vallam, Thanjavur – 613403, India

INTRODUCTION

The increased use of diesel fuel resulted in depletion of its fossil reserves. This triggers for many initiatives to search for alternate fuel, which can supplement or replace fossil fuels. In recent years, research has been directed to explore plants oils & fats as sustainable energy sources. (Martini and Shell,1998).The primary problem with straight vegetable oil and animal fat as fuels in a internal combustion engine is their high viscosity. It is known that fuels with high viscosity cause several serious problems to engine performance and operation (Yahya and Marley,1994; Goering et al.,1987).Among the methods that had been widely investigated to reduce the viscosity of vegetable oils and animal fat was chemically transforming these two into their corresponding esters. This fuel is called biodiesel and the chemical process is known as transesterification. Biodiesel had been found suitable for use as fuel in diesel engine (Harrington, 1986). The commission white paper European policy predicts that by the year 2010, the CO2 emission from transport will have risen to about 1113million tons annually (Gvindonas Labeckas and Stasys Slavinskas,2006), with the main responsibility resting on road transport, which accounts for 84% of the transport related CO2 emission. Most studies on biodiesel reported that emission of carbon dioxide (CO2), total particulate matter, and carbon monoxide (CO) were reduced with biodiesel while the oxides of nitrogen (NOx) increased. However, because biodiesel does not contain sulfur, catalytic converter technology is more effective at countering NOx emissions. Moreover, biodiesel degrades quickly in the environment and is non-toxic. US Environmental Protection Agency and Food & Drug Administration verified biodiesel as clean alternative fuel or additional fuel (Yuan-Chung Lin et al., 2006). Additionally, US congress has passed legislation allowing Federal and state fleet managers to meet the Energy Policy Act (EPACT) alternative fuel vehicle acquisition requirements by using biodiesel added to conventional diesel at a blend of 20% and higher.

Throughout the world, including India and other developing countries, the local economy cannot afford the frequent hikes in imported oil prices. Every time oil prices soar, a renewed interest in alternative energy sources emerges.

Based on the arguments presented above, this study was carried out and was intended as a comparative study of plant oil based methyl esters as replacement for diesel fuel taking into account the traditional and more recent developments in the utilization of alternative fuels in diesel engines. The main objective of the study was to examine the engine performance and power generation potential of Palm and Rice bran oil based biofuel in addition to physical and chemical characterization of the two methyl esters.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The alternative test fuels used in this study was biodiesel obtained from Palm oil and Rice bran oil. Methyl esters of above said oils were prepared through transesterification process. Physical and chemical properties of methyl esters were estimated (Hodl, 1994; Demirbas Ayhan, 1998) under laboratory conditions. The Cetane Number (CN) and Higher Heating Values (HHV) were calculated (Mohibbe Azam et al., 2005; Demirbas Ayhan, 1998) from the following equation by using the estimated Saponification value (SV) and Iodine Value (IV).

CN = 46.3 + 5458/SV – 0.225 x IV (1) HHV = 49.43 – [0.041(SV) + 0.015(IV)] (2)

The engine used in all test runs was a diesel engine model IS4722, single stroke, natural cooling, direct injection, with a specification of single phase,5KVA,220V, 22A, 1500 RPM. The engine was originally designed and optimized to operate on diesel fuel. To establish the baseline data, engine was operated with diesel at different load condition. Similarly test run was performed for other biofuels at different load conditions. Each test run was started by a 15-min start-up period to attain steady state conditions and minimize any residuals from the previous fuel. From the different test run data were collected and related to fuel consumption at different load condition, voltage regulation at no load(V0) to full load(V) condition and speed regulation at no load(N0) to full load(N) condition mainly to calculate voltage and speed regulation based on the formula given below.

Voltage regulation (%) = V0-V/V x100 (3) Speed regulation (%) = N0-N/N x 100 (4)

A simulation has been carried out based on the fuel consumption, Higher

Heating Value and Fuel Density value recorded from the test run using HOMER, micro power optimization software developed by National Renewable Energy Lab, USA to find out specific fuel consumption, annual fuel consumption and Electrical efficiency of engine based on the load pattern given in the fig.1.It simulates the operation of a system by making energy balance calculations for each of the 8,760 hours in a year. For each hour, the electric demand in the hour has been compared to the energy that the system can supply in that hour. The size and shape of the load profile will vary from day to day in reality. To make the load data realistic a noise input is added to the hourly and daily data. So daily noise causes the size of the load profile to vary randomly from day to day, but the shape stays the same. So the hourly noise disturbs the shape of the load profile without affecting its size. By combining daily and hourly noise, we can create realistic-looking load data. For this simulation 10% hourly variation and 5% daily variation in the load profile is added.


Methyl Ester Chemical and Physical Property

Fuel properties like specific gravity, moisture content, refractive index, Acid Value (AV); Iodine Value (IV), Saponification value (SV) and Peroxide Value (PV) were estimated. The Cetane Number (CN) and Higher Heating Values (HHV) of methyl ester were calculated based on the estimated SV and IV is given in table 1 and 2.

Table.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTY OF METHYL ESTERS S.No Name of the

fuel Specific gravity

Moisture content (wt%)

Viscosity (10-6 N.s/m2

Refractive index

1. 2.

Rice bran Palm

0.877 0.870

0.68 0.19

18.93 17.80

1.4486 1.4416

Table.2 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTCS OF METHYL ESTERS S.No Name of the

fuel AV SV IV PV HHV

(kJ/g) CN

1. 2.

Palm Rice bran

0.2 0.4

201 188

57 100

11.31 15.02

40.334 40.222

60.62 52.83

CN is the ability of fuel to ignite quickly after being injected. Better

ignition quality of the fuel is always associated with higher CN value. This is one of the important parameter, which is considered during the selection of methyl esters for use as biodiesel. For this different countries/organization have specified different minimum values. Biodiesel standards of USA (ASTM D 6751), Germany (DIN 51606) and European Organization (EN 14214) have set this value as 47, 49, and 51, respectively. In our experiment all the methyl esters have CN value of higher than 51.

Another important criterion for selection of methyl esters is its degree of

unsaturation, which is measured as Iodine Value. To an extent, the presence of unsaturated fatty acid component in methyl esters is required as it restricts the methyl esters from solidification. However, with higher degree of unsaturation, methyl esters are not suitable for biodiesel as the unsaturated molecules react with atmospheric Oxygen and are converted to peroxides, cross-linking at the unsaturation site can occur and the material may get polymerized. . At high temperature, commonly found in an internal combustion engine, the process can get accelerated and the engine can quickly become gummed up with the polymerized methyl esters. To avoid this, biodiesel standards have set a minimum limit of Iodine Value in their specifications. Both the species, which qualify the specification of CN, also meet the specification of Iodine Value. Both of them

have Iodine Value less than 100, the lowest maximum limit among the three biodiesel standards set by European Organization (EN14214).

Generally, methyl esters with higher CN are favored for use as biodiesel.

However, with increase of Cetane Number, Iodine Value decreases which means degree of unsaturation decreases. This situation will lead to the solidification of methyl esters at higher temperature. To avoid this situation, the upper limit of CN (65) has been specified in US biodiesel standard (ASTM PS 121-99). Among the two methyl esters, which already met the specification of CN and IV of biodiesel standards, except palm ester have low Iodine Value (<57.0) and exceed the upper limit of CN. So palm methyl ester is not suitable to use as a biodiesel in the cold weather conditions. Engine Performance and Power Generation Feasibility Assessment: From the test run, fuel consumption was recorded at different load condition in terms of Liter per hour is listed in Table 3 for the test fuels in comparison with Diesel. A simulation has been carried out based on the fuel consumption, Higher Heating Value and Fuel Density (Fig.1) value recorded from Table.3 FUEL CONSUMPTION (liter per hour) AT DIFFERENT LOAD CONDITION Name of the fuel

Load in kW 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Palm Rice bran Diesel

0.30 0.30 0.30

0.60 1.10 0.60

1.10 1.20 1.10

1.60 1.70 1.50

2.20 2.40 2.00

2.50 2.80 2.30

the test run using HOMER, micro power optimization software developed by National Renewable Energy Lab, USA to find out specific fuel consumption, annual fuel consumption and Electrical efficiency of engine based on the load pattern given in the fig.2.

Fig.1 Density value for diferent biofuels

Fig.2 Load profile with respect to time

From the simulation study we got the following information related to Engine performance and power generation related properties like Electrical Efficiency, Specific fuel usage, and annual fuel consumption were estimated for the biofuels from Palm and Rice bran in comparison with diesel. Fig.3 shows the specific fuel consumption for different biodiesels, this result revealed that biodiesel was such an oxygenated fuel that can increase combustion efficiency in diesel engines. 100 percent biodiesel caused incomplete combustion in the diesel-engine generator and impeded the release of energy from

the fuel. Hence, diesel engines need to be modified to cope with 100% biodiesel (Yuan-Chung Lin et al., 2006).

Fig.3 Specific fuel consumption for different biofuels

In this experiment, Comparison of lower heating values between Palm and Rice bran oil based biofuels with diesel is shown in Fig.4.

Fig.4 Lower heating values of different fuels

The values of higher Lower Heating Value and lower volume of specific fuel consumption leads to increase in electrical efficiency of palm and Rice bran

oil (Fig.5). But Palm and Rice bran oil based methyl esters electrical efficiency was found to be lower than the diesel fuel.

Fig.5 Mean electrical efficieny of different biofuels

Speed regulation (Fig.6) and Voltage regulation (Fig.7) data of different

biofuels shows that all the fuel we can used in the already existing diesel engine like that of diesel.

Fig.6 Voltage regulation of biofuels and diesel

Fig.7 Speed regulation of biouels and diesel

Amount of different fuel required for one year for the given load profile also calculated through the simulation (Fig.8).

Fig.8 Fuel consumption for different biofuels Even though the plant oil based methyl esters yield lower electrical efficiency when compared to diesel, the situation like increased use of diesel fuel resulted in depletion of fossil reserves and increased crude oil price will certainly

demands the use of plant oil based methyl esters to fill the gap generated by the depleting fossil fuel. The problems of unexploited fallow lands and unemployed laborers could be solved at the same time by cultivating edible and non-edible oil yielding plants used to produce vegetable oil-based biodiesel.

CONCLUSION This study shows that the speed and voltage regulation of different biofuel is behaving like a diesel. Methyl ester obtained from Palm oil electrical efficiency is comparable with diesel but based on physical and chemical property palm oil based methyl ester not suitable in the cold weather condition.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors thank Department of Science and Technology, Government of India for funding under Young Scientist scheme.

REFERENCES

Biodiesel standard, DIN V51606, Germany 1994. Biodiesel standard, EN14214, European Standards Organization 2003. Biodiesel standard, ASTM D6751, USA 1999. Biodiesel standard, ASTM PS 121, USA 1999. DEMIRBAS AYHAN, (1998). Fuel properties and calculation of higher heating values of vegetable oils. Fuel, 77, 1117–20. GOERING, C., SCHROCK, M., KAUFMAN, K., HANNA, M., HARRIS, F., MERELY.(1987). Evaluation of vegetable oils as fuel in diesel engines. Fuel Processing Technology, 76, 91-103. GVINDONAS LABECKAS, STASYS SLAVINSKAS, (2006). The effect of rapeseed oil methyl esters on direct injection Diesel engine performance and exhaust emission. Energy Conversion and Management ,47, 1954-1967. HARRINGTON, K.J., (1986).Chemical and physical properties of vegetable oil esters and their effect on diesel fuel performance. Biomass, 9, 1–17. HODL, P., (1994). Handbook of analytical methods for fatty acid methyl esters used as biodiesel fuel substitutes.Vienna: Research Institute for Chemistry and Technology.

MARTINI, N., SHELL, J.S., (1998) .Plant oils as fuels – present state of science and future development. Springer, Berlin, pp. 276. MOHIBBE AZAM, M., WARIS AMTUL, NAHAR, N.M., (2005). Prospects and potential of fatty acid methyl esters of some non-traditional seed oils for use as biodiesel in India. Biomass and Bioenergy, 29, 293–302. YAHYA, A., MARLEY, S.,(1994). Performance and exhaust emissions of a IC engine operating on ester fuels at increased injection pressure and advanced timing. Biomass and Bioenergy, 6(4), 297-319. YUAN-CHUNG LIN, WEN-JHY LEE, HSIAO-CHUNG HOU, 2006. PAH emission and energy efficiency of palm-biodiesel blends fueled on diesel generator. Atmospheric Environment, 40, 3930- 3940

C24

Development of Production Process of Bio-diesel and Utilisation in High Speed Diesel Engine

Watchara Permchart 1 and Somporn Tanatvanit 2,*

ABSTRACT

In Thailand, used vegetable oil (UVO) has been taken into accounted to be used as suitable raw material for producing bio-diesel with the reasons of waste management and healthy problem. This paper presents not only a new technique for washing of bio-diesel by using air-bubble washing technique but some experimental tests of using bio-diesel as the fuel in high speed diesel engine as well. For a study on washing process development, it was found that the suitable amount of CH3OH and NaOH (as a catalyst) were found to be 200 cc. and 6.6 g for one litre of UVO, respectively. With time interval of 3 hrs of air-bubble washing, the quantity of water used for washing was found to be reduced in the range of 50 – 60% whereas the cost of power consumption resulted from air jet pump used to generate air-bubble was found to be added cost by 0.0075 baht per litre of UVO. However, total production cost of bio-diesel with 3-hr air-bubble washing technique was found to be lower than that of water washing by 0.15 baht per litre of UVO. To study the effects of using bio-diesel on performance of high speed diesel engine, the experimental tests were set by using a 2,500 cc. diesel engine of light truck as a sample engine. The power of engine as well as fuel consumption were investigated by using B10, B20, B50 and B100 as the fuels compared to those of diesel oil. The engine speeds were set in the range of 1,000 – 5,000 rpm. The results showed that the maximum power outputs of engine were found at 4,000 rpm of engine speed. Meanwhile, powers of engine in laboratory test were found to be 61.2, 60.1, 58.7, 55.6 and 53.4 kW whereas fuel consumptions were found to be 25.32, 26.25, 27.66, 28.76 and 31.30 l/hr when diesel oil, B10, B20, B50 and B100 were used as the fuels, respectively. Additionally, some field tests of using B100 and diesel oil as the fuel for a 2,500 cc. light truck at speed in the range of 100 – 110 km/hr, it was found that fuel consumption of B100 was found to be higher than that of diesel oil in the range of 8.4 – 9.8%. __________________________

1 Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkhut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang (KMITL), Bangkok 10520, Thailand. 2 Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Ramkhamhaeng University, Bangkok 10240, Thailand. * Corresponding author. Tel. 66-2-943-8220, Fax: 66-2-943-8284, E-mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION As known, there are various kinds of vegetable oils and animal fats, which are used as the raw materials for producing bio-diesel (Ramadhas et al., 2003). Mostly, vegetable oils are much more popular to be used as the raw materials for producing bio-diesel than animal fats due to they are plentiful reserves in the country and their changeable prices as about agricultural products in local market for food industries. Although vegetable oils can be directly used as the fuel in I.C. diesel engines by blending with diesel oil called hybrid bio-diesel, the many differences in their characteristics make various limitations for using as the fuel in diesel engine, particularly in high speed diesel engine as reported by Janwanichpanchakul, (2005).

Therefore, transesterification is considered to be the most suitable process to change some unsuitable characteristics of vegetable oil for using as the fuel in high speed diesel engine because product from transesterification process was found to be the most similar characteristics to those of diesel oil (Asawapadungsit et al., 2004; Sureshkumar et al., 2008). Bio-diesel producers in Thailand generally use transesterification process to produce bio-diesel (DEB, 2009).

In addition, Amaranan, (2006) reported that vegetable oil, specifically used

vegetable oil (UVO) has been taken into accounted to be used as suitable raw material for producing bio-diesel through transesterification process for Thailand with two main reasons; 1) the abundant reserves available in the country (of over 600 Ml/year), and 2) to solve the problems of illegal re-used of UVO affecting to the public health.

However, transesterification process still has to be continually developed to

achieve an optimum production process as well as lowest cost with a high yield and quality bio-diesel. This paper presents a new technique for washing of bio-diesel by using air-bubble washing technique. Additionally, some experimental tests of using bio-diesel as the fuel in high speed diesel engine are also presented.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Air-bubble Technique for Washing Process Technique of using air-bubble for washing process in production of bio-diesel, or called inverse Idaho washing, was developed by Idaho University in 2005 (Hill, 2006). Air-bubbles were generated by an air jet pump and injected into the bottom of conical reactor tank. Then, air-bubbles were floated to the surface of vegetable oil with methanol and blown out into a methanol recovery device. Meanwhile, the impurities were deposited at the bottom part of reactor tank. In a batch producing bio-diesel tests, 2,000 cc. of methanol and 66 g of sodium hydroxide were reacted with 10 litre of UVO in reactor tank. Reaction time was found to be 90 minutes at constant speed 60 rpm of stirring blade. Then, the process was complete and shut-down for 12 hrs. Methyl ester (or bio-diesel) and glycerin were separated. Bio-diesel was transferred to process of washing to reduce pH value. The experimental tests of air-bubble washing were set for three treatments; 1, 3 and 4 hrs of air-bubble washings. The results would be compared to that of washing by water.

2

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up for engine performance test.

Investigating on some characteristics of bio-diesel. There were some important characteristics of produced bio-diesel, which were investigated at the government standard laboratory as followed to the DEB’s notification of prescribing the characteristics and qualities of commercial bio-diesel (DEB, 2005) as well as the DEB’s notification of prescribing the characteristics of community bio-diesel for agricultural engines (DEB, 2006). Experimental Set-up for Engine Performance Tests Figure 1 shows the experimental set-up for testing of engine performance. The specification of engine was direct injection type with 2,500 cc. 4 cylinders. As seen, power of engine was measured by AW-dynamometer; meanwhile, values of pressures in each cylinder were recorded via pressure transducer connected to data acquisition device. In addition, fuel consumption and gaseous emissions were also recorded during the experimental tests.


Some Physical Properties of Produced Bio-diesel Laboratory tests for producing B100 with three treatments of air-bubble washings (i.e. 1, 3 and 4 hrs) compared to that of convention water washing are shown in Table 1. Some characteristics of produced B100 are compared.

TABLE 1. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF BIO-DIESEL PRODUCED FROM UVO BY USING VARIOUS WASHING PROCESSES

Diesel properties

Water washing

Air-bubble 1 hr

Air-bubble 3 hr

Air-bubble 4 hr

Heating value (MJ/l) 39.77 35.23 35.11 35.69 35.34 Viscosity (cSt) 4.3 6.2 6.0 5.4 5.2 Density (kg/m3) 815 880 874 869 867 Total glycerin (%wt.) - 0.26 0.24 0.23 0.23 pH value 7.0 6.0 5.3-6.0 5.9-6.2 6.2-6.3

3

http://www.doeb.go.th/eng/images/engine_oil47.pdf



As seen, when the period of time for air-bubble washing was increased, four physical properties of bio-diesel, namely viscosity, density, total glycerin and pH value were closed to those of diesel oil and seemed to be given better B100’s properties. Noticeably, with washing by air-bubble after 3 hrs, properties of bio-diesel were found to be almost constant. Therefore, the period of time for air-bubble washing at 3 hrs should be the most suitable. However, the production cost for producing B100 with air-bubble washing was also analysed and evaluated in term of economic investment, which was discussed in the next sub-heading. Production Cost of Bio-diesel with Air-bubble Washing As shown in Table 1, even though air-bubble washing was found to obtain similar properties of B100 compared to that water washing method, it needed more power (electricity) consumption resulted from air jet pump. However, not only amount of water used in air-bubble washing was found to be reduced but the energy used for wastewater treatment was found to be decreased. Table 2 shows the cost for producing B100 by using 3-hr air-bubble washing per 10 litres of UVO. It was found that the added cost from power consumption of air jet pump was 0.075 baht per 10 litres of UVO or 0.0075 baht/l. Total cost for producing B100 by using 3-hr air-bubble washing was found to be 15.62 bath per litre of UVO (lower than that of water washing by 0.15 bath per litre of UVO) or 18.38 baht per litre of B100 (production yield of B100 was of 85%); meanwhile, the price of diesel oil at the gas station was in the range of 22.59 – 25.59 baht/l.

TABLE 2. TOTAL COST OF PRODUCING BIO-DIESEL BY USING AIR-BUBBLE WASHING AT 3 HOURS

Unit Cost per unit

(baht) Quantity

(unit) Total cost

(baht) UVO litre 11.7 10 117 NaOH kg 45 0.066 2.97 CH3OH litre 16.25 2 32.50 Power consumption of stirring motor kWh 3.00 1.17 3.50 Power consumption of air jet pump kWh 3.00 0.025 0.075 Water for washing m3 8.50 0.02 0.17

Performance Tests of Engine The performance tests were set-up as shown in Figure 1; meanwhile, there were 5 types of fuels used in the experimental tests, such as B10, B20, B50, B100 and diesel oil. Maximum powers of engines as well as fuel consumptions of 5 fuel types were comparatively investigated. The experimental results showed that the engine generated the maximum power at 4,000 rpm of engine speed. The powers of engine were found to be 61.2, 60.1, 58.1, 55.6 and 53.4 kW when diesel oil, B10, B20, B50 and B100 were used as the fuel as shown in Figure 2. Meanwhile, Figure 3 shows values of fuel consumption at 3,000 rpm of engine speed for each fuel type.

4

45

50

55

60

65

Diesel B10 B20 B50 B100

Max

. Pow

er o

f Eng

ine

(kW

)

Figure 2. Maximum power of engine at 4,000 rpm of engine speed for each fuel.

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

Diesel B10 B20 B50 B100

Fue

l Con

sum

ptio

n (l/

hr)

Figure 3. Fuel consumption at 3,000 rpm of engine speed for each fuel. Some experiments in field tests. In addition, the comparison between diesel oil and B100 used as the fuel for a 2,500 cc. light truck at speed in the range of 100 – 110 km/hr in field tests was performed. It was found that fuel consumption of B100 was found to be higher than that of diesel oil in the range of 8.4 – 9.8%.

CONCLUSIONS Transesterification has been considered to be the most suitable process for producing bio-diesel in Thailand. Meanwhile, vegetable oil, specifically used vegetable oil (UVO) has been taken into accounted to be used as suitable raw material for producing bio-diesel because of abundant reserves in the country and to solve the problems of public health resulted from illegal re-used of UVO. Technique of air-bubble washing for production of bio-diesel was found to be applied to washing process of bio-diesel. It was found that the air-bubble washing can reduce the cost of producing bio-diesel by 0.13 baht/l of bio-diesel.

5

6

The performance tests and field test of using B100 as the fuel in high speed diesel vehicle were found that there were no any technical problems with the engine, except a higher fuel consumption in the range of 8.4 – 9.8% compared to that of diesel oil due to its lower in heating value of about 10.3%.

REFERENCES AMARANAN, P (2006). Used vegetable oil: the most suitable raw material for producing of bio-diesel. The Foundation of Energy for Environment Newsletter. p. 4. (in Thai) ASAWAPADUNGSIT, T; NITIWATTANANON, S and WITITASAN, T (2004). Transesterification of used vegetable oil with methanol and using sodium hydroxide as a catalyst. Journal of Scientific Research, 3(2): 139 – 149. (in Thai) Department of Energy Business (2005). DEB’s notification of prescribing the characteristics and qualities of commercial bio-diesel, Ministry of Energy, Thailand. Department of Energy Business (2006). DEB’s notification of prescribing the characteristics of community bio-diesel for agricultural engines, Ministry of Energy, Thailand. Department of Energy Business (2009). List of bio-diesel (B100) supplier approved by DEB for sale and storage. Ministry of Energy, Thailand. Online available: http://www.doeb.go.th/information/stat/B100.pdf HILL, P (2006). Bubble washing bio-diesel. Online available: http://www.biodieselgear.com/bubble/biodiesle.html JANWANICHPANCHAKUL, P (2005). Bio-diesel from vegetable oil. Journal of Engineering. 58(2): 46 – 54. (in Thai) PUNNAKAN, W; SANTIWARAKAN, P and SUKHAMNIRD, C (2006). The effects of bio-diesel on diesel engine performance. KKU Engineering Journal. 33(3): 193 –208. (in Thai) RAMADHAS, A S; JAYARAI, S and MURALEEDHARAN, C (2003). Use of vegetable oils as I.C. engine fuels – A preview. Renewable Energy. 29: 31 – 42. SURESHKUMAR, K; VELRAJ, R and GANESAN, R (2008). Performance and exhaust emission characteristics of C.I. engine fueled with Pongamia Pinnata methyl ester (PPME) and its blends with diesel. Renewable Energy. 33: 2294 – 2302.





http://www.biodieselgear.com/bubble/biodiesle.html

C25

Stationary Engine and On-road Tests for Assessing the Performance of Palm Oil Biodiesel in Colombia

Jesús Alberto García*; María Antonia Amado*; Jaime Augusto Torres**; Julia Raquel Acero**; Jose Luis Sarmiento**; Mónica

Cuéllar***; Daniel Cabuya****

ABSTRACT

Colombia is a country with great opportunities for the development of alternative energies, currently this country is an exporter of palm oil, that is also a perfect feedstock for biodiesel production. Research done in Colombia with efforts of private and public organizations have managed to prove technical feasibility of the use of palm oil biodiesel blended with fossil diesel in the operating conditions of the country and with the vehicles that are available at this time. Results of test performed on an engine test cell, 5 vehicles in a short test at a dynamometer chassis and on 12 buses of the massive transportation system in Bogotá, Colombia confirm that palm oil biodiesel improves cetane number of conventional fossil diesel, improves its lubricity, reduces sulphur content and develops good performance without affecting torque, power and fuel consumption. __________________________ * Oil Palm Research Centre– CENIPALMA, Colombia ** Colombian Petroleum Institute- ECOPETROL-ICP, Colombia *** Federation of Palm Oil Growers –FEDEPALMA, Colombia **** Integrated Transport System - Sí99, Colombia

INTRODUCTION

Colombia has been seen as a country with a huge potential to invest in alternative energies. Some of the advantages that Colombia has are: multiple choices for raw materials; high crops productivity; large marginal areas available to be cultivated; structural conditions such as a guaranteed and growing domestic demand due to government incentives for biofuel programs. Excluding natural forests, protected lands and cultivated areas, Colombia has 17 million hectares available for agricultural production, and this means that biofuels production in this country does not imply the use of natural forests, protected lands or land used for food production. In addition to land availability, Colombia remains as a net exporter of sugar and palm oil, so uses of these products for biofuels production will not harm food security and will help reduce Colombia’s surpluses, and generate a positive impact on agricultural income.

The palm oil industry is an important business in countries such Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Nigeria and Colombia. Colombia is the fifth greatest palm oil producer around the world and the first one in Latin America. Despite of the fact that

Colombia has only 352.000 ha grown with oil palm (Figure 1), it has a huge potential of growing with more than 6 million ha in used land. Nowadays, Colombia produces around 750.000 ton of palm oil and in absence of Biodiesel, 40% of the oil produced should be exported (Fedepalma, 2008; UPME, 2008).

Figure 1. Colombian´s Departments where palm oil is produced.

It has been reported worldwide the advantages of biodiesel, either pure or as a

part of a blend with petroleum diesel. There are numerous papers to establish the performance of biodiesel and its blends, on both stationary engines and on-road test. Most authors agree that vehicles have a better performance due to a combustion process which is much more complete because of oxygen content in their fatty acid esters (Rojas, 2007; Demirbas, 2009). Studies with palm oil biodiesel have also shown good performance and environmental benefits that includes green houses emissions reduction (Wirawan et al, 2008). Studies of short-term tests on a Nissan microbus conducted by Universidad de Antioquia in Colombia, showed that palm biodiesel (B20 to B100) could be used on a conventional diesel engine without any modifications (Agudelo et al. 2004).

Those studies where a support to consider palm oil biodiesel production in

Colombia since biodiesel production from vegetable oils was a commercially proven fuel technology which could be used on conventional engines. Therefore, biodiesel use could help to reduce emissions from fossil fuels and improve the performance of the conventional diesel. Although in many countries biodiesel projects were already running with success, there was needed in Colombia to have a look at biodiesel quality that could be achieved with Colombian palm oil and the impact of the use of this biodiesel on its own automotive park and subjected to work on its particular weather and geographic conditions.

Consequently, we have designed different tests to prove the performance of diesel and palm oil biodiesel blends on different engines. The first one was a stationary test using blends up to B30 on an engine test cell. The second one was a test using some vehicles in dynamometer chassis. Both tests were carried out by Cenipalma (The Colombian Oil Palm Research Centre) and Colombian Petroleum

Institute (Ecopetrol ICP). This paper discusses both tests, which supported the hole set up of the biodiesel program in Colombia, which start with a mandatory use of B5 back in 2008. Furthermore, these results were the starting point for a long-term test of using biodiesel blends (B5-B50) in a public transportation fleet. The objectives of the long-term test were: to prove the performance of palm oil biodiesel during vehicles regular operation for extended periods (100.000 km), support the use of palm biodiesel in Colombia and provide the government with technical data to support an increase of biodiesel in the mandatory blend. This trial was developed by Cenipalma, the Colombian Petroleum Institute and Sí99, an operator of Transmilenio, the massive transportation system in Bogotá, Colombia. During this investigation, more than 6 million passengers used the buses on the test; each on one travelled an average of 100.00 kilometres which together means more than one million kilometres driven. Cold flow properties of palm biodiesel, compatibility of the fuel with conventional elastomers and biodiesel NOx emissions were some of the topics addressed by this study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chassis and engine dynamometer tests Palm oil biodiesel was obtained from a Colombian producer that had a pilot

scale facility for the transesterificaction process and used refined palm oil as the feedstock biodiesel was analyzed according to the standards EN14214 and ASTM 6751 and compared to fuel quality requirements for diesel in Colombia (Resolution 182087/2007). Biodiesel blends were prepared with 2, 5, 10, 20 and 30% of palm oil biodiesel. Biodiesel blends performance was analysed using a cummins-160, turbocharged engine with direct injection fuel system (6BT5.9). Five (5) different vehicles (Chevrolet NPR 66L, Mitsubishi Canter FE659, Chevrolet Corsa GL, Chevrolet NPR 66P and Mercedes Benz LO-712) were also tested on a dynamometer test system (MD-100-M-HD) to confirm results obtained. Long- term test

For the long-term test, twelve articulated busses from the fleet of Sí99 were selected, operating in Bogotá, Colombia, located at 2600 masl with an average temperature of 14°C which is close to the pour point for palm biodiesel. The buses were grouped in pairs and ran on B0, B5, B10, B20, B30 and B50. They were compared in terms of engine, vehicle performance, fuel economy and emissions during 100.000 km each. The vehicles chosen for this study were Mercedes Benz O-400-UPA, CONAMA (phase IV), with capacity for 160 passengers (48 seated). All buses had an average 400.000 driven km so they were subjected to an overhauling of their injection system (pump and injectors) in order to get them evaluated at a similar mechanical state.

A base line was constructed by running the 12 buses with 100% fossil diesel during a period of 10.000 km, One of the couples continued using fossil diesel (Buses U154 and U155) the others operated with biodiesel blends of 5% (U156 and U157), 10% (U158 and U159), 20% (U160 and U161), 30% (U162 and U163) and 50% (U164 and U165). Every bus travelled an average 100,000 km.

On-road fuel economy was based upon records provided by Sí99 taken daily

on board of vehicles by an acquisition data system (FM200). A portable sampling

system for exhaust gases (DOES-2), developed by Environment Technology Centre from Canada´s Ministry of Environment and licensed to ECOPETROL S.A., was used for emissions evaluation. All buses were submitted to mechanical inspections of their injection systems, analysis were carried out by Maxdiesel & Turbos, the official representative of Bosch in Colombia.


Tests on stationary engine

Palm oil biodiesel fuel properties were tested for quality assurance; results obtained are shown in Table 1. According to these analysis it can be stated that palm oil biodiesel meets quality requirements for diesel fuel which means that it had the potential to be used as a an alternative to this fuel. The only issue that should be handled carefully was related to cold flow properties, since palm oil biodiesel has a high pour point that makes its use suitable only in tropical conditions but still allows its use as part of a blend with fossil diesel. Changes on the pour point of a diesel-biodiesel blend due to biodiesel addition are shown in Figure 2. Regular and extra diesel came from Barrancabermeja refinery in Colombia and diesel number 2 (sulphur content of less than 500 ppm) was imported from United States.

TABLE 1. QUALITY SPECIFICATIONS FOR PALM OIL BIODIESEL

PROPERTY TEST METHOD UNITS

Specifications for diesel fuel

(Resolution 182087/2007)

Colombian palm oil biodiesel

produced in a pilot scale plant

API Gravity ASTM D 4052 °API Report 30,8 Density (15°C) ASTM D 4052 g/mL --- 0,8716 Viscosity (40°C) ASTM D 445 mm2/s 1,9 - 5,0 4,43 Cetane number ASTM D613 --- min 47 67,6 Flash point ASTM D 92/93 °C min 120 185 Pour point ASTM D 97 °C 3 12 Cloud point ASTM D 2500 °C Report 16

Thermal stability ASTM D6468 % min 70 99.2 ASTM D 1500 --- -------- 4,0/4,5

Storage stability (3 weeks /6 weeks)

ASTM D4625 mg/100 mL max 1.5 0,47 / 0,34

ASTM color ASTM D 1500 --- -------- 0,9

Copper strip corrosion

ASTM D 130 --- 1 1a

Carbon residue ASTM D4530 % mass max 0,3 <0,1 Sulfated ash ASTM D 874 % mass max 0,02 <0,005

Water content ASTM D 95 mg / kg max 500 500

Acid number ASTM D 664 mg KOH/g max 0,8 <0,10

Heat of combustion ASTM D 240 MJ/kg Report 40.025

‐20

‐15

‐10

‐5

0

5

Regular diesel

Premium diesel

Diesel No.2B0 B2 B5 B10 B20 B30

Figure 2. Pour point (°C) for different diesel-biodiesel blends

Performance of these blends was tested on an engine Cummins 160. Table 2 shows a comparison of fuel consumption, torque and power output of the test engine for palm oil biodiesel blends and reference petroleum diesel tested at different pressures that were selected to simulate different altitudes for Colombian locations compare to mean sea level. Although there were no major differences, it can be appreciated that torque and power output with biodiesel blends was slightly lower than those for the petroleum diesel. TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF FUEL CONSUMPTION, TORQUE AND POWER OUTPUT FOR PALM OIL BIODIESEL BLENDS (Cummins 160)

P [mbar] Blend

REGULAR DIESEL PREMIUM DIESEL

Torque Power Fuel

consumptiom [g/kW-h]

Torque Power Fuel

consumptiom [g/kW-h]

N-m % var. kw % var. average % var. N-m % var. kw % var. average % var.

1000

B0 623,93 --- 136,97 --- 223,02 --- 620,77 ‐‐‐ 131,69 ‐‐‐ 233,91 ‐‐‐

B2 626,22 -0,37 137,82 -0,62 214,14 3,98 619,85 0,15 132,71 ‐0,77 232,64 0,54

B5 624,85 -0,15 138,78 -1,32 184,67 17,20 617,55 0,52 133,22 ‐1,16 233,07 0,36

B10 626,44 -0,40 138,49 -1,11 224,6 -0,71 619,41 0,22 134,81 ‐2,37 227,39 2,79

B20 624,63 -0,11 138,90 -1,41 225,76 -1,23 618,48 0,37 134,16 ‐1,88 232,24 0,71

B30 622,85 0,17 136,15 0,60 233,07 -4,51 610,06 1,73 129,62 1,57 241,21 ‐3,12

900

B0 589,12 --- 133,63 --- 332,34 --- 580,54 ‐‐‐ 131,11 ‐‐‐ 241,44 ‐‐‐

B2 593,24 -0,70 137,2 -2,67 275,94 16,97 568,38 2,09 129,18 1,47 244,06 ‐1,09

B5 595,70 -1,12 135,21 -1,18 282,9 14,88 586,11 ‐0,96 132,10 ‐0,76 234,28 2,97

B10 598,80 -1,64 134,87 -0,93 304,41 8,40 579,18 0,23 130,95 0,12 241,46 ‐0,01

B20 595,34 -1,06 133,39 0,18 313,28 5,74 584,16 ‐0,62 130,48 0,48 245,80 ‐1,81

B30 583,72 0,92 131,49 1,60 308,11 7,29 572,00 1,47 127,78 2,54 248,98 ‐3,12

800 B0 545,41 --- 127,69 --- 322,96 --- 523,61 ‐‐‐ 123,20 ‐‐‐ 257,42 ‐‐‐

B2 543,73 0,31 127,54 0,12 305,41 5,43 521,22 0,46 122,01 0,97 257,30 0,05

B5 538,4 1,29 126,13 1,22 307,38 4,82 528,00 ‐0,84 125,15 ‐1,58 248,03 3,65

B10 547,66 -0,41 129,71 -1,58 363,63 -12,59 527,52 ‐0,75 122,96 0,19 255,99 0,56

B20 539,48 1,09 126,98 0,56 425,77 -31,83 529,71 ‐1,16 123,14 0,05 259,35 ‐0,75

B30 532,72 2,33 125,14 2,00 401,67 -24,37 516,97 1,27 123,77 ‐0,46 263,88 ‐2,51

Performance of palm oil biodiesel on a dynamometer chassis

These results mentioned above were confirmed by tests carried out with pure

palm oil biodiesel and fossil diesel fuel on 5 different vehicles (Chevrolet NPR 66L, Mitsubishi Canter FE659, Chevrolet Corsa GL, Chevrolet NPR 66P and Mercedes Benz LO-712) on a dynamometer chassis. There was obtained an average value of 41,4 kW for palm oil biodiesel power compare to 44,4 and 44,2 kW for regular and premium diesel. Average torque value registered for palm oil biodiesel was 160,6 N-m compare to 172,5 and 170,6 N-m. Biodiesel emissions were also assessed and the results obtained are shown in Figure 3, these values confirm environmental benefits of palm oil biodiesel with a reduction on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and particulate matter (PM). There is also a decrease in nitrogen oxides emissions (NOx) which is an important characteristic of palm oil due to its high cetane number can improve NOx emissions opposed to biodiesel from oils with more unsaturated fatty acid. There were also carried out tests with the blends of diesel-palm oil biodiesel that confirm these results (data not shown).

53%

7%

20%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Particulate matter Carbon dioxide Nitrogen oxides

Em

issi

ons %

Regular dieselPremium dieselPalm oil biodiesel

Figure 3. Comparison of GHG emissions from fossil diesel and palm oil biodiesel. These results show that in Colombia it was possible to start a biodiesel

program using surplus of palm oil production which would also help to increase agricultural income, reduce foreign oil dependency and support the creation of new jobs. In addition environmental benefits of palm oil biodiesel will help to reduce contamination on main cities in Colombia which has high pollution levels due to the use of fossil fuels for transportation.

On 2008 Colombia started producing palm oil biodiesel on a commercial

scale, nowadays the country has 5 biodiesel plants which average installed capacity is

http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306261908001967

100.000 ton per year, most of the country is already employing the blend B5 and some parts of the country have also started to use B7. It is expected that as soon as new biodiesel facilities are operating in Colombia this percentage increases gradually. By the end of year 2010, Colombia will have a blend of B10 all around the country. Although operational and environmental benefits of palm biodiesel had been proven, there was still caution on the behavior of this biofuel during a regular operation for extended periods of time, specially with blends with higher biodiesel content. Consequently the result of the long-term test with the massive transport fleet in Bogotá will help to understand biodiesel behavior on real operating conditions in a city with an average temperature that was very close to the pour point for palm oil biodiesel but still has the opportunity to use it as a part o a blend with fossil diesel. Long-term test with palm oil biodiesel blends

For the success of the trial diesel-biodiesel blends, quality was verified according to new resolution for this fuel in Colombia (Resolution 182087/2007), Table 3 shows the result obtained. All blends used, met quality specifications and also showed improvements on some of the properties of the diesel like sulphur content reduction due to dilution effect, better lubricity value and an improvement on cetane number. With these blends 12 buses travelled an average of 100.000 kilometres under normal operating conditions for about 18 months using blends of B0, B5, B10, B20 and B50. Fuel economy data registered through the test period was compared to the historical range from Sí99 fleet, showed that fuel economy is not affected by addition of palm oil biodiesel to the fossil diesel, Figure 4. Environmental properties were also confirmed, smoke opacity trends during the test showed that palm biodiesel addition lead to an improvement on the buses opacity values as it is shown in Figures 5 and 6.

TABLE 3. QUALITY OF DIESEL-PALM BIODIESEL BLENDS DURING THE LONG TERM TEST ACCORDING COLOMBIAN SPECIFICATIONS

Property Test method Spec.

Blend of diesel-palm biodiesel B5 B10 B20 B30 B50

Sulfur (%mass) ASTM D4294 0,1

max 0,073 0,071 0,056 0,048 0,037

Density (g/mL) ASTM D4052 Report 0,855 0,856 0,857 0,859 0,864

Carbon R (%mass) ASTM D4530 0,2 max <0,10 <0,10 <0,10 <0,10 <0,10

Viscosity (40°C) ASTM D445 1,9-

4,1 2,929 2,947 3,069 3,255 3,530

Flash P. (°C) ASTM D93 52

min 65,7 65,6 67,0 70,5 78,0

Ash (%mass) ASTM D482 0,01

max <0,001 <0,001 <0,001 <0,001 <0,001

Lubricity (µm) ASTM D6079 450

max 246,8 236,4 223,2 212,8 207,0

FBP (°C)

ASTM D-86

360 max 344,6 345,8 343,6 344,6 341,9

Cetane number ASTM D613 45

min 48,0 47,7 51,0 54,4 59,6

Pour point (°C)

ASTM D97 3 max -18,0 -13,5 -9,0 -3,0 3,0

Cloud P. (°C) ASTM D2500 Report -10,3 -9,8 -8,0 -2,0 3,0

CFPP (°C) ASTM D6371 Report -17,5 -16,8 -14,0 -8,5 -1,0

Range of Sí99 fleet

Figure 6. Fuel economy of the buses during the test.

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

Opa

city

(%

)

Crossed Kilometres

SÍ99 SELF-REGULATION

LEGAL MAXIMUM

HISTORICAL RANGE TEST BUSESB0

B5B10B20

Figure 5. Opacity trends for B0, B5, B10 and B20

B0B30

B50

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

Opa

city

(%)

Crossed Kilometres

LEGAL MAXIMUM

SÍ99 SELF-REGULATION

HISTORICAL RANGE TEST BUSES

Figure 6. Opacity trends for B0, B30 and B50.

The result for the on-road test emissions corroborated once more environmental benefits from palm oil biodiesel, there were reductions up to 32% on particulate matter and a decrease on CO2 emissions of 6% compared to conventional diesel. Teardown analysis of the fuel injection systems of the vehicles (pumps and injectors) showed that there was no irregular wear on the parts resulting from diesel-palm biodiesel blends use showing that there is not need to worry about damage of the injection system when a biodiesel that meets quality specifications is used.

CONCLUSIONS

Diesel and palm oil biodiesel blends showed good performance on conventional diesel engines without the need of any modification. Although pure palm oil biodiesel has a high pour point it can still be used as part of a blend with fossil diesel. This was proven for blends up to 50% palm biodiesel evaluated in Bogota´s weather conditions (2600 masl and an average temperature of 14°C) on articulated buses of the massive transportation system without presenting any operational problems. Results obtained during the research carried out in Colombia shows the technical feasibility of using palm oil biodiesel blends without compromising the injection system or vehicles performance at the time that it also contributes to improve quality of the air due the reduction of GHG emissions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are very grateful to the Oil Palm Development Fund for its generous contribution to this research project and also to the Colombian fuel distributor Terpel for lending the equipments required to build the fuel distribution station for the long-term test project.

REFERENCES

AGUDELO, J.R; BENJUMEA, P and PÉREZ, J. (2004). Pruebas cortas en ruta en un vehículo tipo microbus con biodiesel de aceite de palma colombiano. Scientia et Technica Año X, No 24, Mayo 2004. UTP. ISSN 0122-1701. DEMIRBAS, A (2009). Progress and recent trends in biodiesel fuels. Energy Conversion and Management, 50 :14–34. FEDEPALMA (2008). X Congreso de Economistas de Latinoamérica y el Caribe. Septiembre 4.

UPME (Unidad de Planeación Minero Energética) (2008). Boletín estadístico de minas y energía 2002-2007. ROJAS , M (2007). Assessing the engine performance of palm oil biodiesel. Biodiesel Magazine. WIRAWAN, S. S; TAMBUNAN, A.H; DJAMIN, M and NABETANI, H (2008). The effect of palm biodiesel fuel on the performance and emission of the automotive diesel engine. Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. Manuscript EE 07 005. Vol. X.

CP1

Quantitative Vitamin E Analysis Using Eight Tocochromanol Isomers

Zhang Yan, Yap Chin Hong, Lee Smith, Yee Leng Yap

Davos Life Science Pte. Ltd. 11 Biopolis Way, Helios #07-03 Singapore 138667

[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The increasing use of the palm bioactives, Tocotrienols, in preclinical and clinical studies targeting for human applications (cancer therapeutics, cholesterol lowering, skin anti-aging, neuroprotection) has created a need for an accurate strategy to measure Tocotrienols active ingredient. Currently, the Tocotrienol analogues- Tocopherol isomers, are widely used to quantify both Tocopherols and Tocotrienols. However, the difference in HPLC peak area responses between Tocopherols and Tocotrienols results in inaccurate quantification of the latter bioactive. Therefore, incorporation of Tocotrienol standards will be necessary to analyze the full spectrum of Vitamin E. To this end, we will discuss Vitamin E quantification based on Tocotrienol and Tocopherol standards. This will ensure the accuracy of the information delivered to consumer, as required by regulatory agencies on product content and correct labeling.

Table 1. Vitamin E HPLC analysis using conventional Tocopherol standards and our proposed full standards

Product Spec. Tocpherol standards, %1 Full Standards, %2 Difference, %T10 12.71±0.5 13.31±0.5 0.60 T60 56.13±0.1 58.27±0.2 2.14 T92 92.76±0.2 96.41±0.2 3.64

1: Tocopherol standards are alpha-, beta-, gamma-& delta-Tocopherol standards. 2: Full standards are alpha-, beta-, gamma-& delta-Tocotrienol and alpha-, beta-, gamma-& delta-Tocopherol standards.

309






CP2

Mathematical Modeling and Simulation of Biohydrogen Production from Palm Oil Mill Effluent

by Anaerobic Fermentation

Atif AA Yassin1*, Fakhru’l-Razi A2, Ma Ah Ngan3, Ismail H Hussein1

ABSTRACT

Biological hydrogen production was investigated using biomass in palm oil mill effluent (POME). Activated POME sludge was collected as sources of inocula for the study. The anaerobic microflora was found to produce significant amounts of hydrogen. A simple model developed from Gompertz Equation was applied to estimate the hydrogen production potential (P), hydrogen production rate (Rm) and lag phase time (λ), based on the cumulative hydrogen production curve. This study suggests that POME is suitable for biohydrogen synthesis without addition of any other nutrients. The diagnosis results presented showed that all the correlation coefficient, R2, were larger than 0.9, indicating that the model was appropriate to explain the relationship between independent variables and dependent variables. In addition, all of the t-values (calculated) were larger than that of t0.975 (tabulated), and the default p-level for highlighting is 0.05. p-levels are less than the value specified in this field, thus, p-values are significant (less than 0.05). Thus, the obtained results indicate that the evaluated parameters were taken to be statistically significant at confidence interval of 95%.

INTRODUCTION

Biological hydrogen production using wastewater and biomass as input has been gaining importance and attracting attention, the processes are mostly operated at ambient temperature and pressure (Das and Veziroglu, 2001). Thus, less energy intensive as compared to thermo chemical and electrochemical process, and not only environmentally friendly (green house effect) but also lead to open a new avenue for the utilization of renewable energy resources, which are inexhaustible (Benemann, 1997; Greenbaum, 1990; Sasikala et al., 1993; Miyamoto et al., 1989; Tanisho et al., 1983). In addition, the process can use various waste materials, which facilitates waste recycling.

Models are used to describe the behavior of microorganisms under different physical or chemical conditions. Growth models are applied in many fields; the type of model needed in a specific area and in a specific problem depends on the type of growth 1 National Oilseed Processing Research Institute (NOPRI), University of Gezira, Wad-Madani P.O.

Box 20, Sudan 2 Department of 1Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra

Malaysia (UPM), 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 3 Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), No. 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang,

Selangor, Malaysia

that occurs. Growth curves are found in a wide range of disciplines. Most living matter grows with successive lag, growth and asymptotic phases. To describe the bacterial growth curve in a batch culture, many mathematical models have been suggested (Gibson et al., 1987; Adair et al., 1989). Among them, the modified Gompertz Equation is the most suitable model for describing the growth data in batch culture (Cho et al., 1996; Zwietering et al., 1990, 1992; Lay et al., 1998). It has been developed based on the relationship between bacterial growth and metabolic production to describe the cumulative biogas production curve in a batch experiment (Lay et al., 1996). The Modified Gompertz Equation (Momirlan and Veziroglu, 1999) was used as a suitable model for describing hydrogen production by several investigations (Lay, 2001; Lay et al., 1999; Lee et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2002; Khanal et al., 2004). In this study Gompertz Equation was applied to estimate the hydrogen production potential (P), hydrogen production rate (Rm) and lag phase time (λ), based on the cumulative hydrogen production curve.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK POME sludge containing anaerobic microorganism and microflora was collected from the anaerobic pond of POME treatment plant in palm oil mill. Raw POME was collected from the same palm oil mill. The culture medium contained POME with 2.5 % (w/v) inocula (POME sludge) was fed in a 5L batch bioreactor. The fermentor was connected to a water cooler, nitrogen line with agitation, temperature, and pH control system. The initial anaerobic condition in the fermentor was established by replacing the gaseous phase with nitrogen at start of cultivation. The amount of evolved gases was collected by water displacement. The gas composition was determined by gas chromatography. Modified Gompertz equation (Momirlan and Veziroglu, 1999), was used as a suitable model for describing the hydrogen production (Lay, 2001; Lee et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2002).

))1)/)(((exp(exp +−−= PteRPH m λ where H is the cumulative hydrogen production (ml), λ the lag phase (hr), P the hydrogen production potential (ml), Rm the maximum hydrogen production rate (ml/hr), t incubation time (hr), e the exp (1) = 2.718. Parameters (P, Rm and λ) were estimated by Statistica version 6 using nonlinear estimation.


Hydrogen production from POME was studied using a 5-L bioreactor optimal hydrogen production was observed at 60oC and a pH range of 5.5 to 6.0, the maximal hydrogen yields of 179 mmol/L-POME and 189 mmol/L-POME at evolution rates of 454 ml/(L-POME hr) and 421 ml/(L-POME hr) were obtained respectively.

Tables 1 summarize the best values of the parameter and the statistical

indicator. The diagnosis results presented showed that all the correlation coefficient, R2, were larger than 0.9, indicating that the model was appropriate to explain the relationship between independent variables and dependent variables. In addition, all of the t-values (calculated) were larger than that of t0.975 (tabulated), and the default p-level for highlighting is 0.05. p-levels are less than the value specified in this field,

thus, p-values are significant (less than 0.05). Thus, the obtained results indicate that the evaluated parameters were taken to be statistically significant at confidence interval of 95%.

TABLE 1. KINETICS PARAMETERS VALUES OF HYDROGEN

PRODUCTION FROM PALM OIL MILL EFFLUENT USING POME SLUDGE AT 60OC AND DIFFERENT PH VALUES

pH

P

Rm

Λ

p-value

R2

Uncontrolled t-value p-level

2176 198 0.000

128 52 0.000

33 197 0.000

0.000

0.99976

4.5 t-value p-level

2983 99 0.000

139 35 0.000

27 91 0.000

0.000

0.99937

5.0 t-value p-level

4683 46 0.000

226 21 0.000

34 73 0.000

0.000

0.99828

5.5 t-value p-level

4610 95 0.000

465 17 0.000

18 58 0.000

0.000

0.99860

6.0 t-value p-level

5248 81 0.000

474 17 0.000

17 52 0.000

0.000

0.99880

P, hydrogen production potential; Rm, the hydrogen production rate; λ, lag phase

Cumulative hydrogen production from POME using microflora in POME sludge at various pH and 60oC curve is shown in Figure 1. The progress of cumulative hydrogen is in good agreement with the fitted solid lines. Therefore, both the curves fitting and statistical analysis demonstrated that the modified Gompertz Equation is suitable for estimating the P, Rm and λ.

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

0 20 40 60 80

Time (hr)

H2 m

l/L-P

OM

E

ObservedValuesUncontrolledpH

ObservedValues pH 4.5




Figure 1. Cumulative hydrogen production curve from palm oil mill effluent using microflora in POME sludge at various pH and 60oC. Graph symbols show the experimental data. The lines are the nonlinear estimation results.

CONCLUSION

The natural anaerobic microflora in POME sludge was found to be able to produce hydrogen from POME, the optimal hydrogen production from POME was observed at 60oC and pH 5.5 to 6.0. The cumulative hydrogen data fitted well into a modified Gompertz equation and lag phase time (λ), hydrogen production potential (P) and hydrogen production rate (Rm) at various conditions were quantitatively estimated.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work was conducted with financial support from New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) of Japan headed by the late Professor Masayoshi Morimoto, whose contributions remained immeasurable. We also wish to gratefully acknowledge Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) and Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) for their encouragement and permission to conduct the research at its facilities.

REFERENCES ADAIR, C., KILSBY, D. C. and WHITTALL, P. T (1989). Comparison of the

Schoolfield (non-linear Arrhenius) model and the square root model for predicting microbial growth in foods. Food Microbiol. 6: 7-18.

BENEMANN, J. R (1997). Feasibility analysis of photobiological hydrogen

production. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 22: 979-987. CHEN, C. C., LIN, C. Y., and LIN, M. C (2002). Acid-base enrichment enhances

anaerobic hydrogen process. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 58: 224-228. CHO, H. Y., YOUSEF, A. E., and SASTRY, S. K (1996). Growth kinetics on

Lactobacillus acidophilus under ohmic heating. Biotecnol. Bioeng. 49: 334-340.

DAS, D., and VEZIROGLU, T. N (2001). Hydrogen production by biological

processes: a survey of literature. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 26: 13-28. GIBSON, A. M., BRATCHELL, N., and ROBERTS, T. A (1987). The effect of

sodium chloride and temperature on the rate and extend of growth of Clostridium Botulinum type A in pasteurized pork slurry. J. App. Bacteriol. 62: 479-490.

GREENBAUM, E (1990). Hydrogen production by photosynthetic water splitting.

Page 743–54 in Veziroglu TN, Takashashi PK. editors. Hydrogen energy progress VIII. Proceedings 8th WHEC, Hawaii. New York Pergamon Press.

KHANAL S. K., CHEN, W-H., LI, L., and SUNG, S (2004). Biological hydrogen

production: effects of pH and intermediate products. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy. 29: 1123-1131

LAY, J. J (2001). Biohydrogen generation by mesophilic anaerobic fermentation of

microcrystalline cellulose. Biotechnol. And Bioeng. 74 (4): 280-287. LAY, J. J., LEE, Y. J., and NOIKE, T (1999). Feasibility of biological hydrogen

production from organic fraction of municipal solid waste. Water Res. 33: 2576-2586.

LAY, J. J., LI, Y. Y., and NOIKE, T (1996). Effect of moisture content and chemical

nature on methane fermentation characteristics of municipal solid waste. J. Envir. Sys. And Eng. 552:VIII-I: 101-108.

LAY, J. J., LI, Y. Y., and NOIKE, T (1998). Mathematical model for methane production from landfill bioreactor. J. Environmental Engineering. 124(8): 730-736

LEE, Y. J., MIYAHARA, T., and NOIKE, T (2001). Effect of iron concentration on

hydrogen fermentation. Bioresource Technol. 80: 227-231

MIYAMOTO K, WABLE, O., and BENEMANN, J. R (1989). Vertical Tubular photobioreactor: design and operation. Biotechnol. Lett. 10: 703-710.

MOMIRLAN, M., AND VEZIROGLU, T (1999). Recent direction of world

hydrogen production. Renew Sust. Energy Rev. 3: 219-231. SASIKALA, K., RAMANA, C., RAO, P. R., and KOVACS, K. L (1993).

Anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria: physiology and advances in hydrogen technology. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 10:211-115.

TANISHO, S., WAKAO, N., and KOKAKO, Y (1983). Biological hydrogen

production by Enterobacter aerogenes. J. Chem. Eng. Jpn. 16: 529-530. ZWIETERING, M. H., JONGENBURGER, I., ROMBOUTS, F. M., and VAN’T

RIET, K (1990). Modeling of the bacterial growth curve. Applied and environmental microbiology. 56(6): 1875-1881.

ZWIETERING, M. H., ROMBOUTS, F. M., and VAN’T RIET, K (1992).

Comparison of definitions of lag phase and the exponential phase in the bacterial growth. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 72: 139-145.

CP3 Structural Characterization of Triaclyglycerols from Palm Oil Using Direct Infusion Electrospray Ionization-MSn Ion

Trap Mass Spectrometry

Thang Yin Mee, May Hong Ping Li, Jaime Yoke Sum Low, Nalisha Binti Ithnin, Mohamad Sanusi Jangi and Teh Huey Fang*

Department of Applied Chemistry, Sime Darby Technology Centre (SDTC), No. 2, Tandang Road, 46050 Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.

*Corresponding author

Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Mass spectrometry (MS) is being increasingly used in the determination of triacylglycerols

(TAGs) in fats and oils. Besides speed and ease of automation, it also provides detailed

structural information of TAGs compared to the more widely used gas chromatography (GC)

and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods. In this study, qualitative

analyses of TAGs in refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil and palm kernel oil were

performed on linear ion trap (LTQ) mass spectrometer using direct infusion positive-ion

electrospray ionization (ESI) mode. Full-scan mass spectrum of the RBDPO shows several

envelopes of molecular ions (m/z 850, 876, 824, and 902) which correspond to the formation of

ammoniated TAG species. In MS/MS, collision-induced dissociation (CID) of the ammoniated

TAG ion at m/z 850 undergoes loss of 16:0 (palmitic acid) and 18:1 (oleic acid) fatty acyl

groups. In order to improve the characterization of molecular species to individual fatty acyl

groups present, the two most abundant fragment ions observed in the MS/MS spectrum of the ion

m/z 850 (m/z 576 and 552), were further subjected to MS3. Additional spectral data generated

from MS3 yields product ions with unique structural information. This method was successfully

applied to the analysis of the TAGs, yielding rapid TAG fingerprints that are useful for palm oil

authentication and the identification of adulteration.

Keywords: Palm oil, triacylglycerols, electrospray ionization, mass spectrometry

316


Endress+Hauser Malaysia Page 14th Floor, Lot 10, Jalan Astaka U8/8440150 Shah Alam, Section U8Selangor, Malaysia

Event: Conference and Exhibition PIPOC 2009

Date of event: 9-12th November 2009 Location: KLCC

Topic of the Presentation:

Renewable Energy : Biogas and CDMFast ROI, Cost and Energy Savings with Biogas

Summary and Background: In times of economical challenges, small scale investments with smart solutions are key for cost savings, energy savings and even good profits with fast return of investment. The Renewable Energy Industry is one of the winning economical areas, where out of strong government support, continuous private investments and improved technologies for reduced GHG emissions the actual market and business situation brought up interesting opportunities. Biogas Plants as secondary plants are increasingly attractive for organic waste producing or treatment industries – especially for the Palm Oil Industry and the milling process.Key to success for a efficient running Biogas-Process is not only to understand the natural biochemistry itself but also to bring up the right automation and control system. If it comes to a CDM (Clean Development Management) project with the opportunity to gather Carbon Credits, the evaluation of the produced methane becomes crucial for success. At all, an efficient operating Biogas Plant with CHP will provide Heat, Electricity, Fertilizer and - as add on – profits out of Carbon Credits. In this presentation, Endress+Hauser will show a short overview about Biogas Process and focus on the main critical measuring and control areas to avoid explosion, optimize performance and gas production as well as the methane gas calculation according to CDM guidelines. Endress+Hauser is a worldwide partner for many engineering companies and end users to support and supply complete automation concepts for Biogas applications.

Media: Only Presentation, no Poster available Hand Out or printable version will be available

Contact: Martin Schmidt Industry Manager Renewable Energy Asia-Pacific SC Malaysia Direct + 017 200 7184 mailto:[email protected] April 2009

PIPOC 2009

/2

The Endress+Hauser Group Endress+Hauser is a global leader in measurement instrumentation, services and solutions for industrial process engineering. With over 8,000 employees worldwide, the Group generates annual net sales of more than1.1 billion euros. Structure Company-owned sales centers and a network of partners guarantee competent worldwide support. Production centers in eleven countries meet customers’ needs and requirements quickly and effectively. As a successful family-owned business, Endress+Hauser is set for continued independence and self-reliance in the future. Products Endress+Hauser provides sensors, instruments, systems and services for level, flow, pressure and temperature measurement as well as liquid analysis and data acquisition. The company supports customers with solutions and services in automation engineering, logistics and information technology. Our products set standards in quality and technology. Industries Customers are primarily from the chemical/petrochemical, food & beverage, water/wastewater, life science, oil & gas, energy, primaries, pulp & paper and shipbuilding industries. Endress+Hauser supports its customers to optimize their process engineering procedures while taking into consideration reliability, safety, economic efficiency and environmental protection. History Founded in 1953 by Georg H Endress and Ludwig Hauser, Endress+Hauser has developed from being a specialist in level measurement to a provider of complete solutions for industrial measuring technology and automation, with expansion into new territories and markets.

CP5

Study of Operating Conditions for Biodiesel Production from Sludge Palm Oil Using Chemical Reactor

Adeeb Hayyana, Md. Zahangir Alama, Mohamed E.S. Mirghania, Nassereldeen A. Kabbashia, Noor Irma Nazashida Mohd Hakimib,

Yosri Mohd Siranb, Shawaluddin Tahiruddinb

ABSTRACT

The main challenges for biodiesel production are the cost of raw material (fats and oils) and the cost of processing. In oil palm industry there are large amounts of low grade oils that could be converted to biodiesel such as sludge palm oil (SPO). SPO is an attractive feedstock and a significant raw material for biodiesel production. The use of SPO can lower the cost of biodiesel production significantly. The biodiesel production from SPO involved both esterification and transesterification process. An acid catalyst was used in the pretreatment of SPO with the presence of alcohol to esterify the free fatty acids (FFA) and convert them into esters, followed by an alkali catalyst to transesterify the triglycerides. All experiments were performed in a 1.5 liter jacketed reactor. The results of the operating conditions for esterification process were: 2% wt/wt of sulfuric acid, molar ratio of methanol to oil 10:1 at 60o C. The yield of the final product was 71% with 0.14% FFA which meets the standard specifications for biodiesel quality. __________________________ aBioenvironmental Engineering Research Unit (BERU), Department of Biotechnology Engineering ,

Faculty of Engineering , International Islamic University Malaysia, P.O. BOX 10, Kuala Lumpur, 50728,

Malaysia.

bProcessing & Engineering, R&D Center - Downstream, Sime Darby Research Sdn Bhd. Lot 2664 Jalan

Pulau Carey, 42960 Pulau Carey, Kuala Langat, Selangor, Malaysia

INTRODUCTION Biodiesel, a fuel that can be made from renewable biological sources, such as vegetable oils, animal fats and waste cooking oil, may have the potential to reduce the reliance on petroleum fuel and reduce air pollutant emissions from diesel engines. As well as biodiesel fuel when used directly in a diesel engine will burn up to 75% cleaner than petroleum diesel fuel (Demirbas, 2009). However, in spite of the favorable impact, the economic aspect of biodiesel production is still a barrier for its development, mainly due to the lower price of petroleum fuel (Antolin et al., 2002). The high value of edible vegetable oils as a food product makes production of biodiesel fuel very challenging as the cost of raw materials accounts for 60 to 70% of the total production cost of biodiesel fuel (Ma and Hanna, 1999). Therefore, exploring ways to reduce the cost of raw material is the main interest in recent biodiesel research. However in Malaysia there are large amounts of low grade oils from palm oil industry that can be converted to biodiesel such as sludge palm oil (SPO). The use of SPO can lower the cost of biodiesel production significantly (Hayyan et al., 2008).

The objectives of this study were to investigate the potential of SPO as low-cost feedstock in biodiesel production and to study the influence of operating conditions such as dosage of sulfuric acid, molar ratio and reaction temperature on esterification process, using chemical reactor for biodiesel production.

METHODOLOGY Firstly preheating step was performed because SPO usually exists in semisolid phase at room temperature. The SPO was melted in the oven at high temperature around 80o C and the preheated SPO then was transferred into the reactor. Pretreatment of SPO using acid esterification, followed by alkaline transesterification were done. The final processes were separation and purification of biodiesel.

SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS

Preliminary investigation showed that SPO can be a highly potential new raw material for biodiesel production. Results demonstrate that by using an economic process SPO can be converted to biodiesel with acceptable quality. High FFA content in SPO reduced from 50% to less than 2 % by esterification process and the yield of biodiesel after transesterification process was 70% with 0.14 % FFA.

TABLE 1: SPECIFICATIONS OF BIODIESEL FROM SPO ACCORDING TO EN 14214

Properties Test Method Units Limits Biodiesel

from SPO Ester content EN 14103 % (mol mol−1) 96.5 min 96 Monoglycerides content EN 14105 % (mol mol−1) 0.8 max 0.48 Diglycerides content EN 14105 % (mol mol−1) 0.2 max 0.03 Triglycerides content EN 14105 % (mol mol−1) 0.2 max 0.01 Free glycerol content EN 14105 % (mol mol−1) 0.02 % max <0.01 Total glycerol content EN 14105 % (mol mol−1) 0.25 % max 0.16 Density (15 ◦C) EN ISO 3675 kgm− 3 860 – 900 877.9 Iodine value EN 14111 g I2·100 g−1 max 120 max 52.7 Acid value EN 14104 mg KOH g−1 0.5 max 0.07 Flash point EN ISO 3679 ◦C 120 min 183.6 Saponification value ISO 3657 mg KOH g−1 312.5 max 192

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the personnel of Processing & Engineering of Sime Darby Research Sdn Bhd and Sime Darby Biodiesel Sdn Bhd for supplying sludge palm oil and assisting in analysis work. We would like to thank the Department of Biotechnology Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) for providing the facilities to undertake the research.

REFERENCES MA, F., HANNA, M.A., 1999. Biodiesel production: A Review. Bioresource Technology. 70:1–15. DEMIRBAS, A., 2009. Green energy and technology. Springer. London ANTOLIN, G., TINAUT, F. V., BRICENO, Y., CASTRANO, V., PEREZ, C., RAMIREZ, A. I., 2002. Optimization of biodiesel production by sunflower oil transesterification. Bioresource Technology. 83:111-114. HAYYAN, A., ALAM, MD., KABBASHI, N. A., MIRGHANI, M. E. S., HAKIMI, N. I. N. M., SIRAN, Y. M., 2008. Pretreatment of sludge palm oil for biodiesel production by esterification. In: Symposium of Malaysian Chemical Engineers (SOMchE) - Proceeding book, 2008. Vol 2, 485-490.

CP 6 Study on Effective Utilization System

of Palm Oil Waste (Empty Fruit Bunch) in Malaysia

Yoon Lin Chiew, Tomoko Iwata, Motoko Yamanari, Sohei Shimada

Department of Environment Systems, Graduate School of Frontier Science, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwanoha 5-1-5, Kashiwa-Shi, 277-8563 Japan.

ABSTRACT

Malaysia generates vast amounts of biomass wastes from palm oil production process. One of the

most abundant wastes is empty fruit bunches (EFB). With growing environmental consciousness,

high petroleum prices, depleting fossil fuels, it has drawn the development of combined heat and

power (CHP) projects that using EFB as main fuel for power generations in Malaysia. In this study,

we developed a linear optimization model with objective of system profit maximization using data

from a set of 26 mills that located in the state of Selangor (see Fig. 1). In this model, we considered

the location of palm oil mills, the transportation distances, transportation cost of EFB and scale

economy of CHP plant. GIS software was used to analyze the potential CHP plant construction

locations (mesh numbers) and transportation distance data. Using the model, we calculated the

optimal locations of plants, the technology options to handle EFB and transportation map of EFB

from palm oil mill to power plant. The following results were obtained. (1) The optimal result for

this model was three power plants built in Selangor. (2) Total electricity generating was 42 MJ and

the system can bring profit of 710 million yen /year. (3) The optimal result for this model can supply

13,536 tonnes/year of nitrogen and 1,607 tonnes/year of phosphorous. 3

Keywords: Empty Fruit Bunch, combined heat and power plant, GIS, Optimization model

Figure 1: The Outline of Simulation Model

•Plant construction location

•Mesh number

•Palm oil mill

•EFB production

•Palm oil plantation area (N and P fertilizer demand)

Select an effective

use of EFB system.

•Cost

•CO2 emission

Input data Output data

Model database

Optimization

calculation

•Transportation distanceDistance palm oil mill to plant

(buffer 50km and <=500m)Distance between palm oil mill

•Inventory dataMulching

CHP (Combined heat and power)

•Location of the plant

•EFB power plant scale

•Technology options

•Transportation map

Simulation model

•Plant construction location

•Mesh number

•Palm oil mill

•EFB production

•Palm oil plantation area (N and P fertilizer demand)

Select an effective

use of EFB system.

•Cost

•CO2 emission

Input data Output data

Model database

Optimization

calculation

•Transportation distanceDistance palm oil mill to plant

(buffer 50km and <=500m)Distance between palm oil mill

•Inventory dataMulching

CHP (Combined heat and power)

•Location of the plant

•EFB power plant scale

•Technology options

•Transportation map

Simulation model

322

CP7

SAGE AUTOMATED NON CHEMICAL WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM FOR BOILER - UPDATE

Andrew S. B. Liew

ABSTRACT The use of ultra low frequency waves, a form of electromagnetic wave to treat water has been around for a while but has not caught on because of the ‘stigma’the chemical has on the industry over the last 30-40 years. However, it is a proven technology that works. SAGE automated non chemical boiler water treatment system deliver variable frequencies and energy levels, that physical change the water clusters structure and preferred crystal structure of calcium and magnesium. Any Ca2+ and CO3

2- in the treated water will be ‘energised’, and when they come together to form CaCO3 will be the soft powder form called aragonite, instead of the crystalline structured calcite form that becomes the hard scale in boiler. Aragonite is a form that stays in suspension and does not adhere to surfaces and is removed with the blow down water. This action stops any further build-up of scale and because the solubility of the treated water is also increased, existing scale is taken back into the water and gradually removed. The device is also a magnetite generator, causing the formation of "black rust" Fe3O4 called magnetite instead of the common "red rust" Fe2O3. This inert layer acts as a protective layer, preventing further corrosion to the boiler. The magnetite layer is self generating, and thus the boiler surface is always protected if there is any damage to it. As the device prevent the formation of calcite and form an inert layer of magnetite on the boiler steel surface, scale and corrosion control are completely provided resulting in an automated and absolute non chemical water treatment for boiler. As it does not contribute any TDS to the water, it will reduce frequency of blow down to save on energy. This environmental friendly system does not require daily chemical analysis of water, reduces labour requirement and even equipment replacement, all at a cheaper cost over the existing chemical treatment. Key words: electromagnetic, water clusters, lattice structure, descaler, aragonite, magnetite

INTRODUCTION Electromagnetic water treatment which has evolved from magnetic water treatment is becoming generally accepted. To many, it is already mainstream technology. However, the palm oil industry has been slow to adopt this technology. Reputable water treatment companies around the world are applying hundreds of thousands of units. Chemical supply companies have been very vocal in attacking this technology for very obvious reasons. When descaling did occur, those results were dismissed as the result of some other unknown variable influencing the application (Chaplin, 2006).

Systematic Approach Green Environment Sdn. Bhd., 1st Floor, No.1, Lot 82, Phase II Sedco Industrial Estate, Jalan Kilang, Kolombong, 88450 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. E-mail:[email protected]

While the evidence supporting the technologies may be thought of as mainly anecdotal, the fact remains that upon visual inspection after installation of these devices the formation of new scale deposits has been inhibited. Existing scale deposits present within the system at the time of installation have been removed. Probably the most significant general trend in water treatment is the move away from chemical-based treatment technologies. This trend has begun at the consumer level, is becoming apparent at the corporate level, and will continue to grow as awareness and pressure not to pollute the environment increases. The main problems in boiler are hard scale formation and corrosion. SAGE automated non chemical boiler water treatment system can overcomes these two major problems in the boiler by converting the hard calcite scale into the soft aragonite scale, and forming an inert magnetite layer over the boiler steel surface to prevent corrosion. Hard Scale Lime scale is only a problem if calcium carbonate deposits rhombohedral calcite crystals, which may form directly or subsequent to metastable hexagonal and fibrous laterite crystal formation (Coey et.al., 2000) as shown in Diagram 1. When calcium carbonate is formed at a higher energy level, orthorhombic aragonite crystals that have a higher density is formed, as shown in Diagram 2. Although aragonite is intrinsically harder, it does not form hard scale (Young, et.al., 2005). Aragonite is powder in nature and is suspended in water. During blow down, large amount of the aragonite goes out with the water. Since aragonite does not really stick to the surface it will not impede heat transfer. Diagram 1. Rhombohedral Calcite Crystal Diagram 2. Orthorhombic Aragonite Crystal

Corrosion SAGE system will not only prevents scale formation and removes scale formed on the steel surface, it also prevents corrosion on boiler surface. There are two levels of corrosion protection: 1. The excited water molecules will trap the dissolved oxygen ions and reduce the chances

of formation of iron oxide at the steel surface, hence reducing the corrosion rate. 2. When steel surface and water are electromagnetically excited, they acquire a higher

energy, causing the formation of "black rust" called "magnetite" instead of the common "red rust" Fe2O3. The magnetite has composition of Fe3O4 adhering to steel surfaces in contact with water. Unlike Fe2O3, the Fe3O4 layer is stable and will act as a protective layer preventing further corrosion by dissolved oxygen.

Where damage of this magnetite layer occurs, the process is constantly repeated and therefore ensuring the damage is repaired.


During the process of magnetite formation, steel surface exposes to oxygen upon descaling will form a layer of rust and thereafter an inert layer of magnetite is formed underneath protecting the steel against further corrosion as shown in Diagram 3. As the red rust dissolves and goes into solution, the inert magnetite layer beneath is exposed. Diagram 3. Magnetite formation in the steel surface of boiler

Even without addition of oxygen scavenger, concentration of Fe in blow down water will be 1-2ppm once in equilibrium as shown in Graph 1. Graph 1. Concentration of Fe ions in Boiler Water

Case Study Boilers with operating pressure of even up to 30 bars installed with SAGE Non Chemical Boiler Water Treatment system have been giving good result where softeners has been locked up and chemical dosing drums put aside. Hard scale formed during the chemical treatment time has been descaled. Magnetite layer formed on the drum has prevented further ‘oxygen pitting’ that was occurring during the chemical treatment time.


The following sequence of photos shows the formation of magnetite in the boiler before and after SAGE device was installed showing that the magnetite inert layer is always there to protect the boiler against any further corrosion or ‘oxygen pitting’.

Condition of steam boiler drum before Condition of steam boiler drum 2 months installing SAGE ANCBWTS on 17-07-07. after installing SAGE ANCBWTS. Note magnetite layer formed.

Condition of boiler after 6 months Condition of boiler after 9 months


Condition of boiler after 16 months Magnetite layer formed on drum surface

with soft powdery aragonite scale. Hard calcite scale formed during chemical treatment time slowly dissolved back into the water or peel off in small pieces. Magnetite formed on boiler steel surface after hard scale has dissolved back into water.

After all the hard scale has comes off, only a soft powdery layer of scale is formed and it can easily be washed off or brushed off. Pipe will have no scale and heat transfer is not hindered.


The following photos showed the boiler condition in term of hard scale and soft scale formation in the boiler, at the water inlet pipe before and after SAGE system has been installed in the boiler. It clearly shows that calcite will not form in the boiler anymore.

Condition of water inlet pipe before installing Condition of water inlet pipe 2 months SAGE ANCBWTS on 17-7-07. after installing SAGE ANCBWTS.

Soft scale on the water inlet pipe comes off Soft scale on water inlet pipe can be brushed easily. Inlet holes are clear. After 6 months of easily. After 9 months treatment. treatment.

Soft scale on inlet water pipe. After 16 months Boiler can easily be cleaned during treatment with SAGE ANCBWTS maintenance time.


The System SAGE ANCBWT system basically consists of a server, a driver and an inductor in which are made up of both hardware and software. Each driver can cater for 10-15mt steam per hour, depending on the quality of the water. Each driver will have a LED light and an ampere meter to monitor it is working. An inductor which is used to channel wave signal generated to ‘energised’ the water is connected to the control panel that houses the drivers. The numbers of inductors required will depend on boiler capacity and water quality, especially concentration of silica in the water. SAGE system is installed to a circulatory piping system where water from the hot water tank or feed tank, usually 75-85oC, is pumped through the inductors several times to allows sufficient exposure time before the water is pumped to the deaerator with the mill’s existing system to the boilers. Therefore, during installation and operation of SAGE system, existing mill’s boiler system is not interfered with. A typical circulatory system is shown in Diagiam. 4. Diagram 4. Circulatory System of SAGE ANCBWTS for 40mt/hr Capacity Boiler Water Treatment

x

x

Check Valve Pump

6" Dia GI Pipe

6" Tee

4" Elbow

On/OffValve - 6"

server and drivers are in the console boxNon Chemical Water Treatment For Boiler

Flexible coupling

Control panel

Reducing socket from 6" to 4:

Each inductor will have 2 inductor coils

Pressure Gauge

Feed water tank

6" Dia GI Pipe

Inlet - above the water tank

x

x

To Electric Socket Point

The circulatory piping system will have 2 pumps, with one as a standby. The pump has a capacity 3 times that of the boiler capacity. This is to circulate the water 3 times before it goes into the boiler. Parameters The parameters for monitoring the operation of SAGE ANCBWT system are very different from that of chemical treatment. The parameters that are monitored for both feed water and blow down water are Total Hardness (TH), Total Dissolve Solids (TDS), pH, Iron (Fe) ions, and Silica (Si). It is highly recommended that the TDS be maintained at about 1,200ppm and Silica at 120ppm, whichever comes first for blow down. The TDS and Si are monitored


for blow down purposes. The TH is to monitor that there is no scaling in the boiler. The Fe ion is monitored to ensure there is no corrosion or oxygen pitting taking place in the boiler. The calcium carbonate can also be monitored if desired. This will be in the form of aragonite which is in the blow down water. Sample of blow down can be taken and the aragonite filtered out using a filter paper and then reacted with hydrochloride acid to find out the amount of aragonite (calcium carbonate) in the sample. Mean values of the water parameters measured for both feed water and blow down water of a boiler fitted with SAGE ANCBWTS is shown in Table 1. Table 1. Mean Values of Water Parameters Fitted With SAGE ANCBWTS

Feed Water Blow Down Water TH pH TDS Fe ion TH pH TDS Fe ion 43 7.2 88 41 10.7 1063 1.6

It was seen that even though the TDS has increased from 88ppm to 1063ppm, the TH has more or less remain unchanged, indicating that the calcium has been converted to aragonite and blown out together with the blow down water. Even without oxygen scavenger, the Fe ion in the blow down water is only 1.6ppm. The formation of an inert magnetite layer over the steel surface of the boiler protects and prevents the steel surface from rusting. Cost Savings The cost of installing SAGE ANCBWT system depends on boiler size and water quality used. Being a capital item, it will be cheaper for mills that have longer operating hours. There will be saving on labour, supervision, water analysis, equipment, pipe replacement due to corrosions and damages, and the yearly pipe and boiler cleaning before boiler inspection. Yearly shut down time can be reduced as there will no hard scale to clean. Since softener treatment of boiler feed water is not required anymore, there will be huge savings on resin replacement, and amount of water from backwash. A typical mill of 90mt/hr processing 486,000 mt FFB per year with a 45mt/hr boiler operating with no high silica problem will require SAGE ANCBWT system with 4 drivers. Based on payback period of 3 years, the cost will be RM0.125 per ton of FFB. This cost saving is only compared with softener and chemicals cost, it excludes other savings. There will be saving on fuel used as there will be saving on energy because there are fewer blow downs. TDS build up is only from the water. Chemical dosing can contribute up to 50% of TDS build up in boiler, depending on water quality. SAGE descaler has been used in both small package fire tubes boilers to bigger water tubes boiler without any chemical inputs. Water does not need softening anymore. Old calcite scales were removed from the boiler surface, and an inert layer of magnetite was formed on the surface to prevent further corrosion of the boiler surface. References



Chaplin M, 2006. Magnetic and Electric Effect on Water. London South University. http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/magnetic.html

Coey J. M. D. and Cass S., 2000. Magnetic water treatment, J. Magnetism Magnetic Mater. 209: 71-74.

Gehr R., Zhai Z. A., Finch J. A. and Rao R., 1995. Reduction of soluble mineral concentrations in CaSO4 saturated water using a magnetic-field, Water Res. 29: 933-940.

Higashitani K., Oshitani J. and Ohmura N., 1996., Effects of magnetic field on water investigated with fluorescent probes, Colloids Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 109: 167-173.

Ozeki, C. Wakai and S. Ono, Is a magnetic effect on water-adsorption possible, J. Phys. Chem. 95 (1991) 10557-10559.

Young Y. I., Lane J., and Kim W, 2005. Pulsed-power treatment for physical water treatment, Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer 32: 861-871.

CP8 Biopolymer and Speciality Chemicals Based on

Oil Palm Feedstock

Tjahjono Herawan Indonesian Oil Palm Research Institute (IOPRI)

Jl. B. Katamso No. 51, Medan 20158 – Indonesia

Phone: +62 61 7862 477, fax: +62 61 7862488

ABSTRACT

Indonesia is the largest producer of palm oil in the world. In 2008, the area of oil palm

plantation is about 7.6 million ha and crude palm oil (CPO) production is around 19.3

million ton. Most of our product is exported as raw material (CPO), only around 4

million of CPO use for domestic (as frying oil) and only small amount of CPO processed

as oleochemical product.

Apart from producing palm oil, the palm oil industry was also generating huge amount

of lignocellulosic material from the milling process. Approximately 19 million ton of

oil palm empty fruit bunch (OEFB) was produced in 2008. Oil palm empty fruit

bunch (OPEFB) is considered as waste and underutilized. Some of palm oil mill return

the OPEFB to the field as mulch or processed as a compost.

Palm oil as other vegetable oil are one of the most important sources of biopolymer.

Compared with polymer prepared from petroleum based monomer, vegetable oil based

biopolymer have many advantages such as more biodegradable and cheaper. Some type

of monomer and polymer have been developed from palm oil such as palm oil epoxy and

its derivate, polyalcohol, alkyd resin, polyurethane, polyglycerol, polyglycerol acetate,

propandiol etc. Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) have also been develop as raw

material of biopolymer and speciality chemicals such as cellulose acetate, polyblend, and

solvent.

332

CP9 Palm Biodiesel: A Lubricity Improver for Diesel Fuel

Yung Chee Liang, Choo Yuen May, Ma Ah Ngan and Mohd Basri Wahid

Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB)

6, Persiaran Istitusi, Bandar Baru Bangi

ABSTRACT The sulfur content in diesel fuel is regulated because of its harmful effect on human health and their negative impact to the environment. However, reducing the sulfur content through severe hydrotreating process also unavoidably removing natural occurring lubricating property of the diesel fuel. Diesel fuel with poor lubricity will contribute to wear and tear in the fuel system of diesel engines in particular the fuel injector and additives have to be incorporated to compensate the lubricity loss. In the present study, palm biodiesel were also subjected to evaluation of their potential as lubricity improver for diesel fuel. The effectiveness of palm biodiesel as a lubricity improver was studied using Euro 2M and Euro 4 diesel fuels with sulphur content of 500 ppm and 50 ppm, respectively. Results from the evaluation showed that addition of 0.5 vol. % palm biodiesel sufficed to meet the stringent international standard for diesel fuel in terms of lubricity which specifies the maximum wear scar diameter of 460 μm.

Table 1. Specification on Lubricity in International Standards for Fossil Diesel Fuel

Standard Wear Scar Diameter Requirement (Maximum, μm)

European Standard for Diesel Fuel (EN590) 460 Worldwide Fuel Charter 400 Performance Requirement and Test Method for Assessing Fuel Lubricity (SAE J2265) 450

Engine Manufacturers Association (EMA) 450 Diesel Fuel Specification (ASTM D975) 520 Malaysian Standard Specification for Diesel Fuel (MS123:2005) 460

Figure 1. Lubricity of diesel fuels (Euro 2M and 4) and its blends with palm biodiesel

333

353

292

559.5

441

275

179

237.5

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Euro 2M Euro 2M(B0.5)

Euro 2M(B1)

Euro 4 Euro 4(B0.5)

Euro 4(B1)

Euro 4(B2)

Fuel Type

Wea

r Sca

r Dia

met

er (u

m)

334

CP10

The Study of Bleaching Clay Properties on the Relationship Between Spectral Measurements At 269

nm and Deodorized Oil Color

David D. Brooks*

ABSTRACT

The physical properties of eighteen various types of bleaching clays (6 natural / neutral clays and 12 acid activated clays) and their bleaching performance on crude palm oil (2.4 DOBI) were studied specifically for their impact on the relationship between bleached oil absorbance (at 269 nm) and deodorized oil color. Absorption at 269nm was determined by ΔK270 method common to the olive oil industry using a 2% oil dilution (1 g oil / 50 ml isooctane) as used in the DOBI method employed by the palm oil industry. The correlation between the ΔK at 269nm (DOBI ΔK) and the final oil color was significant for all clays (R2= 0.2966; n= 40 bleaches). As deodorized oil color decreased the DOBI ΔK increased. This correlation improved when we made a distinction between the data from bleaching with natural/neutral clays (R2= 0.3538; n= 17 bleaches) versus that from bleaching with acid activated clays (R2= 0.7965; n= 23 bleaches). Upon continuation of this work, we hope to establish whether these relationships hold after further testing across a range of crude oils with varied DOBI values.

___________________________

*Oil-Dri Corporation of America 777 Forest Edge Drive Vernon Hills, Illinois, USA

335

INTRODUCTION

Spectral measurements at various select wavelengths in the UV-Vis range have found wide applications in defining oil quality. Absorption peaks in the visible range at or near 450 nm and 670 nm have been used to establish oil color, and individual pigment concentrations: 450nm for carotene and 670nm for chlorophyll (Patterson, 2009). Absorption peaks in the ultraviolet range corresponding to absorption maxima for conjugated dienes (at 230nm) and trienes (at 270 nm) have been used to monitor the progression of oxidation in oil during processing and storage. Absorbance measurements at these wavelengths (with 1% solution and 1 cm cell path length) are used in the olive oil industry to determine oil adulteration, degree of processing, and oil quality (Boskou 1996) and reported as K230, K270, and Delta K. Delta K (or ∆K) represents the absorbance at a given wavelength determined using the formula:

∆K = Km – ½(Km-4 + Km+4); m is the specific wavelength and K is the absorbance at that wavelength at 1% dilution and 1cm cell path length.

The palm oil industry employs the Deterioration of Bleachability Index (DOBI)

(Chooi, et. al, 1981) as a processing tool in which the ratio of crude oil spectral measurements (2% oil wt/ml in a 1 cm cell path length, in hexane or iso-octane) at the peaks close to 450 nm and 269 nm are employed to predict bleaching ease in achieving good final deodorized oil quality (Siew 2001). The DOBI value has served to establish a quality scale which has been arbitrarily subdivided into three to five categories (Tan et al, 1983; Siew et al, 2001; and Patterson, 2009) where the following generalizations hold true:

DOBI = > 3.25; Very Satisfactory or Excellent Quality DOBI = 2.75; Average or Fair to Good Quality (2.3 to 3.25 range) DOBI = < 2.0; Very Poor Quality

A predictive tool that could project RBD oil color based on bleached oil quality would be of interest to the industry. Although color reduction is visibly noticeable after bleaching, a number of studies (Brooks and Shaked 1996, Cheah and Seiw 1999 and Brophy et al, 2004) have provided data that shows that there is no correlation between crude palm oil color and refined bleached and deodorized (RBD) oil color. Siew (2001), citing work by Zshau (1999), points out that the DOBI, although quite accepted as “a good indicator of quality and refinability, is not foolproof.” Relationship of Delta K and DOBI Value to Bleaching Process There is much work citing the benefits of using natural bleaching clays in the processing of both olive and palm oils, specifically bleaching clays produced from natural occurring hormite/smectite deposits in the USA (Brophy, 2002; Cheah and Siew, 1999; Brooks 1989; Brooks 1999; Brophy et al, 2004; and Brooks and Shaked, 2008). In summary, these studies showed that bleaching clays with this mineralogical make-up: 1) lowered the impact of bleaching on the ∆K270 (in olive oil), 2) achieved final product oil colors equal to or better than acid activated clays in both palm and olive oils; and 3) bleached to a darker red color than acid activated clays but ended up with a comparable

336

RBD color in palm oil. Considering natural hormite/smectite clay impacts ∆K270 differently from acid activated clays, and that the DOBI relies on the absorbance at or near the same maxima at 269nm a question arose as to whether there is a relationship between absorbance at 269nm and RBD color for natural hormite/smectite bleaching clay or bleaching clays in general. We decided to look at a collective of bleached & deodorized oils that we had saved in cold storage to see if there was any merit to the question. This paper will present our findings as part of our continuing effort to establish a predictive tool between bleached oil characteristics and RBD oil quality.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Bleaching Crude palm oil (CPO) was obtained from Latin American palm oil mills. The CPO (as received) was carefully melted, blended at ~60 °C, portioned and stored at -15° C. Vacuum bleaching was performed on a lab scale apparatus which consisted of a 500 mL 3-necked (24/40) distilling flask, two (24/40) flow control adapters, a Wheaton adapter (24/40) equipped with a thermometer (0°C -150°C), stir bar and an electromantle heater/stirrer (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The apparatus was connected to a nitrogen source (99.9% purity) and a Welch Duoseal Vacuum Pump (Gardner Denver Thomas, Inc. Welch Vacuum Technology, Niles, Illinois, USA).

The bleaching method used was a modified version of the SCOPA bleach test. In

this method, 200g of CPO was introduced into the apparatus and heated with stirring to 90°C under a positive nitrogen atmosphere. The oil was then acid pretreated with 1000 ppm of a 75% phosphoric acid solution and maintained at these conditions for 15 minutes. Bleaching clay was added at various dosages, allowed to go into slurry and the vessel evacuated to 50 mmHg and maintained at 90°C for 30 minutes. The vacuum was broken and the oil/clay slurry was filtered under 40 psi nitrogen, through a 20 micron filter paper, Whatman 541 (Whatman PLC Madestone, Kent , UK). Bleached oil samples were stored at -15°C.

Deodorization

Bleached oil deodorizations were performed in a micro-deodorizer (Brooks and List, 2002). Bleach oil samples were melted at 60°C; introduced into the deodorizer; deaerated at 100°C under 2mmHg vacuum atmosphere for 10 minutes; elevated to 245°C and maintained for one hour at same vacuum; elevated to 260°C and maintained for one hour at same vacuum; cooled to 60°C under vacuum; filtered; and assayed.

337

Spectrophotometeric and Colorimetric Methods Considering the industry is most familiar with the DOBI procedure, we chose to use the DOBI value protocol even though it is 2Xs the concentration used to determine ∆K270. Delta K270 values were calculated according to the previously mentioned formula at a 1g/50mL dilution in isooctane and reported as DOBI ∆K. Bleached oil samples were assayed using an Evolution UV-Vis 300 (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). RBD color was measured using Lovibond PFX 995 Tintometer (The Tintometer Ltd., Wiltshire, UK) using a 5.25 inch cell and the AOCS Red/Yellow (R/Y) scale.


The study measured DOBI ∆K and RBD color for a collection of bleached / deodorized oil samples generated by treating one CPO (DOBI 2.4) with 18 commercially available bleaching clays: six natural or neutral (non-acid) bleaching clays and twelve acid activated bleaching clays (Table 1). The intent of the study was to see if there is was any observable relationship between DOBI ∆K and RBD color. Figure 1 (Table 2) illustrates the differences between non-acid clay results and acid activated clay results on the relationship between DOBI ∆K and RBD red color. As RBD color decreased DOBI ΔK increased. As a collective work, the correlation between the DOBI ΔK at 269nm and the final oil color was significant for all clays (R2= 0.2966; n= 40 bleaches). This correlation improved when we made a distinction between the data from bleaching with non-acid clays (R2= 0.3538; n= 17 bleaches) versus that from bleaching with acid activated clays (R2= 0.7965; n= 23 bleaches). The influence of acid on the oxidative progression from hydroperoxide to conjugated triene is well documented (Patterson, 2009) and may account for the stronger correlation between DOBI ∆K and RBD red color for the acid activated clays.

IN CLOSING We have observed a relationship exists between DOBI ΔK at 269nm and RBD color and that this relationship was more so affected by acid activated clays than non-acid clays. Our work is in the preliminary stages. In presenting our findings, we are pleased; but reserved, knowing that additional work is warranted. The question of whether our findings are specific to this CPO and the set of conditions of this test or translates to other oils is yet to be determined.

TABLE 1. BLEACHING CLAY PROPERTIES

Clay Clay Sample Mineral pH % FM

A1 H/S 3.2 9.7 A2 H/S 3.1 9.6 A3 M 3.1 14.7 A4 M 3.6 13.9 A5 M 3.3 16.0 A6 M 3.2 10.5 A7 M 3.3 11.5 A8 M 3.1 13.4 A9 M 17.1 3.4

A10 M 3.4 12.6 A11 M 3.6 14.3 A12 M 3.3 9.4

N1 H/S 7.0 9.9 N2 H/S 4.5 10.7 N3 H/S 6.8 12.0 N4 H/S 6.8 10.7 N5 H/S/C 9.0 9.3 N6 H/S/C 9.3 9.1

Notes: A = Acid Activated Clay; N = Natural / Neutral Non-Acid Clay H = Hormite; S= Smectite; C = Calcite; M = Montmorillonite

y = -0.6312Ln(x) + 0.5236R2 = 0.3538

y = -1.6356Ln(x) - 0.6979R2 = 0.7965

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

DOBI Delta K

RB

D L

ovib

ond

Red

Col

or 5

.25"

Cel

l

Non-Acid Clays

Acid Clays

Figure 1. DOBI ∆K and RBD Red Color: Non-Acid Clays vs Acid Activated Clays

338

TABLE 2. DOBI ΔK AND RBD COLOR DATA

AVG AVGClay DOBI ΔK Red Yellow Clay DOBI ΔK Red YellowA1 0.268 1.4 33 N1 0.079 1.7 25A2 0.259 1.5 34 N1 0.170 2.1 38A3 0.264 2 50 N1 0.198 1.6 32A3 0.271 1.3 27 N1 0.160 1.4 20A3 0.280 1.1 26 N1 0.222 1.5 29A4 0.252 1.4 22 N1 0.180 1.4 30A5 0.259 1.45 30 N1 0.213 1.15 21A6 0.292 1.3 24 N2 0.196 1.8 28A6 0.287 1 19 N3 0.156 1.8 40A7 0.120 2.6 50 N3 0.202 1.35 33A7 0.286 1.7 50 N4 0.181 1.7 38A7 0.282 1.5 31 N4 0.162 1.4 38A7 0.226 1.7 22 N4 0.109 1.9 29A7 0.285 1.1 20 N5 0.109 2.3 38A7 0.181 1.7 39 N5 0.160 1.9 38A8 0.117 3 60 N6 0.094 2.2 38A8 0.275 1.7 24 N6 0.177 1.6 36A9 0.141 2.9 70A9 0.263 1.3 22A10 0.094 3.2 70A10 0.292 1.9 32A11 0.209 1.5 26A12 0.237 1.7 26

RBD ColorRBD Color

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to my colleagues Amy Dalby, Heng Wang and Bill Kangas for their support on this project.

REFERENCES

Boskou, D. (1996). Changes Caused by Enzymes and Oxidation. In: Boskou, D Olive Oil Chemistry and Technology. Champaign, Illinois: AOCS Press. p108.

Brooks, D. (1989). Palm Oil Bleaching: Relationship Between Adsorbent Type and Oxidative Stability". Proceeding of 1989 PORIM International Palm Oil Congress (Chemistry & Technology).

Brooks, D, and D Shaked. (1996). Bleaching Difficult to Bleach Palm Oil. Proceeding of 1996 PORIM International Palm Oil Congress (Chemistry & Technology). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. p27-32.

339

340

Brooks, D. (1999). Bleaching Factors that Effect Oil Loss. Proceeding of 1999 PORIM International Palm Oil Congress (Chemistry & Technology). p45-51.

Brooks, D. (2002). Laboratory deodorization: An overview of past and present equipment and practical uses. Inform. 13, 656-660.

Brooks, D, and D Shaked. (2008). Use of Natural Clays in Palm Oil Production. 6th Euro Fed Lipid Congress.

Brophy, S, G Goss, R Berbesi, and B Kangas. (2004). Effect of Extended Bleaching Times on Color of Palm Oils (Bleached and Deodorized with Natural and Acid Bleaching Clays. 95th AOCS Annual Meeting and Expo.

Brophy, S. (2002). Quality of Olive Oil After Bleaching . World Conference on Oilseed and Edible, Industrial, and Specialty Oils: Sources, Processing, By-Products, Utilization and Feed Formulations, Applications and Functionality .

Cheah, K Y, and Siew W L. (1999). Relationship between Physical Properties of Bleaching Earths and its Bleaching Efficiency on Palm Oil. Proceeding of 1999 PORIM International Palm Oil Congress (Chemistry & Technology). p36-44.

Chooi, S Y, H F Koh, and K H Goh. (1981). A study of some quality aspects of crude palm oil. Interrelationships of quality characteristics of fresh crude palm oil and a proposed method for oil classification. . International Conference on Palm Oil Product Technology in the Eighties, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Patterson, H B W. (2009). Bleaching of Important Fats and Oils. In: List, Gary R. Bleaching and Purifying Fats and Oils Theory and Practice. Urbana, Illinois: American Oil Chemists' Society. p119-122.

Siew, W L. (2001). Deterioration of bleachability index (DOBI). Inform. 12, p1183-1187.

Tan, B K, W L Siew, and S H Ong. (1983). the Use of Discriminant Functions in Differentiating Palm Oil Quality. PORIM Report. PO(55)83 General, PORIM, Kuala Lumpur, 1988.

Zshau, W. (1999). The Influence of DOBI on CPO Quality on Bleachability and Final Colour After Deacidification. Malaysian Oil Sci. Technol.. 8, p32-37.

CP11

Palm Pressed Fibre Oil Extraction (PFOE) Technology and Deoiled Fibre Applications

Mr Goh Kee Seng

EONCHEM TECHNOLOGY SDN BHD, PLO 525, JALAN KELULI 9, PASIR GUDANG INDUSTRIAL ESTATE, JOHOR

ABSTRACT

Palm pressed fibre is usually burnt in the boilers to provide steam and power for the operation of the oil mill. This has been a sound practice since the adaptation of the screw press years back and has been there performing the silent role of the “Best Fuel” for the whole industry. We have studied the screw expeller process and noticed that there are 5-6 %residual oil after the press, and the residual oil contains high levels of phytonutrients which has been explored by some researchers, e.g. Dr Choo et au of MPOB by using supercritical carbon dioxide extraction technology. However the handling of such a huge quantity of palm pressed fibre, up to 100-280 TPD(depending on mill capacity at 0.1-0.2 bulk density), and the technology for removing the oil economically and efficiently posed a big problem to oil millers. We have taken up this challenge and spent the past few years working on this project from the design of plant on the handling of fibre, extraction process and the application of fibre oil and deoiled fibre. We will take this opportunity to report on the progress of our works done so far: The Extraction of palm fibre oil technology We have studied various extraction technology available and finally decided to use Hexane extraction process as this technology was used commercially for other type of edible oil extraction, like rapeseed, soybean and rice bran from oil bearing nuts or from pallets, however no prior work was done on vegetative fibre especially on large quantity of bulky fibrous materials. We studied the percolation properties of mesocarp fibre and decided this to be the most suitable extraction medium to use. We had done lab test, field equipment trial, pilot plant trial, feeding trial on oil and fine tuning our technology and patented our process since then. We have set up one commercial plant running in Kim Loong Oilmill in Kota Tingggi, Johor in year 2007. Successful commissioning of the plant was completed in September 07, and the revenue on the fibre oil extracted has amounted to more than Rm 3.0 million . We expect the plant to be paid back in very short period. The result is so astonishing in that this process help to improve the OER by upto 0.6% ! In addition, we have achieved a low Hexane consumption figure of less than 6 Liter/ton fibre and the maximum residual oil in the fibre after extraction is less than 1 %. Currently the deoiled fibre is sent back to the boiler room to be burnt as fuel through one belt conveyor connecting to the boiler. The biggest challenge so far has been how to solve the problem of mechanical handling of over 200TPD of fibre through the plant and the adaptation of chemical extraction process to cater for the day to day variation in the oilmill operation. Thanks to the efficient operation of the oil mill, so far this PFOE plant have been able to operate smoothly and been able to cater for variation in oil mill output largely due to the ease of start/stop operation design and also due to that the plant machineries has been designed specifically to cope with varying fibre feeding level from the screw presses in day to day operation. After this trial project , we are building the second plant in Sabah and the third plant is being constructed in Johor.

Application of red palm fibre oil All the fibre oil extracted is bought back and sold to one feedmill in West Malaysia producing layer and broiler feed. And the large scale feeding result over the past many months have proved this oil to be a good source of energy as well as carotenoid pigmentation, the result is within expectation in consideration of the high level of phyto-nutrients( carotenoids, beta carotene, tocopherol, and tocotrienols) present. Application of Deoiled fibre In addition, the removal of the residual oil in the palm pressed fibre has opened up a vast application opportunities for the Deoiled fibre, we have done some development work on these aspect and will be reported accordingly. End.

CP12

Correlation between Percentage of Ash Reduction and the Reduction of Potassium and Sodium in Water Washing Pre-treatment on Empty Fruit Bunches Oil

Palm Wastes

N. Abdullah; F. Sulaiman and N. Che Khalib*

ABSTRACT

The water washing pretreatment on empty fruit bunches (EFB) wastes has been investigated in this study. The objective is to remove ash content from biomass in order to improve the quality of bio-oil and to increase bio-oil yields. It was found that the feedstock with ash content less than about 3 mf wt% was required to produce homogenous bio-oil. The study also found the optimum parameters of water washing pretreatment that is required to produce the feedstock with ash content of approximately about 1 mf wt% (N.Abdullah, 2005). Ash is proxy of potassium and sodium. The existing ash in biomass influences the organic yield of which the fundamental formation of the potassium and sodium in ash also influences the quality of organic yield. The effectiveness of each washing test is quantified by observing the percentage of ash reduction and the percentage reduction of potassium and sodium in the ash. Therefore, the correlation between ash reduction and percentage reduction of potassium and sodium in ash for the washed feedstock is investigated. Through this study, it is found that the ash reduction is higher for small feedstock. The correlation between ash reduction and reduction of potassium and sodium is shown by percentage of each reduction. The percentage reduction of potassium and sodium is measured by Atomic Absorption Analysis method.

__________________________ *Bioenergy Laboratory, School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang. Malaysia.

INTRODUCTION

Biomass has become more attractive to industry as a potential renewable source of energy. The most common and convenient routes for conversion into energy is thermochemical conversion of the biomass such as pyrolysis, combustion, gasification and liquefaction. However, pyrolysis process is the promising tool that providing bio-oil which can be used as an alternative fuel or chemical feedstock. Fast pyrolysis is a thermal decomposition process that occurs at moderate temperatures in which the

biomass rapidly heated in absence oxygen or air to produce the mixture of condensable liquids, gases and char (Bridgwater, 1999). It is an advanced process that is carefully controlled to give high yields of liquid with minimum of gas and char (Czernik, 2004). This liquid can be used as a substitute for liquid fossil fuels in some application (Bridgwater, 2000). Malaysia is the world’s largest producer and exporter of palm oil. Currently, the oil palm plantations is around 4.16 millions hectares which producing an average of 81.5 million tonnes of fresh fruit bunches (FFB). The oil palm industry produces wastes in large quantities; mainly empty fruit bunches (EFB), fiber, shell and palm oil mill effluent (POME). It is estimated around 17.9 million tonnes of EFB, 11 million tonnes of fiber, 4.5 million tonnes of shell and 50.0 million tonnes of POME (Astimar, 2007). EFB is the high ash feedstock with ash content of 5.36 mf wt% (N.Abdullah, 2005). High ash in biomass generally promotes secondary reactions of primary pyrolysis products which is some ash components, primarily potassium and sodium, are known to be catalytically active (Bridgwater, 2002, Scott, 1985). Ash is proxy of potassium and sodium. The existing ash in biomass influences the organic yield of which the fundamental formation of the potassium and sodium in ash also influences the quality of organic yield. Ash can be classified as the mineral taken up and derived by plants when growing (Essig, 1988). The most common elements in ash are calcium (Ca), potassium (K) and sodium (Na). These are contained as chlorides, carbonates, phosphates, silicates and sulfates (K.Raveendran, 1995). Potassium also known as alkali metals is an important plant nutrient in biomass. Potassium can absorbed into biomass material through the root system and transported to all parts of the growing tree (J.M Jones, 2007). It also important in greater concentration in biomass fuel and pivotal role in the behaviour of the ash and the corrosion chemistry. Sodium is also an essential element in biomass. Sodium is generally less reactive than potassium in accordance with the law of periodic table. The water washing pre-treatment using the tap water is carried out in order to reduce the ash content and also reduce the amount of potassium and sodium in biomass. The existing ash in biomass influences the organic yield of which the fundamental formation of the potassium and sodium in ash also influences the quality of organic yield. Raw Materials Empty fruit bunches wastes are used in this study. As known as EFB wastes are distributed from palm oil plantation in large quantity. The samples of EFB wastes were obtained from the Malpom Industry Bhd, Nibong Tebal, Penang. The EFB wastes were taken after sterilization and stripping process of fresh fruit bunch to separate the sterilized oil palm fruit from the sterilized bunch stalks.

Figure 1. Picture of fresh EFB

Samples were received in wet bunch and were dried first for having less than 10 mf wt % moisture. The bunches were manually chopped to smaller size and then fed into shredder in order to get in fiber form. After that, samples in fiber form were cut into 1-3 cm were prepared for water washing pre-treatment. The properties of EFB wastes are given in Table 1. The EFB wastes constitute a lignocellulose wastes which consists of chemical component of 57.8 % cellulose, 21.2 % hemicellulose and 22.8 % lignin.

TABLE 1. ANALYSIS DATA OF EFB

Chemical component Cellulose 57.8 Hemicellulose 21.2 Lignin 22.8 *Elemental analysis Carbon 49.07 Hydrogen 6.48 Nitrogen 0.7 Sulphur <0.10 Oxygen 38.29

Proximate analysis Moisture 2.26 Volatiles 79.13 Ash 3.82

Fixed Carbon 17.05

*Heating value (MJ/kg) HHV 20.54 LHV 19.13 * Data from N.Abdullah et. al (2005)

The proximate analysis was performed to determine the moisture, ash,

volatiles and fix carbon content. The volatiles content are measured by portion driven-off as a gas by heating at 950 ºC for 7 minutes (McKendry, 2002). The moisture content of the EFB was carried out by using the ASTM E871 method. The measurement for the ash content was determined with NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) Standard Analytical Method LAP005. The fix carbon content is the mass remaining after the releases of volatiles, ash and moisture content.

The elemental analysis showed that EFB is an environmental friendly biomass with a trace content of sulphur and nitrogen (N.Abdullah, 2005). The properties of EFB as shown in Table 1 also show clearly that EFB contained higher proportion of oxygen and hydrogen, compared with carbon which can reduce energy value. It is

because carbon-oxygen and carbon-hydrogen bonds contain lower energy rather than carbon –carbon bonds. The heating value is an indicator as how much the amount of energy in the biomass property. The high heating value for EFB is determined using the bomb calorimetric technique by N. Abdullah. The lower heating value was calculated by using the equation (1) (Adisak Pattiya, 2006);

LHV dry (MJ/kg) = HHV dry – 2.442(8.936 H/100) (1)

Methods of experiments Water Washing Pre-treatment The tap water was used for all runs in the washing pre-treatment. In this experiment, the feedstock were soaked in tap water at ambient temperature around 26-28 ºC. Approximately 5 L of tap water used for 100 g of the feedstock. The effect of varying residence time from 10 minutes to 40 minutes were studied for the feedstock of size 1-3 cm with objective to define the minimum residence time needed to achieve the parameter of water washing pre-treatment that required to produce the homogenous bio-oil via fast pyrolysis technology. The methods of water washing pre-treatment for this study were briefly described in Table 2.

TABLE 2. METHODS OF WATER WASHING PRE-TREATMENT

1. Unwashed EFB that was not subjected to any washing

2. Soak 100 g of EFB of size 1-3 cm for 10 minutes at ambient temperature in 5 L of tap water




Alkali metals experiments Potassium and sodium were determined by digestion and carried out by Flame Photometry using the following procedure. The ash was digestion with 16 ml HCL 16% in the 10 ml beaker and then filter into the 100 ml volumetric flask and then added with distilled water for dilution. The samples were shaking and subjected to Atomic Absorption Analysis by Flame Photometry.

Result and Discussions A total of four water washing experiments were performed on the feedstock of size 1-3 cm by soaking the feedstocks in tap water over a range of residence time from 10 minutes to 40 minutes. The results of ash content of washed feedstock were compared with unwashed feedstock supplied by Malpom Industry Bhd, which had an ash of 5.19 mf wt%.The results of the four water washing experiments on the feedstock of size 1-3 cm are summarized in Table 3. TABLE 3. RUN CONDITIONS AND RESULTS.

Water washing methods Ash

content Percentage

of ash Potassium Sodium Electrical

conductivity

(mf

wt%) reduction

(%) (ppm) (ppm) of

leachate(μS/cm) 1. Unwashed EFB that was not subjected to any washing 5.19 - 1737 197.50 - 2. Soak 100 g of EFB of size 1-3 cm for 10 minutes 2.22 57.23 781 31.88 824 at ambient temperature in 5 L of tap water 3. Soak 100 g of EFB of size 1-3 cm for 20 minutes 1.65 68.21 433 7.50 908 at ambient temperature in 5 L of tap water 4. Soak 100 g of EFB of size 1-3 cm for 30 minutes 1.54 70.33 188 4.34

1207

at ambient temperature in 5 L of tap water 5. Soak 100 g of EFB of size 1-3 cm for 40 minutes 1.22 76.49 263 33.13 1210 at ambient temperature in 5 L of tap water

The results shown that the tap water is considered effective in reducing the ash content of the biomass. The ash content of feedstock by soaking in tap water from 10 minutes is 2.22 mf wt %. Its shows clearly in Table 3 that by soaking the feedstock for about 10 minutes or more in tap water at ambient temperature for feedstock of size 1-3 cm is enough to achieve the minimum requirement of ash content of less than about 3 mf wt % to produce homogenous bio-oil. About 1.22 mf wt% ash content is achieved by soaking the feedstock for 40 minutes in tap water at ambient temperature for feedstock of size 1-3 cm. Therefore, it is expected that the ash content of the feedstock will achieve 1 mf wt % if soak the feedstock a longer than 40 minutes.

Figure 2. The percentage of ash reduction and incremental electrical conductivity of

leachate

Figure 2 illustrates the correlation between the percentage of ash reduction in EFB and incremental electrical conductivity of leachate after soaking the feedstock of size 1-3 cm over a range of residence time. It is found that the percentage of ash reduction increased drastically for first 10 minutes. This may explained that the ash can be easily removed as diffusion becomes faster when concentration gradient is high for first 10 minutes and then diffusion is slower as the wash water becomes saturated with minerals. It also explained that the water washing pre-treatment will give the highest ash reduction for longer residence time. Figure 2 also shows that the increase of ash reduction is mirrored by the increase in electrical conductivity of the leachate. It may be explained that the increase in ash reduction will cause the increase in alkali metal and organic ions that contain in leachate thus increase the electrical conductivity of the leachate after washing test.

Figure 3. The percentage of ash reduction and decreasing potassium (K) content in

ash.

Figure 4. The percentage of ash reduction and decreasing sodium (Na) content in

ash. Figure 3 and 4 illustrate the correlation between the percentage of ash reduction in EFB and decreasing of potassium content and sodium in ash. It shows that the decreasing of ash content in feedstock may result the decreasing of potassium and sodium content. It may be explained that water washing pre-treatment is effective in reducing the potassium and sodium content in ash since known that potassium and sodium is a proxy of ash. It also shows that the potassium and sodium content is highest in the original sample and was reducing drastically in first 10 minutes. The decreasing of potassium and sodium content is related in decreasing ash content by water washing pre-treatment. However, it is also found the potassium and sodium content are higher by soaking the feedstock for 40 minutes compared to 30 minutes. It may be explained that the higher of potassium and sodium content could be contributed from tap water.

REFERENCES

BRIDGWATER, A.V., MEIER, D., RADLEIN, D. (1999), “An Overview of Fast Pyrolysis”, Orgaic Geochemistry, vol.30, p.p. 12:1479-1493. CZERNIK, S. and BRIDGWATER, A.V. (2004), “Overview of Application of Biomass Fast Pyrolysis”, Energy and Fuels, vol.18, p.p. 590-598. BRIDGWATER, A.V. and PEACOCKE, G.V.C. (2000), “Fast Pyrolysis Process for Biomass”, Sustainable and Renewable Energy Review, vol.4, p.p. 1:1-73. ASTIMAR, A.A., MOHD. BASRI WAHID and RIDZUAN RAMLI (2007), “Beyond Biomass”, Proceeding of 2007 Conference on Plantation Commodities, PWTC, Kuala Lumpur, 3-4 July, p.p. 120-129. N. ABDULLAH (2005). An Assessment of Pyrolysis for Processing Empty Fruit Bunches. Phd Thesis. BRIDGWATER, A.V., TOFT, A.J. and BRAMMER, J.G. (2002), “A Techno-economic Comparison of Power Production by Biomass Fast Pyrolysis with Gasification and Combustion”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol.6, p.p. 3:181-246. SCOTT, D.S., PISKORZ, J.and RADLEIN, D. (1985), “Liquid Products from the Fast Pyrolysis of Wood and Cellulose”, Ind. Eng. Chem. Proc. Des. Dev., vol.24, p.p. 581-588. ESSIG, M., LOWARY, T., RICHARDS, G.N. and SCHENCK, E. (1988), “Influences of Neutral Salts on Thermochemical Conversion of Cellulose and Sucrose”, in Bridgwater, A.V. and Kuester, J.L (eds) Research in Thermochemical Biomass Conversion. New York:Elsevier Science. Pergammon Press. K. RAVEENDRAN, ANURADDA GANESH and KARTIC C. KHILAT (1995), “Influence of Mineral Matter on Biomass Pyrolysis Characteristics”, Fuel, vol.74, p.p. 12:1812-1822. J.M. JONES, L.I. DARVELL, T.G. BRIDGEMAN, M. PPOURKASHANIAN and A. WILLIAMS (2007), “An Investigation of the Thermal and Catalytic Behaviour of Potassium in Biomass Combustion”, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, vol.31, p.p. 1955-1963. MCKENDRY P. (2002), “Energy Production from Biomass (part 1): Overview of Biomass”, Bioresource Technology, vol. 83, p.p. 37-46. ADISAK PATTIYA, JAMES O. TITILOYE and ANTHONY V. BRIDGWATER (2006), “Fast Pyrolysis of Agricultural Residues from Cassava Plantaion for Bio-oi Production”, the 2nd Joint International Conference on Sustainable Energy and Environment (SEE2006).

CP13

Rapid Method for the Determination of Moisture Content in Biodiesel Produced from Insects’ Oil Using

FTIR Spectroscopy

Mohamed E. S. Mirghani*1, Nasreldin A. Kabbashi1, Md. Zahangir Alam1 and Isam Y. Qudseih2.

1Biotechnology Engineering Research Unit (BERU), Department of Biotechnology

Engineering, Kulliyyah of Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia, P. O. Box 10, Gombak, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 2Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Jazan University, P.O. Box 706, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia

*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

A new, rapid, and direct method was developed for the determination of moisture

content in biodiesel produced from insects’ oil using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)

spectroscopy with Attenuated total reflectance (ATR) element. The calibration set was

prepared by spiking double distilled water into dried biodiesel samples in ratios (w/w)

between 0 and 10% moisture. Absorbance values from the wavelengths regions 3500 –

3050 cm–1 and 1680 – 1600 cm–1 and partial least square (PLS) regression method were

used to derive FTIR spectroscopic calibration model for moisture content in biodiesel

samples. The coefficient of determinations (R2) for the models was computed by

comparing the results obtained from FTIR spectroscopy against the actual values of the

moisture concentrations (%). R2 was 0.9321 and the standard error (SE) of calibration

was 1.84. The calibration model were cross validated within the same set of samples and

the standard deviation (SD) of the difference for repeatability (SDDr) and accuracy

(SDDa) of the FTIR method were determined. With its speed and ease of data

manipulation, FTIR spectroscopy is a useful alternative method to wet chemical methods

for rapid and routine determination of moisture content in such products for quality

control.

Keywords: ATR; Biodiesel; FTIR spectroscopy; Insects’ oil; PLS.


Objective:

To use FTIR spectroscopy for the determination of moisture content in biodiesel.

The biodiesel used here is produced from insects’ oil.

Methodology: Distilled water was spiked in the purified and dried biodiesel to construct the

calibration curve. Attenuated total reflectance element (ZnSe) was used to collect

the spectra using mid IR region 4000 – 400 cm-1. Partial least square (PLS)

regression method was used to derive FTIR spectroscopic calibration model for

moisture content in biodiesel samples.

Significant findings:

Absorbance values from the wavelengths regions 3500 – 3050 cm–1 and 1680 –

1600 cm–1 were found to be the best region for the determination of moisture

content in biodiesel samples. The coefficient of determinations (R2) was 0.9321

and the standard error (SE) of calibration was 1.84. The calibration model was

cross validated within the same set of samples and the standard deviation (SD) of

the difference for repeatability (SDDr) and accuracy (SDDa) of the FTIR method

were found to be very low indicating that FTIR spectroscopy is a useful

alternative method to wet chemical methods for rapid and accurate determination

of moisture content in biodiesel produced from insects’ oil.

CP14

Palm Pressed Fiber Oil: A Novel Opportunity for DAG?

B.K. Neoh*, Y.M. Thang, M.ZA.M. Zain & A. Junaidi

*Corresponding author

Sime Darby Technology Centre 2 Jalan Tandang, 46050 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia

E-mail: [email protected]

Palm pressed fiber (PPF) is a palm by-product generated in palm oil mills which is normally subjected to boiler fuel as an energy source. Previous studies indicated that the amount of phytonutrients (e.g. carotenes, tocopherol, phytosterol, squalene, phospholipids, co-enzyme Q10) in PPF is significantly higher compared to crude palm oil (CPO). Furthermore, the composition of PPF oil is unique with high contents of diacylglycerides (DAG) and lauric acid, where it reveals characteristics of both crude palm oil and palm kernel oil (PKO). DAG has been found to possess novel nutritional functions whereby it suppresses the post-prandial increases in serum triacylglycerides. This translates to lower absorption of oil in the body in comparison with conventional triacylglycerides oil. The objective of this study is to monitor the changes of acylglycerol composition in PPF stocks over a period of 30 days. A total of 189 hexane extraction samples were subjected to High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) for monoacylglycerides (MAG), diacylglycerides and triacylglycerides (TAG) analysis. The findings showed that DAG and MAG increases from 8.25% to 17.05% and 10.86 to 19.58 % respectively. Meanwhile, the increase of DAG had lead to reduction of TAG from 81.59 to 69.49%. The rate of marginal increase at 12.94% is deemed to be nominal beyond 15 days. Keyword: Palm pressed fibre, Diacylglycerides, Monoacylglcerides, Triacylglycerides

353


CP15 Biodegradation of Kerosene by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

and Three Strains of Bacillus sp.

F. Aramb, D. Mowlaa,*, Y. Ghasemic, F. Dehghan NajmAbadia, A.Niazib a School of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

b Biotechnology Center, Agricultural College, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

c Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical science, Research Center,

Faculty of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of medical Science, Shiraz, Iran

ABSTRACT

Crude oil and refined petroleum products are mixtures of a large numbers of components, each with its own chemical and physical properties. Oil and oily wastes can sometimes be broken down using biological process. Biodegradation is one of the most important processes in determining the ultimate fate of oil in the environment. For the last decade, some specifically selected microbes have been successfully used to break down large molecules of crude oil into smaller ones.

Kerosene is a refined petroleum product composed of alkanes from C8 up to C18. In this work, the biodegradation of kerosene by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and three strains of Bacillus, at different concentrations and different time intervals was investigated. The bacteria were grown in LB medium at 370C until turbid growth was observed. Bacterial cells grown on LB medium were transferred to a 50ml Erlenmeyer containing 10ml of mineral salt medium (MSM) for Pseudomonas aeruginosa and NB medium for Bacillus species. The samples were incubated at 370C on a rotary shaker for different time intervals. The residual hydrocarbons were extracted with equal volumes of n-hexane every week, and analyzed by a Gas Chromatograph to investigate the degree of biodegradation. Results showed that more than 50% of the kerosene was degraded by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and one strain of Bacillus sp. after 3 weeks of incubation. Thus we can conclude that these two strains have the best ability to efficiently degrade straight chain hydrocarbons.

* Corresponding author.

E-mail address: [email protected]

354

CP16 Biodegradation of Paraffin Wax and Normal C30 by

Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Three Strains of Bacillus sp.

F. Dehghan NajmAbadia, D. Mowlaa,*, F. Aramb

a School of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran b Biotechnology Center, Agricultural College, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

ABSTRACT

One of the principal challenges that the petroleum industry is facing, is the paraffin deposition inside the pipelines and instruments. Paraffins which are mainly composed of long chain alkanes (from C17 up to C40), may cause serious problems in the recovery of oil from oilfields. The formation of paraffins may cause plugging up the oil production pipes, deposits in the stock tanks of refinery and inside the oil reservoir. Since 1900, some chemical and mechanical methods have been proposed to overcome this problem but they have limited effectiveness and are so expensive. The microbial degradation by microorganisms is a proved effective alternative method to the conventional methods to remove paraffin deposition. In this work, the biodegradation of different concentrations of liquid paraffin and pure n-C30 is investigated by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and three strains of Bacillus sp. The bacteria were grown in LB medium at 370C until turbid growth was observed. Bacterial cells grown on LB medium were transferred to a 50ml Erlenmeyer containing 10ml of mineral salt medium (MSM) for Pseudomonas aeruginosa and NB medium for Bacillus species. The samples were incubated at 370C on a rotary shaker for different time intervals. The residual hydrocarbons were extracted with equal volumes of n-hexane every week. GC analysis was performed on the samples before and after the microbial treatments to evaluate the degree of biodegradation. Results showed that more than 90% of the paraffin was degraded by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. and one strain of Bacillus after 3 weeks of incubation. Thus we can conclude that these two strains are very effective in degrading the heavy paraffinic hydrocarbons.

* Corresponding author.

E-mail address: [email protected]

355

CP17

Possibility of Using Dielectric Barrier Discharge for the Removal of Nitric Oxide from Palm Oil Based Biodiesel

Siti Aiasah Hashim +, Wong Chiow San+, Mhd Radzi Abas#

+Plasma Research Laboratory, Physics Deparment, Faculty of Science, University of

Mlya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia #Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala

Kumpur,Malaysia.

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

For decades, dielectric barrier discharge (DBD), a gas discharges based technology has been employed as an ozonizer for various applications. Recently, the technology was further explored for use in pollution control. A DBD reactor, designed and fabricated by the Plasma Technology Research Group at the University of Malaya, is used in this study to remove nitric oxide in gas stream. The reactor consists of several cells that is made up of coaxial electrodes insulated by a dielectric tube, and it is powered by a high voltage AC power supply. Filamentary discharges generated inside the cells provide energetic electrons to react with the pollutants. It is found that the reactor is capable of reducing NO into nitrogen and oxygen while preventing oxidation of No into NO2. an inlet gas stream containing 106 ppm of NO is found to contain almost zero NO with insignificant increase of NO2 after passing through the reactor. In the presence of SO2 and oxygen, an environment that is common in petrol fuel combustion, the removal rate was reduced. However, this can be overcome by using larger number of cells in the reactor. With the right configuration, the reactor is capable of removing up to 99% NO from a gas stream containing NO and SO2. Based on the above results, and in view of the fact that palm oil biodiesel combustion emit higher concentration of NOx, our reactor can be useful to remediate the emission of engine running on biodiesel. This will make the palm oil biodiesel much more attractive to the environmentalist. Note : Those who are interested in the DBD technology may contact Prof. Dr. Wong Chiow San at [email protected]

356



CP18

Mechanical Properties Effect on the Quality of Lumber from Oil Palm Trunk

Anis Mokhtar1, Kamarudin Hassan1 and Astimar Abdul Aziz1

ABSTRACT

Oil palm trunk has its own characteristic, including varying density and high moisture

content. The density of oil palm trunk ranges from 200-700 kg/m3 and the moisture

content is in the range of 100-300%.

In order to get the quality lumber for making good quality products, many factors are

involved such as the control parameters during drying, product design, production

process and control. It is important to note that the mechanical properties such as

bending stress, tensile stress are among the most important factors to make high quality

products.

From the studies, it was found that each part of the stem gave different mechanical

properties. The bottom of stem has lower modulus of elasticity than the end of the stem

but has higher hardness. This information is very useful for making suitable products

from oil palm wood.

Keywords: mechanical properties, modulus of elasticity

______________________________________________________ 1Malaysian Palm Oil Board


357

CP19 Evaluation of Rate Equation for Methyl Esters Formation in Base Transesterification of Crude Blend of Edible and

Nonedible Oils

Modhar Khana, Suzana Yusup*

Chemical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, 31750, Perak, Malaysia

a [email protected]

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Base transesterification reaction is one of the favoured route for the production of alkyl esters from triglycerides in oils and lipids. The reaction mechanism involves several rate equations, of which is the formation rate of methyl esters. The kinetics of the latter is investigated and the rate equation is developed in the current study for a crude blend of rubber seed and palm oils as the feedstock. The equivolume blend is characterized and treated with acid esterification to reduce the free fatty acid before entering base transesterification. Nonlinear regression analysis for reaction data was used to develop the reaction rate equation.

Keywords

Transesterification, Methyl esters, Crude palm oil, Rubber seed oil, Reaction Kinetics

INTRODUCTION

Base transesterification of oils and fats is one of the most important reactions in the oleic industry for its valuable alkyl ester products which finds many applications in various industries. The only downside is that it can’t handle feedstock with high content of free fatty acids. Thus, acid esterification is applied to treat such feedstocks prior feeding them to base transesterification for fast conversion of triglycerides to alkyl esters [1].

EstersMethy Glycero AcidFatty Alcohol desTriglyceri Catalyst Base +⎯⎯⎯⎯ →←+ l (1)

Biodiesel kinetic study began with Freedman and his colleagues at USDA in the early 1980’s (Freedman 1984, 1986). Freedman mixed ethanol with soybean oil. At the beginning of his work he suggested a second order reaction model which he called a pseudo first order model. Due to data mismatch, he then suggested the reaction to be a “Shunt Reaction” of fourth order [2,3].

Mittelbach and Trathnigg (1990) of Karl-Franzen University, Graz, investigated sunflower oil transesterification reaction using alkali catalyst. They studied the effect of various alcohol to oil ratios, temperature and catalyst concentration over

the yield of methyl esters obtained. They found that the reaction tends to be of a second order at the beginning of transesterification. But then, the rate dropped rapidly as glycerol was produced which resulted in to phase reaction mixture. It was concluded that the byproduct leads to the loss of methanol and catalyst [4].

Noureddini and Zhu (1997) of the University of Nebraska also used soybean oil for their kinetic study. They utilized the same reaction model proposed by Freedman but their research was more focused on the effect of mixing over the reaction. They found that the change in mixing intensities have a similar effect with the variation of temperatures over the activation energy and reaction time. Increasing mixing intensity led to decrease in the lag time and energy as well. Results obtained showed that the reaction was initially under a mass transfer controlled region followed by a kinetic controlled one. The model obtained was a good fit to a second order reaction mechanism and the product concentration distribution gave a sigmodial curve [5].

Many studies had been conducted by researchers to understand the chemical kinetics of various transesterification reactions using different feed stocks. However, a common reaction model

remains controversial. Research efforts were mostly focused on simplifying the reaction order by finding the best fit of empirical data. Only recently, few studies developed a kinetic model based on chemical mechanisms. In the current study, an oil blend representing edible and nonedible oil was prepared then fed to base transesterification after treating the high free fatty acid content. The kinetics and rate equation for methyl esters formation were evaluated and studied.

METHODOLOGY

Rubber seeds were acquired from a plantation near Sungai Buloh, Malaysia. The oil was then extracted by solvent extraction. Crude palm oil was purchased directly from a local mill in Perak, Malaysia. An equivolume blend was then prepared. The properties of the oil obtained are given in Table 1. Methanol (Systerm) and Potassium Hydroxide (Systerm) were procured in addition to glycerides and methyl esters standards to establish calibration curves for thin layer chromatography analysis of the samples. In base transesterification, a weighed amount of oil is added to a three neck flask which is placed in a water bath.

Table 1 – Crude blend properties

Property Value Density, g/cm3 25oC 0.917 Viscosity, cSt 40oC 42.8 Acid value, mgKOH/gOil 31.9 FFA, wt% 11.9 Calorific value, J/g 38157 Refractive index 1.465 Monoglycerides, wt% 2.50 Diglycerides, wt% 7.28 Triglycerides, wt% 70.1 Iodine value 106.23

The condenser is placed on the top of three neck flask to prevent any alcohol losses by vaporization. Heat is then applied using a hotplate until the desired temperature is reached. The prepared alcohol/catalyst mixture is then added to heated oil blend and mixing rate is kept constant at 350rpm. The time is extended to 5 hours for optimum reaction conditions which had been investigated at a separate study at two different temperatures [6]. The samples are withdrawn from the second neck quickly at specified time intervals.

RESULTS AND DISSCUSION

Nonlinear regression was used to obtain a mathematical expression that resembles methyl esters conversion. The conditions of reaction were at temperature of 55oC with alcohol to oil ratio of 6 to 1 and catalyst amount of 2wt%.

This model obtained is shown in Equation 2. In addition, Figure 1 shows the fit of this equation to experimental data obtained. The fitness was verified with least sum of squares analysis, R2, Adjusted R2 and Root mean square analysis. The results were 6.948 x 10-5, 0.999, 0.999 and 0.002 respectively. It can be seen that the plot passes all the statistical tests.

CkCk

dtdCr β'

ME1

ME1MEME 1+

==β'

(2)

The values for k1 and β' in Equation 2 were 1.304 x 10-4 and -6.706 respectively.

Table 2 - Methyl esters concentration throughout base transesterification

Time (min) Concentration (mol/ml)

0 0.270 3 0.586 5 0.594

10 0.601 25 0.612 60 0.635 90 0.664

120 0.668 180 0.671 240 0.673 300 0.674 360 0.675

As it can be seen from Figure 1, time derivative for methyl ester concentration had to be utilized to obtain the plot. Advanced curve fitting toolbox ® in MATLAB 7.0 was used to obtain the values of derivative from concentration data. A plot of concentration versus time had to be established first, the plot is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1 - Methyl esters concentration time derivative vs. concentration as obtained by the

proposed model at 55oC, Alcohol to oil ratio of 6 to 1 and catalyst amount of 2wt%

Figure 2 - Methyl esters conversion vs. Reaction time in base transesterification

rate equation of treansesterification study was investigated by many

results however varied with different feedstocks. The kinetics of methyl esters

eveloped and with experimental data

aa, Milford A. Hanna, Biodiesel

atty esters from

n of C1-5-alkyl fatty esters from fatty

. and Trathnigg, B., Kinetics of

f sunflower oil,

at Science and Technology, 92(4): 145-148,

(1990).

[5] Noureddini, H., Zhu, D., Kinetics of

transesterification of soybean oil, JAOCS, 74(11),

(1997), 1457-63.

[6] Khan, M.A., unpublished data

CONCLUSION

The kinetics and

researchers. The

formation in base transesterification of crude blend of rubber seed and crude palm oils was investigated and the rate equation was developed. A nonlinear model was dto predict methyl esters concentration change throughout the reaction.

REFERENCES

[1] Fangrui M

production: a review, Bioresource Technology 70

(1999) 1-15.

[2] Freedman B, Pryde EH, Mounts TL . Variables

affecting the yields of f

transesterified vegetable oils. JAOCS 61,

1984,1638–43.

[3] Wimmer, T., Transesterification process for the

preparatio

glycerides and monovalent lower alcohols. PCT

Int. Appl. WO, 1992, 9200-68.

[4] Mittelbach, M

alkaline catalyzed methanolysis o

F

CP20 Ultrafiltration of Residual Fibre Oil/Hexane Extract by

a Polymeric Membrane

Rusnani Abd Majida, Abdul Wahab Mohammadb, Choo Yuen Maya

ABSTRACT

Palm pressed fibre is one of the byproducts generated from palm oil mill. It is normally

burned as solid fuel for boiler operation to provide energy for the mill. The pressed fibre

contains about 5% to 8% (dry basis) of residual oil and reported to contain high level of

minor components such as phospholipids, vitamin E and carotenes. A number of research

works on ultrafiltration for rejection of phospholipids from mixture of vegetable oils such

as soybean, sunflower and rapessed with solvent (hexane) has been reported. The

objective of the study was to investigate the ultrafiltration of residual palm pressed fibre

oil/hexane extract using a polymeric membrane. The properties of palm pressed fibre oil

and performance of the membrane in terms of permeate flux and rejection of

phospholipids was carried out. Permeate flux is expressed as volume of permeate per unit

area and time. The residual oil was first extracted from palm pressed fibre using hexane

and the oil/hexane mixture (miscella) was then ultrafiltered using polyethersulfone (PES)

membrane with pore size of 20 kD. The ultrafiltration experiment was performed using a

stirred dead-end cell, a magnetic stirrer, and a nitrogen cylinder to provide the driving

force (pressure) for permeation. Membrane was placed on a sintered stainless steel disc.

Continuous agitation was provided just above the membrane surface by a magnetic spin

bar suspended in the cell and driven by an external magnetic stirrer. The nitrogen

cylinder was connected to the top of the test cell. The feed (as control), permeate and

retentate samples were collected and analyzed. Result showed that the residual fibre oil is

not only contains high level of phospholipids, carotenes and vitamin E, but also high

level in free fatty acid as shown in Table 1. The oil content and viscosity of miscella and

palm pressed fibre oil are presented in Table 2. A phospholipid rejection of 60% and

conservation of carotenes in palm pressed fibre oil were achieved. The membrane also

rejected 44% of total vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols) with concentration of 758

ppm in permeate. The permeate flux for the ultrafiltration using PES membrane after 1

hour running was 45.2 l/m2h at 3 bar. It was observed that after 2 hours running, the

permeate flux decreased to 28.8 l/m2h.

Table 1: Analyses of Residual Palm Pressed Fibre Oil and Crude Palm Oil

Properties Residual Palm Pressed

Fibre Oil

Crude Palm Oil*

Free fatty acid as palmitic (%)

Phosphorus (ppm)

Carotenes (ppm)

Vitamin E (ppm)

35.6

31.4

2134

1229

3.2

13.3

582

600 - 1000

* PORIM 1997/98 Survey

Table 2: Oil Content and Viscosity

Sample Oil Content (%) Viscosity (cSt at 400C)

Miscella (oil/hexane)

Residual palm pressed fibre oil

3

100

0.474

29.268

a Malaysian Palm Oil Board b Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

CP21

Performance of Microcrystalline Cellulose from Oil Palm Biomass in Tablet Form

Rosnah Mat Soom, Astimar Abdul Aziz, Wan Hasamudin Wan Hassan

and Ab Gapor Md Top

Malaysian Palm Oil Board No. 6 Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor

[email protected]

ABSTRACT Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) powder was prepared from oil palm empty fruit bunch fibres (EFB). Bleaching process was incorporated in the preparation of the MCC powder that exhibits a pleasant and whitish appearance. The MCC powder of 63 µm mesh size was pressed at pressure of 7 kN using automated Instron machine. Analyses on the tablets produced were carried out including the friability test, disintegration test, relaxation stress test and tensile strength. The performance of the tablets produced from MCC of EFB was compared to the tablets prepared from MCC standard 101 and MCC standard SIGMA brand. The friability test showed low percentage loss of tablets prepared from EFB and the standards. As for the disintegration test, tablets from MCC of EFB disintegrate faster compared to tablets prepared from MCC SIGMA and MCC 101. The relaxation test showed a small increase in thickness of about 0.04 mm, 0.03 mm and 0.03 mm for tablets prepared from MCC from EFB, MCC SIGMA and MCC 101, respectively. The tensile strength of MCC tablets of EFB is comparable to MCC tablets of MCC SIGMA with readings of 3.51 kN and 3.59 kN, respectively, and slightly higher than the tensile strength of MCC 101 of 3.06 kN.

363

CP22

The Effect of Biofuel Blends on Diesel Engine Performance and Emissions

Ropandi Mamat, Astimar Abdul Aziz, Wan Hasamudin Wan Hassan,

Ramdhan Khalid and Muhammed Abdul Rahman Malaysian Palm Oil Board, No. 6, Persiaran Institusi, 43600 Bangi, Selangor

ABSTRACT

Biofuel and biodiesel have receive and gain significant global interest in the last few decades as an alternative fuel for the energy because they are renewable and reduce the emissions of several pollutants. They are considered as a green fuel and to be “ CO2 neutral’, thus burning of biofuel or biodiesel do not add to the net increase of carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere. This indirectly reduces the green house gases effects that contribute to the global warming. The objective of this study was to characterize the performance and exhaust emissions of diesel engine when fueled with various biofuel blends and neat diesel. The base fuel-normal diesel, 5% blend, 10 % blend and 20% blend of Refined Bleached and Deodourised Palm Olein (RBDPOo) were used as a vehicle fuel in the study. A Mitsubishi Storm L200 diesel vehicle was used in the study and engine performance and emission were measured on an eddy current chassis dynamometer. The engine performance was performs by revving the vehicles engine from starting to full throttle and the power and torque of the vehicles are measured from 1500 rpm to 5000 rpm. While the emissions measurement were conducted based on fixed load curve method as defined in annex III, Appendix 2 Section 3.2 of 70/220/EEC Directive, which consists of two cycles that are four ECE (urban driving) cycles and one EUDC (highway driving) cycle. The Constant Volume Sampler (CVS) method is used to measure and determine the tailpipe emissions of the test vehicles. The engine performance (power and torque) of the based fuel was showing an identical trend or curve with the biofuel blends except it has a lower value. The B20 biofuel blends give a highest power and torque of 122 PS@3400 rpm and 30Nm@2300rpm respectively. The emission of biofuel blends shows an increasing trends with the increase of palm olein in the blends when compared with the base diesel. The increasing trend was not much significant except for the emission of NOx and CO especially at B20. However the emissions level still meeting the Euro 2 limits at B20. The fuel consumption of the biofuel blends shows a decreasing trend with an increase of palm olein in the blends and these were observed for the combined cycle of ECE and EUDC as well as when engine running at constant speed at 90 km/hr and 120 km/hr. One of the reasons may be due to higher oxygen content in the biofuel, thus a better combustion occurred in the engine even though the calorific value of biofuel is slightly lower.

364

CP23 A Prelimenary Study on Enzyme-assisted Oil

Extraction from Palm Oil Mill Sludge

Noorshamsiana Abdul Wahab1, Mohamad Sulong1, Astimar Abd. Aziz1,

Mohamadiah Banjari1.

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, No. 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi,

43000 Kajang, Selangor, MALAYSIA.

ABSTRACT

The extraction of oil from Palm Oil Mill Sludge (POMS) was carried out by using

enzymatic hydrolysis method. The present works evaluates the potential of enzymatic

hydrolysis as a treatment for extracting the residual oil that remains within the POMS.

Sludge Palm Oil (SPO) recovery by enzymatic treatment was conducted using a cellulase

enzyme which commercially named as Celluclast 1.5L FG (Novozymes). The selection

of enzyme for the study was based on literature search whereby in a few of technical

papers were reported that cellulase is a biocatalyst for hydrolyzing agricultural, industrial

waste and also forest material that contained high level of cellulose. The effect of oil

extractability from POMS with and without cellulase treatment was studied with the

incubation time was varied in the range 0 – 72 hours. Initially, 1.5 liter of sludge sample

was subjected to 0.3% v/v Celluclast 1.5L FG in the 2 liter bioreactor at 55°C, pH 4.8

under gentle circulation of impeller of 80 rpm. The yields of oil extraction were obtained

by oil residue content analysis in treated sample of each 24 hours of hydrolysis. The

results showed that with the increasing period of hydrolysis, the SPO recovery was

significantly increased. The optimum oil recovery was significantly obtained at 72 hours

of incubation time with 0.3% v/v Celluclast 1.5L FG concentration extracting 93.43% of

oil in sludge sample. Whilst, in the absence of cellulase enzyme, there was no significant

increment in oil extraction from the sludge sample during 72 hours of incubation.

Thus, this study suggests that an enzymatic treatment with Celluclast 1.5L FG is a

potential method to extract the oil from POMS. The use of enzymes as biological means

to recover oil from sludge is believed to be more benign to the environment.

Keywords: Enzymatic Oil Extraction, Sludge Palm Oil, Palm Oil Mill Sludge.

1 Malaysian Palm Oil Board


367

CP24

A Case Study of the Production of Crude Palm Kernel Oil Using the Life Cycle Approach

Vijaya. S, Ma A.N. and Choo Y.M

Engineering & Processing Division Malaysian Palm Oil Board

ABSTRACT

The Malaysian oil palm industry is a very important industry which contributes immensely towards the economy of the country. In 2008 alone the total exports of oil palm products, constituting of palm oil, palm kernel oil, palm kernel cake, oleo chemicals and finished products reached a record RM 65.2 billion.. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool to evaluate the environmental impacts of a product or process throughout its entire life cycle. This study has a gate to gate system boundary that starts with the collection and transportation of the palm kernel from the palm oil mills right up till the production of crude palm kernel oil (CPKO) at the kernel crushing plants. CPKO is produced by crushing the palm kernel which is a by product at the palm oil mills. This objective of this study was to identify the potential impacts associated with the production of CPKO. A total of six kernel crushing plants were selected to collect inventory data which consists of the inputs of raw materials and energy as well as the outputs of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes. Out of the selected kernel crushing plants, five crushing plants used electricity directly from the grid for processing while one crushing plant used the electricity generated at the neighboring palm oil mill for processing. This study compares the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) of two scenarios namely; scenario one when the crushing plants uses electricity from the grid versus scenario two when the crushing plant uses electricity generated from the palm oil mill. The LCIA was conducted using the SimaPro software and the Eco-Indicator 99 methodology. Within the system boundary, for scenario one there were two potential impacts mainly from the electricity consumption from the grid for processing and diesel consumption for transporting the palm kernel from the mills. For scenario two, the potential impact from the electricity consumption from the grid was removed due to the use of renewable energy from the palm oil mill and the impact caused by the diesel consumption was reduced due to the short distance for transporting the palm kernel.

368

CP25 Cellulose Acetate from Oil Palm Biomass

Wan Hasamudin Wan Hassan, Rosnah Mat Soom, Anis Mokhtar and Astimar Abdul Aziz

Product Agro Unit, Engineering & Processing Divison,

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, No 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi 43000 Kajang Selangor

ABSTRACT Empty fruit bunch (EFB), oil palm frond (OPF) and oil palm trunk (OPT) are among

the major oil palm biomass generated by the oil palm industry. They consist mainly

lignocellulosic components; namely cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Cellulose, in

particular constitutes about 30-35% (dry weight) of the fibres, and has a great

potential for the production of cellulose derivatives and can be exploited for the

benefit of the palm oil industry.

The cellulose acetate was prepared from the isolated cellulose derived from the

lignocellulosic materials of EFB and OPT fibres. The structural properties of the

cellulose and cellulose acetate were studied using Fourier Transformed Infra-red

Spectrometry (FTIR). The FTIR spectra of the cellulose and the its derivative from the

respective oil palm biomass were identical to that of the commercial cellulose and

cellulose acetate.

CP26

Preliminary Findings: Preparation of Tocotrienols Emulsions by High Shear Processing

Ng Mei Han1,* and Choo Yuen May1

Malaysian Palm Oil Board

6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Tocotrienols has been associated with various beneficial health attributes such as being a powerful antioxidant and anti-cancer agent. Numerous R&D have emerged in recent years to further study the effects of the tocotrienols and to develop the technological know-how on ways in which they could be applied or utilized as a downstream product. However, since the tocotrienols are highly sensitive to oxidation, the question remains on how they could be stabilized during storage and / or to ensure their bioavailability upon processing. In this respect, study has been initiated to encapsulate the tocotrienols with a suitable shell material in order to protect the tocotrienols from oxidation with the first step being the preparation of tocotrienols emulsion. This study reports on the preliminary findings on the preparation of tocotrienols oil in water emulsion with a chosen surface active agent by high shear processing. A coarse emulsion was produced with the initial formulation. However, upon analyzing, it was found that there was no homogenization at all and thus, a high shear processing method is necessary to produce a homogenized tocotrienols emulsion and at the same time reduces their particle sizes which would rendered them to be more thermodynamically stable. The number of high shear processing cycles has been found to be a contributing factor in producing a homogenized and stable emulsion of sub-micron particle sizes. However, caution has to be exercised in order not to over processed the emulsion; causing the surface active agent to be ‘detached’ from the tocotrienols. Percentage of surface active agent used has to be monitored as well as it plays a role in minimizing the formation of empty micelles. These preliminary findings pave the way for a thorough study on the preparation of tocotrienols nanoemulsion and nanoencapsulation.

369


CP27 Catalytic Conversion of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate for

the Production of Methyl Ester

A. W. Nursulihatimarsyila, H.L.N. Lau, Y.M. Choo and Mohd. Basri Wahid

Malaysian Palm Oil Board

No.6 Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia.

ABSTRACT

Production of methyl ester or biodiesel from fatty acids distillate as cheaper raw

materials have been seriously considered by most biodiesel producers to reduce its

production cost. Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is a by-product obtained from palm

oil physical refining which stands as an attractive feedstock for biodiesel production.

Malaysian refiners have produced 880,000 tonnes of PFAD in 2008. PFAD has been

widely used in the soap-making industries and as animal feed formulation. Other

inexpensive starting materials for biodiesel production include used frying oil, sludge

oil from palm oil mill and waste oil from industry with high fatty acids content. In this

study, the FFA in PFAD was esterified into methyl esters by using a strong solid acid

catalyst in the presence of excess methanol followed by transesterification As a result,

the PFAD methyl ester produced meets the European Biodiesel Standard EN 14214.

Keywords: Methyl ester, fatty acid distillate, esterification, transesterification.

Malaysia Palm Oil Board (MPOB), No.6 Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia. [email protected]

Tel No. : +603-8769 4446

Fax No. : +603-8926 2971

370


CP28

Synthesis and Properties of Biobased Polyurethane/Montmorillonite Nanocomposites

Teuku Rihayat Politeknik Negeri Lhokseumawe - Indonesia

ABSTRACT

Polyurethanes (PURs) are very versatile polymeric materials with a wide range of

physical and chemical properties. PURs have desirable properties such as high

abrasion resistance, tear strength, shock absorption, flexibility and elasticity.

Although they have relatively poor thermal stability, this can be improved by

using treated clay. Polyurethane/clay nanocomposites have been synthesized from

renewable sources. A polyol for the production of polyurethane by reaction with

an isocyanate was obtained by the synthesis of palm oil-based oleic acid with

glycerol. Dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid (DBSA) was used as catalyst and

emulsifier. The unmodified clay (kunipia-F) was treated with cetyltrimethyl

ammonium bromide (CTAB-mont) and octadodecylamine (ODA-mont). The d-

spacing in CTAB-mont and ODA-mont were 1.571 nm and 1.798 nm respectively

and larger than that of the pure-mont (1.142 nm). The organoclay was completely

intercalated in the polyurethane, as confirmed by a wide angle x-ray diffraction

(WAXD)pattern.

Key words : Polyurethane/ Clay, Palm oil polyol, synthesis

Email : [email protected]

371

CP29

Enzymatic Activation of Lipase in Fresh Fruit Bunch for the Production of High Diacylglycerol Oil

Nabilah Kamaliah Mustaffa, Harrison Lau Lik Nang and Choo Yuen May

Malaysia Palm Oil Board

No.6 Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi 43000, Kajang, Selangor

ABSTRACT Diacylglycerols (DAG) are fats that are commonly used as food additives which can

be found naturally in vegetables oil such as palm oil, soy oil, canola oil, olive oil and

etc. The DAG-rich oil results in lower serum triglyceride levels after a meal and the

metabolism of DAG can help maintaining healthy body weight and body fat. Several

methods are available for the preparation of DAG oils in which it is normally

produced by enzymatic esterification of fatty acids with glycerol, glycerolysis of

oil/fats with glycerol and hydrolysis of oils/fats. In this study, the compositional

changes of oil in FFB by enzymatic hydrolysis process are studied in order to produce

the high DAG oil. The FFB was stored under different control condition such as at

room temperature and at low temperature. Studies showed that lipase enzyme can be

activated at temperature lower than ambient and therefore the resulted in palm oil

enriched with high DAG content.

372

CP30

Hydrogenation of Palm Oil Methyl Ester Using Nickel Catalyst

Nor Faizah Jalani, Nabilah Kamaliah Mustaffa, Nur Sulihatimarsyila

Abd Wafti, Harrison Lau Lik Nang and Choo Yuen May

Malaysian Palm Oil Board 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi,

43000, Kajang, Selangor

ABSTRACT

Hydrogenation process is widely used in vegetable oils industry in order to modify the

physical properties of oil such as the melting and solidification characteristics for

various applications. Hydrogenation of vegetable oil applied to reduce the degree of

unsaturation of naturally occurring double bonds in acylglycerol. For non-food

applications, the hydrogenated methyl ester has been produced and used as oleochemical

feedstock. In this study, Palm oil methyl ester (PME) was subjected to hydrogenation

process in pilot scale using pressurized reactor with two types of commercial nickel

catalysts, ranging from 0.03 to 0.5 wt%. The hydrogen is fed with flowrate of 9 Nm3/hr

and the hydrogen pressure is gradually increased from up from 3 to 10 barg pressure.

The degree of unsaturation of PME was successfully reduced from iodine value (IV) of

52.8 down to less than 0.5.

373

CP31 Effects of Contaminants on Cold Soak Filtration and

Cold Filter Plugging Point of Palm Oil Methyl Esters

Harrison Lau Lik Nang and Choo Yuen May

Malaysian Palm Oil Board 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia.

ABSTRACT

The fuel filter blocking problem aroused from the use of biodiesel or fatty acid

methyl esters (FAME) in diesel fuel blends under cold weather operation have been

reported in the EU and USA at low blending ratio of 2.5%. White sticky substances

that blocked the fuel filter have been investigated by various researchers to detect the

contaminants in FAME blending stock which has not been specified in ASTM D6751

(American Society for Testing and Materials) or EN 14214 specifications for FAME.

To counter the problem, the newest testing requirement called cold soak filtration test

(CSFT) for biodiesel has recently been added in ASTM D6751 as to prevent the

precipitation of solid materials in biodiesel during cold weather. In this study, two

types of solid contaminants namely monopalmitin and sodium soap derived from fatty

acid were spiked into distilled palm oil methyl esters at different concentrations and

subjected to CSFT and cold filter plugging point (CFPP) tests. It was found that both

contaminants induced the nucleation of saturated methyl esters (16:0 and 18:0) which

has subsequently precipitated out from the liquid sample and at certain spiking levels,

has actually failed the CFST test. The effect of these contaminants on CFPP of the

FAME was also reported.

Cold flow properties in blended diesel normally controlled by cloud point (CP) and

cold filter plugging point (CFPP). CP and CFPP generally increase with degree of

saturation. Precipitation occurs after a period a cold soak and hence is not detected by

CP and CFPP.

374

CP32

Short Path Distillation: An Environment-Friendly Process to Produce Palm Phytonutrients

Chiew Wei Puah1, Yuen May Choo1, Ah Ngan Ma1

and Cheng Hock Chuah2

1Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia. 2Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai,

50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses an environment-friendly process using short path distillation to

produce selected phytonutrients from palm oil with special reference to refined, bleached

and deodorised (RBD) palm olein. Over the last two decades, palm oil and its products

especially phytonutrients such as tocols (tocopherols and tocotrienols), sterols and

squalene have received much attention for their nutritional properties. The recovery of

these phytonutrients is a challenging task because (i) these phytonutrients (e.g. tocols)

are sensitive to heat, light and air; (ii) they are of different polarity from non-polar (e.g.

squalene) to relatively polar and (iii) they are of different molecular weights. In light of

these, suitable technologies are needed to recover all these phytonutrients without

damaging the products. Experiments were carried out using a pilot scale short path

distillation with varying temperatures ranging from 150°C – 200°C. Results showed that

tocols can be concentrated 100-folds from feed material. Sterols (e.g. campesterol,

stigmasterol and β−sitosterol) can be concentrated 250-folds while squalene can be

concentrated 150-folds from feed material. This study shows that short path distillation is

a potential green technology for the production of phytonutrients from palm oil.

CP33

Short Path Distillation: An Environment-friendly Process to Produce Palm Phytonutrients

Chiew Wei Puah1, Yuen May Choo1, Ah Ngan Ma1 and Cheng Hock

Chuah2

1Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia. 2Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai,

50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses an environment-friendly process using short path distillation to

produce selected phytonutrients from palm oil with special reference to refined, bleached

and deodorised (RBD) palm olein. Over the last two decades, palm oil and its products

especially phytonutrients such as tocols (tocopherols and tocotrienols), sterols and

squalene have received much attention for their nutritional properties. The recovery of

these phytonutrients is a challenging task because (i) these phytonutrients (e.g. tocols)

are sensitive to heat, light and air; (ii) they are of different polarity from non-polar (e.g.

squalene) to relatively polar and (iii) they are of different molecular weights. In light of

these, suitable technologies are needed to recover all these phytonutrients without

damaging the products. Experiments were carried out using a pilot scale short path

distillation with varying temperatures ranging from 150°C – 200°C. Results showed that

tocols can be concentrated 100-folds from feed material. Sterols (e.g. campesterol,

stigmasterol and β−sitosterol) can be concentrated 250-folds while squalene can be

concentrated 150-folds from feed material. This study shows that short path distillation is

a potential green technology for the production of phytonutrients from palm oil.

376

CP34

Briquetting of Empty Fruit Bunch Fibre and Palm Shell Using Piston Press Technology

1A.B.Nasrin, 1A.N.Ma, 1Y.M.Choo, 2L.Joseph, 2S. Michael, 1S.Mohamad,

1 M.H.Rohaya and A.A.Astimar

1Engineering & Processing Research Division, MPOB, No. 6, Persiaran Institusi,B.B.Bangi, 43000 Kajang.

2Global Green Synergy Sdn. Bhd. Wisma Zelan, No.1, Suite 01. 12B,

Jalan Tasik Permaisuri 2, Bandar Tun Razak, Cheras 56000 Kuala Lumpur

ABSTRACT

Malaysian palm oil industry produces vast amount of biomass, mainly from the palm oil milling sector. Converting these palm biomass into a uniform solid fuel through briquetting process appears to be potentially attractive solution in upgrading its properties and to add value as renewable energy fuels. In this study, raw materials including empty fruit bunch (EFB), in fibrous form and palm shell were mixed in certain ratios and densified into briquettes at high pressure using piston press technology. The blending ratios of shell to EFB (w/w%) for the production trials were fixed at 20%, 30%, 40% and 60%. The raw materials and briquettes produced were analysed to determine their physical and chemical properties. From the analysis, it was found that, the average calorific values for the blending ratios of 20% to 60% ranged from 17995 to 18322 kJ/kg. The specific densities ranged from 1130 to 1250kg/m3. The properties of palm biomass briquettes obtained from the study were compared with those of the commercial sawdust briquettes according to DIN 51731. The details of the study were highlighted in this paper. Overall, the presence of high shell in palm briquette increased the calorific value, specific density and quality of the briquette as well. Palm biomass briquettes can become an important renewable energy fuel source in the future for the global market. Keywords: oil palm, briquettes, biomass fuel, piston press technology, renewable energy * Corresponding author. Email address: [email protected]

377

CP35 Determination of Actual Status of Flue Gas Emission from

Palm Oil Mills

Muzzammil N., Loh, S. K.

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

Flue gas emission is one of the by-products generated in the palm oil processing. Consisting of various

gaseous, flue gas is seen as a harmful culprit to the environment due to its composition of greenhouse gas

(GHG). There is a significant pressure being put on the palm oil processing to reduce its contribution to

GHG in many stages of processing including the emission of flue gas. This study is being conducted to

determine the actual data on the emission of flue gas from palm oil mills. It’s composition of gaseous,

rate of emission, total emission and method of reducing its impact on the environment are the focus in this

project.

378

CP36 Effect of Physical Parameters on Bioethanol Production

from Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB)

Asyraf, M., Loh, S.K. and Nasrin, A.B.

Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi,

43000 Kajang, Selangor.

ABSTRACT

Palm lignocellulosic material such as empty fruit bunches (EFB) is a potential source of

glucose and xylose for bioethanol production. EFB, in its pulverized form was initially

pre-treated with 1% NaOH followed by acid hydrolysis using 0.7% sulfuric acid and

enzyme prior to fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisea. Attempts optimizating the

various process parameters such as pH, temperature, agitation and initial feedstock

concentration revealed that fermentation of EFB hydrolysate was able to produce the

highest yield of bioethanol i.e. 10.48 g/L of bioethanol from 50 g/L of EFB at pH 4, 30

ºC, 100 rpm and 72 hours of incubation.

379

380

CP37

Palm Shell Gasification in Pilot Scale Compartmented Fluidized Bed Gasifier: Preliminary High Temperature

Performance and Challenges

V.S. Chok; S. Yusup Department of Chemical Engineering,

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 31750 Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia Email: [email protected]

A. Gorin

School of Engineering Science, Curtin University of Technology Sarawak Campus,

CDT 250, 98000, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia A series of fundamental works has been performed to study the hydrodynamic behavior of palm shell-sand in fluidized bed. Following that, a 500 kg/day biomass (palm shell) fed compartmented fluidized bed gasifier (CFBG) pilot plant has been designed and constructed locally (in Sarawak) for the purpose of synthesis gas production and power generation. The reactor ID is 66cm with 60:40 cross sectional area ratio for combustor and gasifier respectively. Each compartment consists of a pair of devices at the partitioning wall for internal solid circulation. CFBG is an indirectly heated and self-sustaining biomass gasification process. The distinct design of CFBG permitted the utilization of air (instead of oxygen) for combustion process that generates heat for the gasification process rich in H2, CO and CH4. These gases are high in calorific values suitable for gas turbine power generation or when purified, can be used for various oleochemical and petrochemical processes as well as production of 2nd generation biodiesel. This paper reports the performance and challenges as well as highlighting some of the technical issues pertaining to combustion and gasification of palm shell in fluidized bed at atmospheric pressure and 600-700°C. Presently, the continuously fed steady state product gases quality are 15-18 vol%, 25-38 vol% and 9-10 vol% of H2, CO and CH4 respectively. More works are still necessary but these results indicate the viability of this technology in semi-industrial scale.

CP38 Optimization of Fast Pyrolysis of Oil Palm Empty Fruit

Bunches (EFB)

Mohamad Azri Sukiran, Loh Soh Kheang* and Choo Yuen May

ABSTRACT The fast pyrolysis of empty fruit bunches (EFB) was carried out using a fluidised-fixed

bed reactor. An electric furnace heated the reactor with a heated length of 135 mm and

an inner diameter of 40 mm. The sand bed was fluidised using argon at a rate of 0.5 litre

per minute (LPM). The sand bed consisted of 100 g zircon sand of 180 – 250 µm. Several

process parameters such as the pyrolysis temperature, particle size and different types of

pre-treatment that can affect the yield of the pyrolysis products were investigated. The

experiment of fast pyrolysis was conducted using 2 - 4 g of EFB which was fed into the

reactor using argon at a rate of 2.5 LPM. The temperature used was in the range of 400-

600 ºC and particle size of EFB was < 90 – 150 µm. Three types of pre-treatment were

performed i.e. washing EFB with H2SO4, NaOH and distilled water. The preliminary

results indicated that the optimum yield of bio-oils was obtained using unwashed EFB

having particle size of 91-106 µm at pyrolyzed temperature of 500 ºC.

________________________________________________________________________

Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), No. 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia *email: [email protected], [email protected]

381


CP39 Zero-Discharge Wastewater Treatment for Palm Oil

Mill Effluent

Lai Mei Ee1,2, Lim Weng Soon1, Choo Yuen May1, Yap Ken Chong3, Zhang ZhenJia4, Loh Soh Kheang*1

ABSTRACT A review on the various biogas technologies available commercially in the market is

essential to understand the principles used in the treatment of wastewater from POME.

Due to various sustainability issues arising from the utilization of palm biofuels as an

alternative fuels to replace fossil fuels for climate change mitigation, the palm oil

industry is being pressurized to renew its interest on the harnessing of biogas from

POME. A zero-discharge wastewater treatment technology for POME in collaboration

with Ronser Bio-Tech Sdn. Bhd. and Shanghai Jiaotong University has been initiated to

provide a more economical and environmental-friendly treatment through anaerobic

digestion. The zero-discharge technology consists of two main components i.e. anaerobic

digestion and aerobic treatment of POME. POME which contains high organic matters

with average values of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of 25 000 mg/L and chemical

oxygen demand (COD) of 50 000 mg/L is expected to be reduced to an acceptable BOD

and COD level for final discharge. The project commenced with analysis of various

quality parameters of POME to monitor the effluent from various ponds before

embarking on the zero-discharge treatment for POME.

_______________________________________________________________________ 1Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), No. 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia 2National University of Malaysia (UKM), 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia 3Ronser Bio-Tech Sdn. Bhd., C708, Metrolpolitan Square, Jalan PJU 8/1, Bandar Damansara Perdana, 47820 Petaling Jaya, Selangor 4Shanghai Jiatong University, 800, Dongchuan Road, Min Hang, Shanghai 200240, the People’s Republic of China *email: [email protected]

382


CP40

Monitoring of Process Performance During the Commissioning and Subsequent Operation of the

Biogas System at Tee Teh Palm Oil Mill

Loh Soh Kheang*1, Mohamad Azri Sukiran1, Ma Ah Ngan1 and Lynda Lian2

ABSTRACT

A wastewater treatment plant was constructed in collaboration with Biogas

Environmental Engineering Sdn. Bhd. (BEE) at Tee Teh Palm Oil Mill, located at

Rompin, Pahang in 2007 to produce biogas from palm oil mill effluent (POME) for

electricity generation. The system deploys reinforced concrete enclosed digester tank of

anaerobic treatment for biogas harnessing at mesophilic condition and uses a special

microorganism for anaerobic fermentation of wastewater. Malaysian Palm Oil Board

(MPOB) was granted the permission to access and evaluate the performance of the

system from its commissioning till operation. The evaluation of the biogas system was

conducted through (1) continuous sampling of three different types of effluent samples i.e.

influent, recycled stream and effluent from five different ponds, (2) analysis of effluent

samples for BOD, COD, total volatile solids (VTS), suspended solids (SS) and total solids

(TS) and (3) measurement of flow rate and flow volume of POME and biogas generated.

Data obtained will assist the palm oil industry in assessing and identifying the most

appropriate technology to harness biogas from POME.

_______________________________________________________________________ 1Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), No. 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia 2Biogas Environmental Engineering Sdn. Bhd., 28-3, Jalan 1/116B, Sri Desa Entrepreneurs Park off Jalan Kuchai Lama, 58200 Kuala Lumpur *email: [email protected], [email protected]

383


CP41 Current Status of Biogas Utilization in Palm Oil Mills

Loh Soh Kheang*, Mohamad Azri Sukiran, Vijaya a/p Subramaniam,

and Lim Weng Soon

ABSTRACT A survey was conducted in March-April 2009 to investigate the actual uptake on biogas

capture in palm oil mills via (a) telephone verification & site visit based on CDM

application list and (b) sending questionnaires to 416 palm oil mills in Malaysia. It is

concluded from the survey results obtained from (a) and (b) that 11.3% (6 biogas plants)

of the 53 CDM biogas capture projects in the pipeline and 4.3% (18 biogas plants) of

292 mill respondents representing 70.2% of the mills in the country are currently

trapping and tapping biogas from palm oil mill effluent (POME). The main applications

of the biogas generated in the mills are as boiler fuel, internal electricity generation and

flared.

_______________________________________________________________________ 1Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), No. 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia *email: [email protected]

384


CP42

Life Cycle Inventory of Transportation of Refined Palm Oil and Its Fractions

Fauziah Arshad1, Sumiani Yusoff2, Yew Ai Tan1 and Yuen May Choo1

ABSTRACT

Transportation systems are linked to a wide range of environmental impacts from global warming to local air pollution and land use. Transport activities consume large quantities of energy, especially oil, and due to the combustion processes in vehicle operation and fuel production, transport is a major source of numerous pollutants such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons. Carbon dioxide is a known greenhouse gas (GHG). Malaysia continues to be one of the world’s largest producers and the leading exporter of palm oil in the world. To ensure that Malaysia remains competitive in the global market, due considerations must be given to these environmental concerns. The study on the life cycle assessment looks into the transportation of palm oil, palm olein and palm stearin throughout the palm oil supply chain from cradle to gate, from the transportation of the fruit bunches (‘mother palm’) to the seed producers, to the transportation of the seedlings from nurseries to oil palm plantations, to the transportation of the fresh fruit bunches from the plantations to the mills, the transportation of the crude palm oil from the mills to the refineries and down to the transportation of the refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil, RBD palm olein and the RBD palm stearin from the refineries/fractionation plants to the ports and retailers. The preliminary results of the Life Cycle Inventory for the energy consumption for the different sectors of the oil palm supply chain indicated that transportation of the crude palm oil from the mill to the refinery and the transportation of the RBD palm oil, RBD palm olein and the RBD palm stearin locally are the stages along the chain that consume more energy in the form of diesel to fuel vehicles used for the transportation process. Keywords: Life Cycle Assessment, Life Cycle Inventory, transportation, palm oil supply chain, RBD palm oil, RBD palm olein, RBD palm stearin

___________________________________________________________________ 1Malaysian Palm Oil Board, No 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia 2Dept of Civil Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

INTRODUCTION Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) considers the environmental impacts (e.g. the use of resources and the environmental consequences of its releases to the environment) of a product (or service e.g. transport) throughout its life cycle from raw material acquisition to production, use and final disposal. It is thus an appropriate tool used in research methodology, because it is standardized and has been used for various purposes by the industry, academics, public interest groups and government policy makers. The Malaysian Oil Palm Industry can be divided into several main sectors according to their activities i.e. the nursery; plantation; palm oil mill; and the refinery, and henceforth the transportation involved along the palm oil supply chain. The aim of this study is to use the LCA approach to identify at which stage of the transportation of the RBD palm oil, RBD palm olein and the RBD palm stearin that contributes the most to the environmental impact along the palm oil supply chain within the scope of the study. Recommendations based on the outcome of the study could be used by policy makers and the stakeholders in strategic planning to improve on the existing transportation system for a more positive impact on the environment.

METHODOLOGY The study determines the environmental impacts of the handling and transportation of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil and its fractionated products, namely the RBD palm olein and the RBD palm stearin by using the software Sima Pro Version 7.1. This is done by compiling and evaluating the input (resources) and the output (emissions) and the potential environmental impacts of the transportation process within the scope of the study. The ISO standard describes the Life Cycle Assessment as comprising the following phases: identifying the goal definition of the LCA; identifying the scope definition of the LCA; the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis; the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA); and the interpretation of the results, which is the direct application of the LCA studies e.g. in product development and improvement, in strategic planning, policy making and in marketing and promotion of products or services. The Life Cycle Inventory phase of the LCA study involves the collection of data to quantify the relevant inputs and outputs of all the unit processes within the system boundary. The data on the energy input in this study was real data obtained from questionnaires sent to the oil palm nursery managers, oil palm plantation managers, palm oil millers and palm oil refiners who transport the palm oil products concerned to the exporters and retailers across Malaysia including the States of Sabah and Sarawak by random sampling. The representativeness of the inventory data was assured by sampling data covering Malaysia including Sabah and Sarawak (geographical coverage); different sizes: covering estates (more than 1000 hectares) and small holders (less than 1000 hectares); processing tonnage; different management and ownership: covering privately owned companies, government and state schemes; and covering all the different types of

transportation mode. Validation of the data was made through verification visits and on-site interviews and other forms of communication i.e. e-mails, telephones and faxes.

RESULTS Results on the energy input on the basis of the functional unit of 1 kg fruit bunches-km, 1 seed-km, 1 seedling-km, 1 tonne fresh fruit bunches-km, 1 tonne crude palm oil-km, 1 tonne RBD palm oil-km, 1 tonne RBD palm olein-km and 1 tonne RBD palm stearin-km for the transportation of the fruit bunches (‘mother palm’), germinated seeds, seedlings, crude palm oil, RBD palm oil, RBD palm olein and the RBD palm stearin respectively are shown in Table 1. These are defined as the transport of 1 kg of the fruit bunches/1 seed/1 seedling/1 tonne fresh fruit bunches/1 tonne crude palm oil/1 tonne RBD palm oil/ 1 tonne RBD palm olein/ 1 tonne RBD palm stearin over 1 km. These results are based on the study of 5 nurseries, 27 plantations, 14 mills and 5 refineries. Table 1: Consumption of Energy for the Transportation of the fruit bunches

(‘mother palm’), germinated seeds, seedlings, crude palm oil, RBD palm oil, RBD palm olein and RBD palm stearin

Product Transported

From To Average Distance (km)

Energy Amount

Nursery Stage Fruit bunches (‘Mother Palm’)

Plantation Seed Producer

42 Diesel 0.032 L (1.24 MJ)

Seeds Seed Producer

Nursery 85 Diesel 3.82 x 10-7 L (1.47 x 10-5 MJ)

Seedlings Nursery Plantation 88 Diesel 0.11 L (4.25 MJ) Oil Palm Plantation

Fresh fruit bunches

Plantation Mill 33 Diesel 1.65 L (63.69 MJ)

Palm Oil Mill Crude Palm Oil Mill Refinery 142 Diesel 3.61 L (139.35 MJ) Palm Oil Refinery

RBD Palm Oil- for export

Refinery Port 78 Electricity Diesel

0.37 kWh (1.33 MJ) 1.16 L (44.78 MJ)

RBD Palm Oil – local

Refinery Retailers 110 Diesel 9.18 L (354.35 MJ)

RBD Palm Olein – export


0.37 kW (1.33 MJ) 0.90 L (34.74 MJ)

RBD Palm Olein-local

Refinery Retailers 110 Diesel 5.91 L (228.13 MJ)

RBD Palm Stearin- export


0.37 kW 2.44 L

RBD Palm Stearin-local

Refinery Retailers 110 Diesel 4.00 L

CP43 Carbon Reduction Opportunities in the Malaysian Palm

Oil Industry

Chow Mee Chin, CNL Carbon

ABSTRACT

Malaysia is a Party to Kyoto Protocol and in the spirit of shared responsibilities within its own capabilities contributes to 4.5 % of the total number of CDM projects developed by non annex-1 countries. This consists of 85 projects out of which at least 75 are either directly developed in the vicinity of palm oil mills or using some palm related resources. In view of Malaysia having over 400 operating mills this is only a meagre fraction and thus much potential to develop more carbon reduction projects be it under the Clean Development Mechanism, CDM or any accepted voluntary schemes.

Furthermore, present Malaysian CDM projects are developed based on a limited number of UNFCCC accreditated methodologies . There is also opportunity to develop projects using other available alternative methods for the palm oil industry. Moreover as a developing country there are also vast opportunities for the introduction of new novel technologies in which new methodologies may need to be developed.

The Malaysian palm oil industry is regulated by various national and international laws. However, since early 70”s Malaysian palm oil has been sustainably produced and internationally competitive generating much attention from under developed and developing countries as a fine model to emulate for social and economic development.

The palm oil industry can again be exemplary in pioneering a Carbon Reduction Scheme which can assist Malaysia’s and global community in furthering its obligation to mitigate climate change . This poster will also attempt to outline how the Scheme can possibly be introduced and implemented advantageously for all stakeholders.

388

CP44

Anaerobic (UASB) & Aerobic (MBBR). A Total Solution to Palm Oil Related Wastewater

Yahaya, H1, Ma, A N1and Raymond Wee2

1Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), 2Darco Water System Sdn Bhd

ABSTRACT Wastewater from palm oil mill containing high organic pollutants. The current

technology for treating such wastewater using ponding system requires huge land space

and produces green house gasses (GHG). Due to the latter and due to space constraints

at the facilities, new technologies with smaller footprints are being investigated as an

alternative to the existing open pond systems.

The UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket) is a proven technology, which is based

on anaerobic granular sludge bed technology and refers to a special reactor concept

for treatment of heavily organic polluted wastewater. The technology serves as a means

to reduce the industry’s environmental impact on the receiving water bodies, sludge

amounts as well as GHG’s. Further to this, the UASB technology facilitates the

possibility of recovering of energy (gas/electricity), which can replace existing sources

of energy at the wastewater treatment site and environmentally friendly energy source.

389

chemistry, processing technology and bio energy

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